Expanding Markets Expanding Markets and Moving Westand Moving West

Chapter 9Chapter 9

AgricultureAgriculture The family farm The family farm

raising subsistence raising subsistence crops was crops was gradually gradually overshadowed by overshadowed by commercial commercial agriculture made agriculture made possible by possible by technological technological changes. changes.

AgricultureAgriculture Remained the backbone of the American Remained the backbone of the American

economy through the first half of economy through the first half of the 19th century. the 19th century.

The 1860 census showed over half of the The 1860 census showed over half of the population was still engaged in farming. population was still engaged in farming.

By 1850 the value of manufactured goods, By 1850 the value of manufactured goods, however, had come to exceed that of however, had come to exceed that of agriculture. agriculture.

Increased agricultural productivity made Increased agricultural productivity made the growth of industry and the growth of industry and urbanization possible. urbanization possible.

Government Land Government Land PoliciesPolicies

Stimulated agricultural growth. Stimulated agricultural growth. The Land Act of 1796The Land Act of 1796 set too high a set too high a

price, even for some speculators. price, even for some speculators. Subsequent acts reduced the minimum Subsequent acts reduced the minimum

plot size and price per acre until, by 1820, plot size and price per acre until, by 1820, eighty acres could be secured for $100. eighty acres could be secured for $100.

Preemption Acts in 1830 and 1841 gave Preemption Acts in 1830 and 1841 gave some claim priorities to squatters. some claim priorities to squatters.

Western farmers continued to agitate for Western farmers continued to agitate for free land, finally achieved by the free land, finally achieved by the Homestead Act (1862)Homestead Act (1862)..

TransportationTransportation Improvements opened new markets Improvements opened new markets

for farm products. for farm products. Canals and then railroads made Canals and then railroads made

concentration on staple commercial concentration on staple commercial crops profitable. crops profitable.

The The Erie CanalErie Canal opened upstate New opened upstate New York farmland and provided a gateway York farmland and provided a gateway to the Great Lakes and the Midwest. to the Great Lakes and the Midwest.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal What is a canal?What is a canal? A canal is a man A canal is a man

made, artificial body of made, artificial body of water - or channel - water - or channel - that provides that provides movement from one movement from one body of water to body of water to another body while another body while holding the water holding the water almost motionless so almost motionless so that boats can move in that boats can move in both directions.both directions.

Shaping the NationShaping the Nation The Erie Canal allowed The Erie Canal allowed

goods and services to goods and services to flow 363 miles eastward flow 363 miles eastward from Buffalo, on Lake from Buffalo, on Lake Erie in upstate New Erie in upstate New York, to Albany on the York, to Albany on the Hudson River and then Hudson River and then 150 miles downstream 150 miles downstream to New York City. to New York City.

It also allowed the It also allowed the eastern flow of goods eastern flow of goods and services via the and services via the reverse route.reverse route.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal The 363-mile Canal was built in eight years for $7.2 The 363-mile Canal was built in eight years for $7.2

million by somewhere between 8,000 and 9,000 million by somewhere between 8,000 and 9,000 laborers, many of whom were Irish immigrants, and laborers, many of whom were Irish immigrants, and with the help of 10,000 horses and mules.with the help of 10,000 horses and mules.

The first step occurred when the crews moved through The first step occurred when the crews moved through the wide Mohawk River Valley, clearing the forests of the wide Mohawk River Valley, clearing the forests of thousands of trees, chopped them up into movable thousands of trees, chopped them up into movable sizes, uprooted the stumps, then carted away the logs, sizes, uprooted the stumps, then carted away the logs, branches, and leaves.branches, and leaves.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal But the Erie Canal was more than just a long ditch But the Erie Canal was more than just a long ditch

or a man-made river. Lake Erie was 571 feet higher or a man-made river. Lake Erie was 571 feet higher than the Hudson River and the land from Buffalo at than the Hudson River and the land from Buffalo at Lake Erie to Albany on the Hudson River is not Lake Erie to Albany on the Hudson River is not level. So Canal builders used eighty-three level. So Canal builders used eighty-three lockslocks to to lift and lower boats. lift and lower boats.

A lock is like a big box that opens at both ends. A lock is like a big box that opens at both ends. When a boat enters a lock and needs to be lifted, When a boat enters a lock and needs to be lifted, the ends are closed and water is pumped into the the ends are closed and water is pumped into the box. Once the boat floats to the new higher level, box. Once the boat floats to the new higher level, the box is opened and the boat continues on its the box is opened and the boat continues on its journey. When a boat is being lowered, water flows journey. When a boat is being lowered, water flows out of the box until the boat is at the lower level.out of the box until the boat is at the lower level.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal The canal’s design was too The canal’s design was too

shallow and narrow for shallow and narrow for steamboats, impractical for sail steamboats, impractical for sail boats, and too slow and boats, and too slow and impossible a job for poling due to impossible a job for poling due to heavy loads. heavy loads.

The only practical method was The only practical method was towing flat bottomed boats pulled towing flat bottomed boats pulled by horses or mules, bringing by horses or mules, bringing travel to about four miles per travel to about four miles per hour. The boats floated in the hour. The boats floated in the canal and the horses and mules canal and the horses and mules walked beside the canal on a dirt walked beside the canal on a dirt towpath. Ropes were tied to the towpath. Ropes were tied to the boat and to animals. boat and to animals.

The canal had to have a towpath The canal had to have a towpath along the entire width of the canal along the entire width of the canal which was designed to be 20 feet which was designed to be 20 feet wider than the 40 foot wide ditch.wider than the 40 foot wide ditch.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal The first builders of the Erie Canal faced The first builders of the Erie Canal faced

enormous engineering challenges at a time enormous engineering challenges at a time when there were almost no professional when there were almost no professional engineers in the United States. engineers in the United States.

The principal engineers were not The principal engineers were not professionally trained engineers when they professionally trained engineers when they began the project. Nevertheless, they were began the project. Nevertheless, they were able to construct a canal so successful that it able to construct a canal so successful that it outgrew itself almost immediately.outgrew itself almost immediately.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal Among the obstacles they Among the obstacles they

faced were leveling all faced were leveling all 363 miles of the Canal; 363 miles of the Canal; building bridges for all building bridges for all paths that crossed the paths that crossed the canal; constructing canal; constructing aqueducts in order to aqueducts in order to cross other bodies of cross other bodies of water; designing and water; designing and operating locks and operating locks and aqueducts; and finding a aqueducts; and finding a substance that could seal substance that could seal the spaces between the the spaces between the stones lining the canal, stones lining the canal, the locks, and aqueducts.the locks, and aqueducts.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal

The going wage for labor was $12 a month, or The going wage for labor was $12 a month, or fifty cents for each day on the job.fifty cents for each day on the job.

The men received ample food and drink, as well The men received ample food and drink, as well as crude sleeping quarters.as crude sleeping quarters.

The work was hard and dangerous.The work was hard and dangerous.

The Erie CanalThe Erie Canal Opened the northwest to new markets and people, Opened the northwest to new markets and people,

thus stimulating a national market economy.thus stimulating a national market economy. Linked the west with the east, thereby changing the Linked the west with the east, thereby changing the

primary transportation axis from north to south to primary transportation axis from north to south to east to west.east to west.

Created canal towns that offered a wide range of Created canal towns that offered a wide range of economic activities and welcomed business economic activities and welcomed business entrepreneurs.entrepreneurs.

Contributed to the pace of technological innovation, Contributed to the pace of technological innovation, especially through the sharp rise of patents along especially through the sharp rise of patents along the Canal route.the Canal route.

Transformed New York City into the Empire State.Transformed New York City into the Empire State. Provided a viable model for a successfully financed Provided a viable model for a successfully financed

and operated public works project.and operated public works project.

TechnologyTechnology Helped revolutionize Helped revolutionize

farming. farming. McCormick’ s reaperMcCormick’ s reaper

(1834) was an early (1834) was an early breakthrough. breakthrough.

John Deere’sJohn Deere’s steel steel plow was patented in plow was patented in 1837. 1837.

Other machines made Other machines made sowing, threshing, and sowing, threshing, and baling easier. baling easier.

These machines were These machines were particularly useful on particularly useful on the large farms of the the large farms of the semi-arid Great Plains. semi-arid Great Plains.

Changes in FarmingChanges in Farming Intensified as the Civil War approached.Intensified as the Civil War approached. Grain and meat production shifted to Grain and meat production shifted to

the West.the West. Northeastern farms supplied vegetables Northeastern farms supplied vegetables

and dairy products to growing cities. and dairy products to growing cities. Southern agriculture was increasingly Southern agriculture was increasingly

dominated by King Cotton. dominated by King Cotton. Tenant farming and employment of Tenant farming and employment of

hired hands increased. hired hands increased.

Transportation and Transportation and Communication RevolutionsCommunication Revolutions Between 1815 and 1860, Between 1815 and 1860,

revolutionary changes in revolutionary changes in transportation and communication transportation and communication helped to transform the American helped to transform the American economy, particularly in the North. economy, particularly in the North.

RoadsRoads

Navigable waterways usually provided faster and cheaper transportation than Navigable waterways usually provided faster and cheaper transportation than trails or dirt roads. trails or dirt roads.

Planked (corduroy) roads and macadamized turnpikes began to be Planked (corduroy) roads and macadamized turnpikes began to be constructed. constructed.

Privately funded, they profited by charging tolls. Privately funded, they profited by charging tolls. The National RoadThe National Road, from Cumberland, Maryland to Wheeling, Virginia was , from Cumberland, Maryland to Wheeling, Virginia was

opened in 1818 (later extended to Illinois). opened in 1818 (later extended to Illinois). Some members of Congress Some members of Congress (Clay, Calhoun, J. Q. Adams)(Clay, Calhoun, J. Q. Adams) favored more favored more

federal funding for internal improvements but some questioned its federal funding for internal improvements but some questioned its constitutionality. constitutionality.

SteamboatsSteamboats Began to compete with Began to compete with

barges and flatboats in barges and flatboats in river transportation. river transportation.

Robert LivingstonRobert Livingston and and Robert FultonRobert Fulton sent a sent a steamboat up the Hudson steamboat up the Hudson River in 1807. River in 1807.

Four years later the New Four years later the New Orleans traveled down the Orleans traveled down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.

Shallow-draft steamboats Shallow-draft steamboats by the hundreds used the by the hundreds used the western rivers. western rivers.

Steam gradually replaced Steam gradually replaced sail on the Atlantic sail on the Atlantic (Cunard’s trans ocean (Cunard’s trans ocean route began in 1848). route began in 1848).

RailroadsRailroads Construction began to boom Construction began to boom

in the 1830s. in the 1830s. Steam locomotives were Steam locomotives were

pioneered in England. pioneered in England. John StevensJohn Stevens demonstrated demonstrated

a locomotive in New Jersey a locomotive in New Jersey (1820). (1820).

The Baltimore and Ohio The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad opened 13 miles of Railroad opened 13 miles of track in 1830, carrying track in 1830, carrying Peter Cooper’sPeter Cooper’s locomotive, locomotive, the the Tom ThumbTom Thumb. .

Iron rails and increased Iron rails and increased standardization of track standardization of track gauge aided development. gauge aided development.

RailroadsRailroads Cornelius VanderbiltCornelius Vanderbilt

made a fortune, first in made a fortune, first in steamboats then with steamboats then with the New York Central the New York Central Railroad. Railroad.

Congress began to Congress began to provide railroad land provide railroad land grants (alternate grants (alternate sections along right of sections along right of way). way).

By 1840 there were By 1840 there were over 3,000 miles of over 3,000 miles of track; by 1860 ten track; by 1860 ten times that mileage. times that mileage.

CommunicationCommunication Underwent dramatic change. Underwent dramatic change. Just prior to the Civil War, the pony express Just prior to the Civil War, the pony express

enjoyed a brief but colorful success carrying mail. enjoyed a brief but colorful success carrying mail. Samuel F. B. MorseSamuel F. B. Morse demonstrated an demonstrated an

experimental electric telegraph in 1844. experimental electric telegraph in 1844. By 1860, 50,000 miles of telegraph wires By 1860, 50,000 miles of telegraph wires

provided instantaneous communication over long provided instantaneous communication over long distances. distances.

By the fall of 1861, telegrams could be By the fall of 1861, telegrams could be transmitted coast to coast. transmitted coast to coast.

Congress voted appropriations for a North Congress voted appropriations for a North Atlantic cable in 1857. It was completed in 1866. Atlantic cable in 1857. It was completed in 1866.

Effects of Communication Effects of Communication and Transportation and Transportation

RevolutionRevolution Application of technology to improve transportation Application of technology to improve transportation

and communication systems helped to tie together and communication systems helped to tie together the vast geographical expanse of the United States the vast geographical expanse of the United States although sectional benefits were uneven. although sectional benefits were uneven.

Expansion of the frontier was facilitated and Expansion of the frontier was facilitated and agricultural production increased. agricultural production increased.

Significant links were established between the Significant links were established between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural West. (With industrial Northeast and the agricultural West. (With capital invested in land and slaves, less capital invested in land and slaves, less transportation development occurred in the South.) transportation development occurred in the South.)

Specialization in industry and agriculture was Specialization in industry and agriculture was encouraged. encouraged.

A national market was opened up and exports A national market was opened up and exports expanded. expanded.

Industrial DevelopmentIndustrial Development The Industrial “Revolution” moved The Industrial “Revolution” moved

from England to America after the from England to America after the American Revolution, thereby American Revolution, thereby transforming the nation’s economy. transforming the nation’s economy.

Colonial ManufacturingColonial Manufacturing Had been centered in the household. Had been centered in the household. Farmers, seeking self-sufficiency, Farmers, seeking self-sufficiency,

devised their own machines. devised their own machines. Household handicrafts (including Household handicrafts (including

spinning and weaving) were spinning and weaving) were supplemented supplemented by independent by independent village artisans. village artisans.

EnglandEngland Pioneered in textile technology and industrialization. Pioneered in textile technology and industrialization. Machinery was invented to save labor costs. Machinery was invented to save labor costs. Large, expensive machines were centrally located in Large, expensive machines were centrally located in

factories. factories. New sources of power (water and steam) added to New sources of power (water and steam) added to

industrial efficiency. industrial efficiency. Factories came to specialize in particular products. Factories came to specialize in particular products. Mass markets could be reached by improvements in Mass markets could be reached by improvements in

transportation. transportation. English laws unsuccessfully attempted to ban the English laws unsuccessfully attempted to ban the

export of machinery or the emigration of textile export of machinery or the emigration of textile experts. experts.

American Textile American Textile IndustryIndustry

Began in New England. Began in New England. Capital was available from merchants whose Capital was available from merchants whose

commerce had suffered from Jefferson’s Embargo and commerce had suffered from Jefferson’s Embargo and from the War of 1812. from the War of 1812.

Postwar tariffs helped protect infant American Postwar tariffs helped protect infant American industry (first protective tariff was passed in 1816). industry (first protective tariff was passed in 1816).

Swift-flowing New England Rivers provided Swift-flowing New England Rivers provided inexpensive waterpower. inexpensive waterpower.

Population centers and improved transportation Population centers and improved transportation provided domestic markets (overseas sales later provided domestic markets (overseas sales later increased). increased).

Cotton textile industry was followed by a woolen Cotton textile industry was followed by a woolen industry and emergence of ready- made clothing. industry and emergence of ready- made clothing.

Mass ProductionMass Production Systems gradually developed. Systems gradually developed. Eli WhitneyEli Whitney used machine used machine

tools to produce precise tools to produce precise interchange able parts for interchange able parts for muskets (1798). muskets (1798).

Federal armories at Harper’s Federal armories at Harper’s Ferry and Springfield, Mass, Ferry and Springfield, Mass, stimulated the machine tool stimulated the machine tool industry. industry.

Oliver EvansOliver Evans applied a applied a steam engine to flour mill steam engine to flour mill operation (1804). operation (1804).

A process for mass-producing A process for mass-producing clocks was devised in clocks was devised in Connecticut. Connecticut.

The American System of mass The American System of mass production came to be production came to be admired and copied abroad. admired and copied abroad.

InventionsInventions Quickened the industrial pace. Quickened the industrial pace. The Patent Act of 1790The Patent Act of 1790 provided financial provided financial

incentives for inventors by legally protecting their incentives for inventors by legally protecting their devices (the Patent Office was established in 1802). devices (the Patent Office was established in 1802).

New farm machinery helped revolutionize New farm machinery helped revolutionize agriculture. agriculture.

Charles GoodyearCharles Goodyear received a patent for received a patent for vulcanizing rubber (1844). vulcanizing rubber (1844).

Elias Howe’sElias Howe’s sewing machine (1846), later sewing machine (1846), later improved by Isaac Singer, was a temporary setback improved by Isaac Singer, was a temporary setback for the factory system, since it made home sewing for the factory system, since it made home sewing easier. easier.

Company OrganizationCompany Organization Was slowly revised. Was slowly revised. Most companies had been individually or family owned. Most companies had been individually or family owned.

Partnerships could recruit additional capital. Partnerships could recruit additional capital. Corporations, under state charters, could raise money from Corporations, under state charters, could raise money from

investors who would have limited liability. Earliest investors who would have limited liability. Earliest corporations involved banks and transportation companies. corporations involved banks and transportation companies.

A group of investors formed the A group of investors formed the Boston Manufacturing Boston Manufacturing CompanyCompany in 1813. in 1813.

Managers were hired to supervise spinning and weaving Managers were hired to supervise spinning and weaving processes under one roof. processes under one roof.

The Merrimack CompanyThe Merrimack Company devised the devised the Lowell SystemLowell System in in 1822. 1822.

The Boston and New York Stock ExchangesThe Boston and New York Stock Exchanges were were created to trade corporate shares. created to trade corporate shares.

Results of Results of IndustrializationIndustrialization

Increased productivity began to feed mass Increased productivity began to feed mass consumer markets. consumer markets.

Towns and cities grew around factories. Towns and cities grew around factories. Labor shortages stimulated immigration Labor shortages stimulated immigration

and encouraged inventiveness. and encouraged inventiveness. Not all workers benefited. Not all workers benefited. The effects of boom-and-bust cycles were The effects of boom-and-bust cycles were

more broadly felt. more broadly felt. Government was increasingly involved in Government was increasingly involved in

promoting industry promoting industry

Urban GrowthUrban Growth

The rapid growth of urban population The rapid growth of urban population before the Civil War made the country before the Civil War made the country more diverse and more complex. more diverse and more complex.

Growth of CitiesGrowth of Cities Immigration from abroad and migration from rural Immigration from abroad and migration from rural

areas helped push urban population (in towns of areas helped push urban population (in towns of 8,000 and over) from 3.3% in 1790 to 16% by 8,000 and over) from 3.3% in 1790 to 16% by 1860. 1860.

Rapid growth of industry and business caused Rapid growth of industry and business caused cities to grow. cities to grow.

Location at transportation centers (ports and Location at transportation centers (ports and inland road and rail centers) contributed to growth. inland road and rail centers) contributed to growth. New York City was first in population by 1830. New York City was first in population by 1830.

Urban growth was most dramatic in the Northeast, Urban growth was most dramatic in the Northeast, and somewhat later in Midwestern centers such as and somewhat later in Midwestern centers such as Chicago and St. Louis. Chicago and St. Louis.

City LifeCity Life Separated work from the Separated work from the

home more than was the home more than was the case in rural areas. case in rural areas.

Improved transportation Improved transportation (railroads, horse-drawn (railroads, horse-drawn streetcars, etc.) enabled streetcars, etc.) enabled cities to expand. cities to expand.

Immigrant ghettoes in port Immigrant ghettoes in port cities created a greater cities created a greater cultural diversity. cultural diversity.

Businesses and stores were Businesses and stores were able to enjoy greater able to enjoy greater specialization. specialization.

Public entertainment and Public entertainment and spectator sports developed. spectator sports developed.

Urban ProblemsUrban Problems

ImmigrationImmigration The first wave of 19th The first wave of 19th

century immigration century immigration to America brought to America brought millions of millions of newcomers, primarily newcomers, primarily from Northern and from Northern and Western Europe.Western Europe.

Although enriching Although enriching American society, the American society, the immigrants often immigrants often faced opposition. faced opposition.

ImmigrationImmigration Including emigration to America followed the Including emigration to America followed the

Napoleonic Wars.Napoleonic Wars. Conditions in Europe provided a stimulus to leave. Conditions in Europe provided a stimulus to leave. America offered abundant job opportunities and America offered abundant job opportunities and

cheap land. cheap land. Earlier arrivals sent back optimistic reports. Earlier arrivals sent back optimistic reports. Steamship lines advertised low trans-Atlantic fares. Steamship lines advertised low trans-Atlantic fares. Immigrants faced a difficult voyage and were often Immigrants faced a difficult voyage and were often

victimized. victimized. Some, disenchanted after their arrival, returned to Some, disenchanted after their arrival, returned to

their homeland. their homeland. Immigration as a percent of total population Immigration as a percent of total population

peaked between 1845 and 1855. peaked between 1845 and 1855.

Irish ImmigrationIrish Immigration Came in largest numbers in Came in largest numbers in

the 1840s. the 1840s. Poverty and overcrowding as Poverty and overcrowding as

well as discontent with British well as discontent with British rule provided motives. rule provided motives.

A potato blight brought A potato blight brought famine and death to many famine and death to many tenant farmers in Ireland. tenant farmers in Ireland.

Most settled in Eastern City Most settled in Eastern City ghettos in America. ghettos in America.

Many were employed as Many were employed as manual laborers (building manual laborers (building railroads and the Erie Canal) railroads and the Erie Canal) or domestic servants. or domestic servants.

Irish voter groups became Irish voter groups became politically significant. politically significant.

Most Irish maintained a close Most Irish maintained a close identification with the Catholic identification with the Catholic Church Church

GermansGermans Also arrived in large numbers. Also arrived in large numbers. Economic depression and political Economic depression and political

conditions (failure of liberal reform in conditions (failure of liberal reform in 1848) spurred emigration. 1848) spurred emigration.

To preserve their culture, many To preserve their culture, many Germans settled in-groups, often on Germans settled in-groups, often on Midwest farms. Midwest farms.

Many German immigrants who had had Many German immigrants who had had military training served in the Civil War. military training served in the Civil War.

Other GroupsOther Groups Scandinavians immigrated in considerable Scandinavians immigrated in considerable

numbers (primarily for economic reasons) before numbers (primarily for economic reasons) before the Civil War. The Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians the Civil War. The Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians were were productive pioneer farmers in the Midwest. productive pioneer farmers in the Midwest.

Chinese immigrants on the West Coast did much Chinese immigrants on the West Coast did much construction work, especially on railroads. construction work, especially on railroads.

They met with discrimination and their entry was They met with discrimination and their entry was barred completely by 1882. barred completely by 1882.

Jews in colonial times were mostly “Sephardic” (of Jews in colonial times were mostly “Sephardic” (of Spanish/Portuguese origin). Spanish/Portuguese origin).

In the 19th century (before 1865) most came from In the 19th century (before 1865) most came from Germany. Germany.

DiscriminationDiscrimination ““Nativists”Nativists” increasingly opposed immigrant groups that increasingly opposed immigrant groups that

were not easily acculturated (absorbed). were not easily acculturated (absorbed). There were sometimes violent clashes. There were sometimes violent clashes. Irish Catholics were targeted by those who feared papal Irish Catholics were targeted by those who feared papal

conspiracies. conspiracies. German Catholics also had a language handicap. German Catholics also had a language handicap. Stereotypes aggravated public fears, including fear of Stereotypes aggravated public fears, including fear of

threats to their jobs. threats to their jobs. A mob burned a Massachusetts convent in 1834. A mob burned a Massachusetts convent in 1834. Political organizations resisting immigration climaxed in the Political organizations resisting immigration climaxed in the

formation of the formation of the American (Know-Nothing) PartyAmerican (Know-Nothing) Party in in 1854. 1854.

Restrictive legislation failed to pass as the slavery crisis Restrictive legislation failed to pass as the slavery crisis began to eclipse the anti- immigration movement. began to eclipse the anti- immigration movement.

Over 2.5 million immigrants entered the United States in the Over 2.5 million immigrants entered the United States in the 1850s, compared with 600,000 in the l830s. 1850s, compared with 600,000 in the l830s.

Opening the WestOpening the West The movement of The movement of

Americans Americans westward was westward was accelerated by the accelerated by the prospect of prospect of plentiful land as plentiful land as well as wealth from well as wealth from the fur trade and, the fur trade and, later valuable later valuable minerals. minerals.

Migration WestwardMigration Westward Increased following the American Revolution. Increased following the American Revolution. Attempts to restrain settlement to east of the Appalachians Attempts to restrain settlement to east of the Appalachians

had failed. had failed. Settlers from Virginia and the Carolinas moved into the Settlers from Virginia and the Carolinas moved into the

Watauga colony (in western North Carolina) in the early Watauga colony (in western North Carolina) in the early 1770s. 1770s.

Led by Ethan Allen, Vermont secured independence from Led by Ethan Allen, Vermont secured independence from New York and New York and became the fourteenth state in 1791. became the fourteenth state in 1791.

Daniel Boone and his men cut the Wilderness Road through Daniel Boone and his men cut the Wilderness Road through the Cumberland the Cumberland Gap into Kentucky and Tennessee. Gap into Kentucky and Tennessee. Those states entered the Union in the 1790s. Those states entered the Union in the 1790s.

Fur trappers were usually the first whites to enter frontier Fur trappers were usually the first whites to enter frontier areas. areas.

Generous federal land acts (1800 and 1804) encouraged Generous federal land acts (1800 and 1804) encouraged farmers to migrate westward. farmers to migrate westward.

Black slaves were brought west below the Ohio River. Black slaves were brought west below the Ohio River.

Jeffersonian IdealJeffersonian Ideal Envisioned a large agrarian democracy Envisioned a large agrarian democracy

(“Empire for Liberty”). (“Empire for Liberty”). The 1803 land acquisition opened vast new The 1803 land acquisition opened vast new

areas to settlement. areas to settlement. Former Vice President Aaron Burr (after Former Vice President Aaron Burr (after

killing Hamilton in a duel in 1804) apparently killing Hamilton in a duel in 1804) apparently was involved in a conspiracy to separate was involved in a conspiracy to separate Louisiana and perhaps conquer Mexico. Burr Louisiana and perhaps conquer Mexico. Burr was acquitted in a trial for treason (1807). was acquitted in a trial for treason (1807).

Jefferson signed a bill in 1806 to build a Jefferson signed a bill in 1806 to build a National Road from Cumberland, Maryland to National Road from Cumberland, Maryland to western Virginia (it reached Illinois by 1818). western Virginia (it reached Illinois by 1818).

Frontier LifeFrontier Life Was harsh and Was harsh and

challenging. challenging. Dealing with the Indian Dealing with the Indian

inhabitants and inhabitants and clearing the land for clearing the land for farming posed physical farming posed physical challenges. challenges.

Squatters often Squatters often occupied land without occupied land without legal claim. legal claim.

Little attention was Little attention was paid to environmental paid to environmental damage. damage.

CaliforniaCalifornia Was settled most Was settled most

rapidly after gold rapidly after gold was discovered in was discovered in 1848. 1848.

49ers rushed for 49ers rushed for riches via Panama, riches via Panama, by sea around Cape by sea around Cape Horn, or overland. Horn, or overland.

Rapid population Rapid population brought statehood brought statehood within two years within two years (1850).(1850).

Manifest DestinyManifest Destiny Agitation and actions to expand Agitation and actions to expand

United States territory to continental United States territory to continental limits gave rise to political and limits gave rise to political and sectional controversies. sectional controversies.

CanadaCanada Canadian-American relations had Canadian-American relations had

been improved by 1817 and 1818 been improved by 1817 and 1818 treaties. treaties.

When some Americans lent When some Americans lent sympathetic support to a sympathetic support to a rebellion in Canada in 1837, a rebellion in Canada in 1837, a small American vessel was small American vessel was destroyed by Canadian loyalists. destroyed by Canadian loyalists.

Britain’s refusal to return Britain’s refusal to return mutinous slaves who had seized mutinous slaves who had seized the U.S. merchant ship Creole the U.S. merchant ship Creole and a minor conflict on the and a minor conflict on the sparsely populated Maine border sparsely populated Maine border caused some clamor for seizure caused some clamor for seizure of Canadian territory. of Canadian territory.

The The Webster-Ashburton Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842)Treaty (1842) provided for joint provided for joint U.S. - British patrols to suppress U.S. - British patrols to suppress the African slave trade and the African slave trade and settled the Canadian settled the Canadian borderdispute. borderdispute.

OregonOregon Had been jointly occupied by Had been jointly occupied by

Britain and the United States Britain and the United States since 1818. since 1818.

John Jacob Astor’sJohn Jacob Astor’s American Fur American Fur Company had set up trading Company had set up trading stations in the Columbia River stations in the Columbia River area before the War of 1812. area before the War of 1812.

Methodist missionaries and Methodist missionaries and settlers entered the Willamette settlers entered the Willamette Valley in the 1830s. Valley in the 1830s.

Sizeable migrations entered over Sizeable migrations entered over the Oregon Trail in the 1840s. the Oregon Trail in the 1840s.

During Polk’s presidential During Polk’s presidential campaign of 1844, the campaign of 1844, the expansionist slogan “54°40’ or expansionist slogan “54°40’ or fight!” was used. fight!” was used.

With expansion pending in the With expansion pending in the Southwest, the United States Southwest, the United States agreed to accept the extended agreed to accept the extended 49th parallel in an 1846 treaty 49th parallel in an 1846 treaty with Britain. with Britain.

The PacificThe Pacific United States interests there were expanding. United States interests there were expanding. Whaling ships and missionaries arrived in the Hawaiian Whaling ships and missionaries arrived in the Hawaiian

Islands in the 1830s. Islands in the 1830s. An annexation treaty with the Hawaiian government in 1854 An annexation treaty with the Hawaiian government in 1854

was dropped after foreign and domestic protests. was dropped after foreign and domestic protests. Swift-sailing clipper ships established a small but profitable Swift-sailing clipper ships established a small but profitable

trade with East Asia. trade with East Asia. After the Opium Wars, diplomat After the Opium Wars, diplomat Caleb Cushing Caleb Cushing negotiated negotiated

the the Treaty of Wanghia (1844)Treaty of Wanghia (1844), which secured U.S. trading , which secured U.S. trading rights in some Chinese ports. rights in some Chinese ports.

The Fillmore administration dispatched The Fillmore administration dispatched Commodore Commodore Matthew PerryMatthew Perry and his “black ships” to the reclusive and his “black ships” to the reclusive Japanese islands in 1853. The shogun bowed to the threat of Japanese islands in 1853. The shogun bowed to the threat of superior American technology. superior American technology.

Five years later Five years later Townsend Harris Townsend Harris secured a trade treaty secured a trade treaty with Japan, helping to propel that countrywith Japan, helping to propel that country toward toward Westernization. Westernization.

The CaribbeanThe Caribbean Another target for Another target for Manifest Manifest

DestinyDestiny (Southern extremists (Southern extremists welcomed the prospect of new welcomed the prospect of new slave territory). slave territory).

Spain rejected a U.S. offer to Spain rejected a U.S. offer to buy Cuba in 1848. buy Cuba in 1848.

Private Private filibusterersfilibusterers (soldiers (soldiers of fortune) at empted to seize of fortune) at empted to seize Cuba (1848) and Nicaragua Cuba (1848) and Nicaragua ((William WalkerWilliam Walker in 1855-60). in 1855-60).

When Spain again rejected an When Spain again rejected an offer to buy Cuba, American offer to buy Cuba, American diplomats in diplomats in Europe issued Europe issued the the Ostend ManifestoOstend Manifesto, , threatening to seize the island. threatening to seize the island.

Gadsden Purchase Gadsden Purchase (1853)(1853)

A slice of land A slice of land bought from bought from Mexico for possible Mexico for possible railroad railroad construction construction completed completed acquisition ofacquisition ofcontiguous contiguous (adjacent) territory (adjacent) territory on the continent. on the continent.

Alaska Alaska Purchased from Russia Purchased from Russia

in 1867 for $7,200,000. in 1867 for $7,200,000. President Andrew President Andrew

Johnson’sJohnson’s Secretary of Secretary of State, State, William William SewardSeward, was an , was an ardent expansionist. ardent expansionist.

Despite misgivings Despite misgivings about the “worthless about the “worthless icebox” of Seward’s icebox” of Seward’s Folly the Senate Folly the Senate approved the approved the acquisition treaty. acquisition treaty.

The Texas ProblemThe Texas Problem Americans who had Americans who had

settled in northern settled in northern Mexico first Mexico first achieved achieved independence from independence from Mexico and then Mexico and then sought annexation sought annexation to the United to the United States. States.

Claims to TexasClaims to Texas Had been given up Had been given up

when the U.S. signed when the U.S. signed the Florida treaty with the Florida treaty with Spain (1819), defining Spain (1819), defining the borders of the the borders of the Louisiana territory. Louisiana territory.

Mexican independence Mexican independence from Spain (1821) was from Spain (1821) was followed by civil followed by civil turmoil. turmoil.

Twice Mexico rejected Twice Mexico rejected offers by the U.S. to offers by the U.S. to purchase Texas, part of purchase Texas, part of its northern most state. its northern most state.

American SettlersAmerican Settlers Were lured to Texas with Were lured to Texas with

offers of large tracts of free offers of large tracts of free land. land.

Stephen F. AustinStephen F. Austin and and others led groups of others led groups of American immigrants into American immigrants into Texas. Texas.

Under the 1825 Colonization Under the 1825 Colonization law, settlers were expected law, settlers were expected to become Roman Catholics to become Roman Catholics and Mexican citizens. and Mexican citizens.

Some brought slaves Some brought slaves although slavery was banned although slavery was banned by Mexico after 1830. by Mexico after 1830.

When Mexico tried to close When Mexico tried to close its borders, illegal American its borders, illegal American immigrants continued to immigrants continued to enter. enter.

RebellionRebellion After After General Santa AnnaGeneral Santa Anna

seized power in Mexico and seized power in Mexico and attempted to centralize attempted to centralize control, rebellious Texans control, rebellious Texans declared their right to secede. declared their right to secede.

Independence was declared Independence was declared (March 1836) and a (March 1836) and a constitution drawn up. constitution drawn up.

Santa Anna wiped out the Santa Anna wiped out the Texan defenders at the Alamo Texan defenders at the Alamo at San Antonio. at San Antonio.

Sam Houston’sSam Houston’s forces forces defeated the Mexicans at San defeated the Mexicans at San Jacinto, capturing Santa Anna. Jacinto, capturing Santa Anna.

Texan independence was Texan independence was recognized by the United recognized by the United States Congress (July States Congress (July

1836). 1836).

The Lone Star Republic The Lone Star Republic (1836-45)(1836-45)

Elected Elected Sam HoustonSam Houston president, and requested president, and requested annexation to the U.S. annexation to the U.S.

Texan request for Texan request for annexation was opposed by annexation was opposed by those Americans who feared those Americans who feared expansion of slave territory expansion of slave territory and the petition was and the petition was refused. refused.

During nine years of During nine years of independence the Republic independence the Republic of Texas inched toward of Texas inched toward annexation. annexation.

Britain and France extended Britain and France extended recognition and trade to recognition and trade to Texas. Texas.

Annexation TreatyAnnexation Treaty Failed to get the necessary Failed to get the necessary

two-thirds Senate approval two-thirds Senate approval but was approved by joint but was approved by joint resolution (a simple resolution (a simple majority vote) just before majority vote) just before Polk’sPolk’s inauguration inauguration (March 1845). (March 1845).

Mexico broke diplomatic Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. relations with the U.S.

John Slidell’sJohn Slidell’s mission to mission to negotiate a settlement negotiate a settlement (including purchase of (including purchase of California) failed (March California) failed (March 1846). 1846).

War with MexicoWar with Mexico War with Mexico resulted in the War with Mexico resulted in the

acquisition of nearly half of that acquisition of nearly half of that nation’s land and the reopening of nation’s land and the reopening of the slavery controversy in American the slavery controversy in American territories. territories.

MexicoMexico Appeared to have advantages: Appeared to have advantages:

fighting on its own soil, with a larger fighting on its own soil, with a larger and more experienced army, and and more experienced army, and with the hope of foreign aid. with the hope of foreign aid.

American VictoriesAmerican Victories General Zachary Taylor’sGeneral Zachary Taylor’s

army won victories at army won victories at Monterrey and at Buena Monterrey and at Buena Vista, occupying much of Vista, occupying much of Northern Mexico. Northern Mexico.

An American fleet blockaded An American fleet blockaded the Gulf Coast. the Gulf Coast.

General Winfield Scott’sGeneral Winfield Scott’s army made an amphibious army made an amphibious landing near Vera Cruz, landing near Vera Cruz, taking the city after a siege. taking the city after a siege. Many of Scott’s troops died Many of Scott’s troops died of disease. of disease.

The Americans then The Americans then marched to Mexico City and marched to Mexico City and took the capital. took the capital.

CaliforniaCalifornia An exploratory An exploratory

expedition under expedition under John John C. FremontC. Fremont entered entered California and California and endorsed the rebel endorsed the rebel Bear Flag RepublicBear Flag Republic (June 1846). (June 1846).

Colonel Stephen Colonel Stephen KearneyKearney invaded New invaded New Mexico and then joined Mexico and then joined Fremont in California. Fremont in California.

War BeginsWar Begins American troops, under American troops, under General Zachary General Zachary

TaylorTaylor, sent into disputed territory between the , sent into disputed territory between the Rio Grande and Nueces Rivers, were attacked by Rio Grande and Nueces Rivers, were attacked by Mexican forces. Mexican forces.

In his War Message (May 11, 1846), President In his War Message (May 11, 1846), President Polk claimed Mexico was the Polk claimed Mexico was the aggressor. aggressor.

Congress voted overwhelmingly for war (40-2 in Congress voted overwhelmingly for war (40-2 in the Senate; 174-14 in the House. the Senate; 174-14 in the House.

All opposition votes were from the North). All opposition votes were from the North). However, opposition to the war began to grow However, opposition to the war began to grow

almost immediately, particularly in the North, almost immediately, particularly in the North, among anti-slavery groups. among anti-slavery groups.

Opposition to the WarOpposition to the War Led by Northerners who opposed the spread Led by Northerners who opposed the spread

of slavery. of slavery. Whig Congressman Whig Congressman Abraham Lincoln’sAbraham Lincoln’s

Spot Resolution challenged Spot Resolution challenged Polk’sPolk’s account account of the war’s origins. of the war’s origins.

Henry David Thoreau’sHenry David Thoreau’s essay, essay, “Civil “Civil Disobedience”,Disobedience”, called for nonviolent called for nonviolent opposition to an evil war to expand slavery. opposition to an evil war to expand slavery.

An attempt (An attempt (the Wilmot Provisothe Wilmot Proviso) to ban ) to ban slavery from any territory acquired from slavery from any territory acquired from Mexico repeatedly failed to pass the Senate. Mexico repeatedly failed to pass the Senate.

Treaty of Guadalupe Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)Hidalgo (1848)

The U.S. secured The U.S. secured California, the New California, the New Mexico Territory, Mexico Territory, and recognition of and recognition of the Rio Grande as the Rio Grande as the Texas border.the Texas border.

Effects of the WarEffects of the War American territory was increased by a third. Its American territory was increased by a third. Its

continental territory now reached to the Pacific continental territory now reached to the Pacific Ocean. Ocean.

Additional Native Americans and Latinos were Additional Native Americans and Latinos were added to the population.added to the population.

Mexico received a payment of $15 million, but Mexico received a payment of $15 million, but Mexican resentment was long lasting. (Spanish Mexican resentment was long lasting. (Spanish cultural addition was significant.) cultural addition was significant.)

The question of slavery in the territories was The question of slavery in the territories was reopened. reopened.

The war contributed to disunity within both the The war contributed to disunity within both the Whig and Democratic Parties, particularly over the Whig and Democratic Parties, particularly over the slave territory question. slave territory question.