exploring learning transfer in l2 writing education

Exploring learning transfer in Exploring learning transfer in L2 writing educationL2 writing education

Mark Andrew JamesMark Andrew James

Arizona State UniversityArizona State University

[email protected]@asu.edu

http://www.public.asu.edu/~mjames6/index.htmlhttp://www.public.asu.edu/~mjames6/index.html

What is learning transfer?What is learning transfer?

Learning transfer occurs “when learning in one Learning transfer occurs “when learning in one context or with one set of materials impacts on context or with one set of materials impacts on performance in another context or with another performance in another context or with another set of materials” (Perkins & Salomon, 1994, set of materials” (Perkins & Salomon, 1994, p.6452). For example ...p.6452). For example ...

... knowing how to ride a bicycle learning how to ride a motorcycle;

... learning math in school shopping outside school.

... a topic of widespread interest... a topic of widespread interest• Psychology: Psychology: Learning transfer has been actively studied for Learning transfer has been actively studied for

over a century in psychology (Haskell, 2001).over a century in psychology (Haskell, 2001).

• Education:Education: “When students cannot perform tasks only slightly “When students cannot perform tasks only slightly different from those learned in class, or when they fail to different from those learned in class, or when they fail to appropriately apply their classroom learning in settings outside appropriately apply their classroom learning in settings outside of school, then education is deemed to have failed” (Marini & of school, then education is deemed to have failed” (Marini & Genereux, 1995, p.1).Genereux, 1995, p.1).

• Human resources development (HRD): Human resources development (HRD): U.S. corporations U.S. corporations spent $58.5 billion on workplace training in 2007 (spent $58.5 billion on workplace training in 2007 (TrainingTraining, , 2007), with the obvious expectation that the results of this 2007), with the obvious expectation that the results of this training would transfer to the workplace. training would transfer to the workplace.

Learning transfer is a fundamental Learning transfer is a fundamental goal of L2 writing educationgoal of L2 writing education

• “[O]ne of the most important aspects of an EAP reading/writing class (or any ESL/EFL class) is the development of transfer of learning” (Johns, 1993, p.283) (emphasis mine).

• “The goals of most English for academic purposes (EAP) writing classes are transcendent. That is, the usual purpose is to enable students to write better not for EAP writing classes but for academic purposes” (Leki & Carson, 1997, p.39) (emphasis mine).

How “far” learning transfers is important to How “far” learning transfers is important to discussions of writing and L2 writing pedagogydiscussions of writing and L2 writing pedagogy

Far transfer ...-- Cognitive perspectives on -- Cognitive perspectives on writing (e.g., Flower & Hayes, writing (e.g., Flower & Hayes, 1981);1981);-- Process-oriented approaches to -- Process-oriented approaches to writing instruction (Zamel, 1976);writing instruction (Zamel, 1976);-- General writing skills instruction -- General writing skills instruction (GWSI) (Petraglia, 1995);(GWSI) (Petraglia, 1995);-- English-for-general-academic--- English-for-general-academic-purposes (EGAP) instruction purposes (EGAP) instruction (Jordan, 1997);(Jordan, 1997);-- Language-for-specific-purposes -- Language-for-specific-purposes “education” (Widdowson, 1984).“education” (Widdowson, 1984).

Near transfer ...Near transfer ...-- Sociocultural perspectives on -- Sociocultural perspectives on writing (e.g., Russell, 1995);writing (e.g., Russell, 1995);-- Genre-oriented approaches to -- Genre-oriented approaches to writing instruction (e.g., Swales, writing instruction (e.g., Swales, 1990);1990);-- Writing-in-the-disciplines (WID) -- Writing-in-the-disciplines (WID) programs (Bazerman et al., 2005);programs (Bazerman et al., 2005);-- English-for-specific-academic--- English-for-specific-academic-purposes (ESAP) instruction purposes (ESAP) instruction (Jordan, 1997);(Jordan, 1997);-- Language-for-specific-purposes -- Language-for-specific-purposes “training” (Widdowson, 1984).“training” (Widdowson, 1984).

There is a need to understand There is a need to understand howhow learning transfers in L2 writing educationlearning transfers in L2 writing education

““Positive findings of transfer, near and far, suggest that Positive findings of transfer, near and far, suggest that whether transfer occurs is too bald a question. It can, but whether transfer occurs is too bald a question. It can, but often does not. often does not. One needs to ask under what conditions One needs to ask under what conditions transfer appearstransfer appears” (Perkins & Salomon, 1994, p.6455) ” (Perkins & Salomon, 1994, p.6455) (emphasis mine).(emphasis mine).

There is a need to understand There is a need to understand howhow learning transfers in L2 writing educationlearning transfers in L2 writing education

The most important question about the validity of genre-The most important question about the validity of genre-based instructional approaches is "whether, to what based instructional approaches is "whether, to what extent, extent, andand under what conditions under what conditions skills acquired within skills acquired within one genre are transferable to another" (Swales, 1990, one genre are transferable to another" (Swales, 1990, p.233) (emphasis mine); this is "a highly significant p.233) (emphasis mine); this is "a highly significant investigative issue" (p.234). investigative issue" (p.234).

““[I]t is assumed that students will transfer skills from the [I]t is assumed that students will transfer skills from the [EAP class] to the content class examination, and then [EAP class] to the content class examination, and then ultimately to their other content classes. But ultimately to their other content classes. But we do not we do not know what conditions must exist for this positive transfer know what conditions must exist for this positive transfer to take placeto take place.” (Snow, 1993, p.45) (emphasis mine)..” (Snow, 1993, p.45) (emphasis mine).

What do we know about learning What do we know about learning transfer in L2 writing education?transfer in L2 writing education?

Learning transfer can occur, but it is not inevitable Learning transfer can occur, but it is not inevitable (e.g., Leki & Carson, 1994; Leki, 1995; James, (e.g., Leki & Carson, 1994; Leki, 1995; James, 2006). 2006). • “There is no guarantee that skills and strategies

learned in an ESL program actually will be applied in new situations” (Spack, 1997, p.50);

• “[T]ransfer from one domain to another is, at the very least, difficult for learners” (Tardy, 2006, p.92).

Learning task

Learning context

Elements of learning transfer situations (from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

Transfer context/taskTransfer context/task

In studies of ESL students' interactions with In studies of ESL students' interactions with instructors and classmates, ESL students have instructors and classmates, ESL students have described:described: • a “wall” between themselves and native English-speaking (NES)

classmates due to different background knowledge and values (Harklau, 1994);

• NES classmates’ lack of interest in ideas put forth by ESL students during collaborative group work (Cheng & Fox, 2008; Leki, 2001);

• relatively little effort by NES classmates to complete assignments (Leki, 2003);

• instructors’ desire to deceive students, refusal to provide information to students, or lack of understanding of students’ questions (Leki, 2006).


Transfer climateTransfer climate is the support for learning is the support for learning transfer that an individual perceives in the target transfer that an individual perceives in the target context of instruction (Burke & Baldwin, 1999).context of instruction (Burke & Baldwin, 1999).

... for example, in EAP writing instruction, transfer climate involves students’ perceptions of support for learning transfer from instructors and classmates, and perceptions of outcomes (e.g., grades, work efficiency) of learning transfer.


Researcher:Researcher: How do you think your professors [in mainstream How do you think your professors [in mainstream courses] feel about freshman writing courses?courses] feel about freshman writing courses?

Participant:Participant: Some I would say, my math teacher, she doesn't Some I would say, my math teacher, she doesn't feel too good about it, kind of negative, being in math and all.feel too good about it, kind of negative, being in math and all.

Researcher:Researcher: How do you know that?How do you know that?

Participant:Participant: I remember when she said, “the writing”, she said, I remember when she said, “the writing”, she said, “this is the only writing, I'm sorry, this is the only writing you will “this is the only writing, I'm sorry, this is the only writing you will ever have to do in math. I was never good in writing.” She ever have to do in math. I was never good in writing.” She was explaining the course. She said, “in this part of the course, was explaining the course. She said, “in this part of the course, you'll have to do a little bit of writing, and I'm sorry for that.”you'll have to do a little bit of writing, and I'm sorry for that.”

(Participant 23)(Participant 23)

Learning task

Learning context


Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

LearnerLearner

““[S]ignificant and general transfer is primarily the [S]ignificant and general transfer is primarily the consequence of personality and other dispositional consequence of personality and other dispositional characteristics such as attitude, characteristics such as attitude, motivationmotivation, and feeling” , and feeling” (Haskell, 2001, p.116) (emphasis mine).(Haskell, 2001, p.116) (emphasis mine).

L2 education researchers have suggested that learning L2 education researchers have suggested that learning transfer is influenced by transfer is influenced by motivation-related factorsmotivation-related factors like like student student efforteffort (Leki & Carson, 1994), (Leki & Carson, 1994), valuevalue students place students place on skills (Hansen, 2000), and students’ socio-cultural on skills (Hansen, 2000), and students’ socio-cultural attitudesattitudes (Waters, 1996). (Waters, 1996).

LearnerLearner

Transfer motivation

=

Desire to transfer

Favorable attitude toward transfer

Effort to transfer

+

+

LearnerLearner

Participant: Participant: I hate doing, I hated doing in [the EAP writing I hate doing, I hated doing in [the EAP writing course], doing the visual arguments [assignment]. I hated it. It course], doing the visual arguments [assignment]. I hated it. It was bad. It was complicated. Way complicated. And of course was bad. It was complicated. Way complicated. And of course if I'm going to apply visual argument in another class, I'm going if I'm going to apply visual argument in another class, I'm going to feel stressed. I'm going to feel tension, I'm under pressure. to feel stressed. I'm going to feel tension, I'm under pressure. I didn't like it the first time, why should I do it again. I'm doing it I didn't like it the first time, why should I do it again. I'm doing it again, am I doing it right? Should I do it in another way? What again, am I doing it right? Should I do it in another way? What should I do?should I do?

(Participant 25)(Participant 25)

Learning task

Learning context


Transfer task

Transfer context

Learner

Learning context/taskLearning context/task

Learning transfer can be enhanced by:Learning transfer can be enhanced by:• the integration of academic tasks in an EAP writing course the integration of academic tasks in an EAP writing course

(Braine, 1988; Carson, 2000; Meyer, 1996);(Braine, 1988; Carson, 2000; Meyer, 1996);• the provision of a range of conceptual activities in an EAP the provision of a range of conceptual activities in an EAP

writing course (Currie, 1993);writing course (Currie, 1993);• having students use disciplinary portfolios (Hirvela, 1997);having students use disciplinary portfolios (Hirvela, 1997);• training students in ethnographic methods (Johns, 1988; training students in ethnographic methods (Johns, 1988;

1990);1990);• having students compare and contrast a variety of texts in having students compare and contrast a variety of texts in

familar and unfamiliar genres (Johns, 1997; 1999);familar and unfamiliar genres (Johns, 1997; 1999);• having students reflect on strategies they use to complete having students reflect on strategies they use to complete

writing tasks (Johns, 1997; 1999).writing tasks (Johns, 1997; 1999).

Learning context/taskLearning context/task

• Teaching-for-transfer techniques (Perkins & Teaching-for-transfer techniques (Perkins & Salomon, 1988):Salomon, 1988):• Hugging = designing learning tasks/context to appear

similar to target tasks and contexts• Bridging = designing learning tasks/context to

stimulate abstract thinking

Future directions?Future directions?• How can we most effectively identify learning transfer?How can we most effectively identify learning transfer?

• Where should we look? (all writing vs. some writing)

• When should we look? (immediately vs. delayed)

• How should we look? (low-road vs. high-road)

• How do various learning outcomes in L2 writing education How do various learning outcomes in L2 writing education compare/contrast in terms of learning transfer? (e.g., near compare/contrast in terms of learning transfer? (e.g., near vs. far; low-road vs. high-road)vs. far; low-road vs. high-road)

• How do elements of transfer situations interact with actual How do elements of transfer situations interact with actual learning transfer? (e.g., transfer climate; transfer learning transfer? (e.g., transfer climate; transfer motivation; teaching-for-transfer techniques)motivation; teaching-for-transfer techniques)

References (1 of 5)References (1 of 5)

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exploring learning transfer in l2 writing education

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