Page 1Social Science 1A – Principles in the Social SciencesSpring 2012

Exam 2 Study Guide

From the lectures, please know the following:

Know the major characteristics of the seven models of society reviewed in lecture.-Individuals (related in some way, can’t be adversaries); social group that has mutual awareness, orderly interactions, symbolic communication-geographic location that is common

a) The Civic Model (Aristotle)- humans are social animals, community is natural setting, basic economic unit is family, education provides virtue, telos means purpose (discovering telos to make us happy), happiest when we are accomplishing, responsibility of the government to help us find our purpose. BEST GOV is republic. equal justice for all regardless of station in life.

b) Instrumental Individualism (Thomas Hobbes)- opposite view from Aristotle (people are not naturally friendly)-Humans are self-creating, unpredictable, act for ourselves, act like a antisocial machine, almost don’t have free will.- Psychological determinism = selfishness (competing with others for resources, we must defend ourselves) -follow strongest desires. determine what we want and how we are gonna get it. he believes -peace and cooperation are impossible. some people need to be superior. virtue is prudence! society = need each other to survive, but are at odds with each other (a sort of paradox). -So make a social contract (agree we are going to compete for right to resources, but give up our right to defend ourselves to society)benign kingdom set up to protect us. Best government = benign (beneficial) sovereign.

->once a person is elected he has absolute authority so we have to make a good choice-harsh on human-nature

c) The Social System (Adam Smith)-does not agree that we are machines

-> we are capable of restraining selfishness through consensus without a contract- humans are selfish, competitive, but sympathetic. believes in law of accumulation, law of population. accumulation of profits that are put back into production (law of accumulation). as law of accumulation increases wages for workers, workers will increase, as population increases, wages will go down (law of population). “invisible hand of supply and demand” primary goal is attain approval, avoid disapproval. accumulate knowledge from trial and error. society should protect us, justice applies to everyone equally. virtue is generosity. believes that poverty and wealth will balance each other when leaving economy alone. Believes democracy is best government. “laissez faire” individuals can prosper independent of society (only capitalism).

d) A Conflict Model (Karl Marx)

Page 2- hates capitalism, believes that it creates class conflict. believes that there will be an equality after revolution. believes in classless, conflict free society. conflict between (classes) groups NOT individuals. Believes in possibility of cooperation and utopia. social determinism means we are born into our economic class and that determines how our life is. We become enslaved to material things and as we accumulate them we become alienated from society. agrees with aristotle that we are naturally unselfish, but the society we are raised in causes conflict. argues against hobbes self-interest. two classes emerge, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie from these two classes all societal structures emerge. justice in favor of the rich economic class. religion is a tool for the rich to avert the attention of the poor.

e) A Consensus Theory (Emile Durkheim)society shapes the individual: so what holds society together?

-studies societies as a whole (science is the best way to understand society and indicate social goals)

EX: suicide rates as indicator of value of society (suicide = destructive)-language, morality, economics, religion, all attributable to society-individual is a PRODUCT of society (reasoning and choice are products of the social

group)-acts are immoral because society does not approve of them-we conform or suffer consequence of social disapproval

Anomie = a disconnect of group because the group rejects the individual and he can’t conform; society makes the disconnect

-little scope for individualism -complex societies are bad; simple societies are good

“collective unconscious”“consensus”

g) An Action Theory (Max Weber)- individuals shape the society through action patterns. -human behavior is goal rational (meaningful individual action)-huge supporter of capitalism - against compassion, people should work to get what we want.

-virtue for him is hard work, responsibility -we should analyze human action (understand why people do what they do; find out by action patterns)-believes society is not based on wealth alone, but on prestige and status-four types of human action: 1) goal rational conduct

-use the most effective mean for a chosen desired goal (practical, logical scientific economic thinking, focus on the goal) -> implies people act rationally

2) Value rational conduct-values are the criteria for our action (goals and the means to the goal); we pursue something because we value it-if we’re honest, we still might return change because we got too much change (we

value that value)3) emotional conduct

-actions are determined by our feelings (non-rational)4) traditional behaviors

Page 3-we follow and respect our leaders-family traditions -we’ve always done it that

-3 types of authority1) traditional authority (president, parents)2) legal authority (parents or guardian)3) charismatic authority (people follow others because they’re persuasive)

h) Phenomenonological Theory (Alfred Schutz)have to examine how the world is experienced by the individual (how it appears)

-experienciable approach -impossible to tell somebody who is blind what something “red” is like-analyze according to our own experience

-humans life in their “life world”- life is a series of projects-goals- in order to understand society, we have to suspend our belief in a reality outside of

ourselves and analyze the world in perspective of our own experiences. i.e. each person in each car in a traffic jam has a novel in them of their lifestory. live in our lifeworld and if want to understand society, we must talk to people. telos is give life meaning and purpose to life goals.

Be sure to know the characteristics of human nature according to Aristotle, Hobbes, Smith and Marx.Aristotle: 470-399 BCE The Civic Community (views dominated western thoughts for hundred of years): believes we are social animals capable of reason and speech, conforming to ethical standards, highest activity a life on contemplation, community is our natural setting, the basic economic unit is the family. The community is responsible for security and education. Education involves developing virtues, moral virtues (excellent traits of character courage justive, the kind of excellence dealing with balancing the emotional) intellectual virtues ( enables us to think well thinking skills) we should develop both of them. Reason we do this is to find our“telos” our purpose teleological to find our purpose in life. Believes our telos is our purpose in life and we should discover that to be happy. Best men should be involved in government. Believed in the rule of law. The rule of justice for all regardless of our station in life. Agreed that it really worked for small communities

Hobbes (1588-1679) Instrumental Individualism: Has opposite view from Aristotle. We are self creating and unpredictable. Sort of like a machine deterministic like we don’t have free will. He disagrees we are not social animals. Deterministic idea. We follow are strongest desires are costivly determined by this. A psychological determinism: an intelligent selfishness determine what we want and how we are going to get it. So human life is a constant struggle to get what we need competing for resources that we have to struggle for those and find those and even though there is a lot some people just want to feel superior. What is society like? we are at odds to each other and but also need each other. Social contract: becomes the basis of social life. Based on instrumental rationality not love or autruistic friendship. Human conflict is rooted in human nature. Social contract: agree to compete for scarce resources but we give up the right to defend ourselves and we turn that over to the society and the society defends us so we aren’t going to kill each other to get our needs met. Benign Kingdom set up to defend us. Best choice of government: benign souverign. Beneficial. Elect this

Page 4person (king soverign) for life and they have absolute authority. People are not actually friendly.

Adam Smith ( 1723- 1790) A social system: Newton “machine composed of atoms operating according fixed laws) developed philosophy from newton a social system operates like a machine that works to maintain natural balances and equilibrium. Invisible Hand: self interested actions of individuals leads to prosperity for all and extended it to the laws of the market and leads to self regulated economy. System is determinisitic that there is a balance between self interest and competition. Individuals are selfish and greedy. Disagree with hobbes that we are machines that we accumulate knowledge through trial and error but our intentions is to not make errors. We are capable of restraining our selfishness. Believes we are sympathetic and empathy. We are concerned of welfare of others. justice applies to everybody equally. Society is divided in classes of wealth and that we are competitive. Virtue for smith would be generosity. Believes there are two laws: in evonomic market invisible hand (law of accumulation accumulation of profit capitalist can purchase more machinery and specialization of labor therby boosting productivity. Leads to Higher wages until profit goes away accumulation then have to stop) law of population (solution) as the law of accumulation increases wages for workers, the number of workers will increase, and as pop increases, that pushes wages down. So the result of lower wages, then the profit increases for capitalist, invest more in the business and it’s a cycle. The end result is economy will ultimately reach (progress inevitable) a promised reward a place where poverty and wealth balance each other. Democracy is the best economy “laissez faire” leave it alone.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) Conflict Theory: hates capitalism believes creates class conflict: but Paradox he believed in: conflict will enter conflict and peace and harmony will be the eventual result of a violent revolution and that it is inevitable there will be an equlity after the revolution. Communism and socialism built on Hobbes but sees conflict as seen in groups instead of individual. Hobbes (individual) Marx is class group he is optimistic and sees harmony. Believes there is a social determinism. We are naturally unselfish agrees with Aristotle, but the social system we are born into changes this. Individual beliefs depend on social relationships which are determined by class situation we are born into. Believes capitalist can become benevolent. Virtue: sympathy (for the higher class)

Emily Durkheim (1858- 1917) A Consensus Theory: Society shapes the individual. Science applied to the study of society. A positivist. Goal quantitative precision. We conform or we suffer consequences of social disapproval. Opposed Hobbes. Studies society as a whole. Doesn’t really have a theory for human nature. Language, religion, economic activity, is all attributable to society. ANOMIE: a lack of social regulation which leads to suicide. (Disconnect from a group) individual cannot conform. Not the depression we feel when we disconnect it’s Where the society makes the disconnect. Anomie is a condition in society where religion and morals have failed the individual and the psychological state of individuals of anomie is a loss or a sense of belonging to a group. Sort of natural state Hobbes describes alienation from the group. For Hobbes there is no social control. Society is a moral order a collective consciousness goals and

Page 5purposes in society regulates life is very deterministic. So crime is against society not individuals. What is virtue for Aristotle, Hobbes, and Smith? Aristotle: moral and intellectualHobbes: prudenceSmith:

Why do people need both intellectual and moral virtues according to Aristotle?To develop and find our telos (purpose)

What did Hobbes think of Aristotle’s views regarding society?Disagreed

How can you tell the nature of a society according to Max Weber?According to Smith, what does capitalism allow individuals to do that no other economic system allows?

Psychology:

What is the definition of the science of psychology?-the study of behavior and mental processes-two components: behavior and mental processes

What are the contributions of Freud, Piaget, Watson, Skinner and George Miller to the development of psychology?Freud: three part theory on personality: id, superego, ego (see chapter 37)

Jean Piaget: four stages of cognitive development->sensorimotor stage (when babies are up to 3 years, they’re developing senses and motor functions); they don’t retain the image of something: if you take something away from a baby they forget about it-> preoperations stage (they don’t understand how quantities work); EX: more slices mean more pizza even though you’re just cutting it. EX: they would think a tall and skinny tube of water is more than a shorter but fatter cup of water (even though it’s the same amount of water)-> concrete operations stage – past age 7 (a progression where they begin to conserve the quantities of items; they would understand how the pizza and water examples work)-> formal operations stage (they can do abstract thinking; see how things can break apart and come together)

John Watson: founded behaviorism. Did not believe hereditary was a factor in shaping in human behavior. He thought human beings were complex machines. We learned form the environment based on experiences. He did not study emotions because we could only observe behavior and assume emotions. We have to see what stimulus what would elicit a certain emotional response.

EX: Little Albert- Watson begins to pair the white rat and the noise of a hammer hitting a steel pole. Eventually the baby became frightened every time he sees the white rat. And he kept doing this until Albert became scared every single time he saw everything white and furry

-called classical conditioning

Skinner: operant conditioning

Page 6-“Skinner Box:” found that if you give a rat food every time it presses the lever, the

rat would press the lever if he was hungry. If you give a rat food randomly after it presses the lever (sometimes it would get the reward sometimes it wouldn’t) then the rat would press the lever constantly

George Miller: wrote “The Magical Number +or- 2” which concerned limits on working memory capacity. We can only remember 5 to 9 items of our working memory at this moment.

-We still can have ways to help ourselves remember a lot more and increase our memory (grouping or chunking information)

-He brought the study of memory and mental processes back to psychology

What is the mind-body problem?Are the mind and body separate and distinct?-there are things we have to experience and we can give people that experience-how would you explain the color red to someone else?

What is the “problem of other minds”?Are there other minds? We cannot know for sure that other people have minds -we don’t know the exact thoughts of someone’s mind and have no access to them (you can only tell through physiological changes or behavior)

What is the issue raised with the mind-body problem about empirical research??

Anthropology

What is the definition of anthropology?-study of humans past present and future (human variation, physical variation, and cultural variation)What research methods are used in anthropology?

What are the contributions of Bronislaw Malinowski to anthropology?-changed field methods from observation to participation

-> in the Trobriand islands in WWI-> first participant observation study (making note of customs and different things they

did)-> did not interact with them; all he did was write down measurements or draw pictures

Who was Franz Boas? Interested in how observations were subjective based on perception Historical particularism (we cannot assume societies develop from simple to complex)

o Believes that anthropologists needs to carry out detailed region studies of human cultures in order to understand history of a culture or society

o Each culture has its own development/history (if it’s simple we cannot say they’re primitive or prehistoric)

Cultural anthro, physical anthro, archaeology anthro, language anthro o Revised methods in anthro

Required to do intense observations (learn language)

Page 7 Against concept of race (all human variation was adaptation to the

environment) It’s all just difference in learning (against ethnocentrism) Third of mankind quiz

What is his theory of Historical Particularism?o Believes that anthropologists needs to carry out detailed region studies of human

cultures in order to understand history of a culture or societyo Each culture has its own development/history (if it’s simple we cannot say they’re

primitive or prehistoric)o We have to understand the culture richness of a society (they might have evolved in

a way where their environment allows)o Every society is unique and has developed in its own way

Who was Margaret Mead?- Bisexual- Famous student of Boas- Published “coming of age in Samoa” in 1928- Did not believe in a universal human nature

How did her work support Boas’ theories?- Adolescence was not a difficult (no pressure from society in Samoa)

o Reinforced Boas’ theory of historical particularism - “always remember that you are absolutely unique. Just like everyone else”

Was Boas a cultural or physical anthropologist?Cultural

Who were the Neanderthals?-19 hominid forms discovered, 2 recent forms = cro magnums and Neanderthals (30K YEARS AGO)

-homo-sapiens came from cro-magnums -all came from Africa (evidence through mitochondria DNA as seen through the most mutations)-do not know why they died out

Why did Homo Sapiens become the exclusive hominid?-neanderthals became extinct (we don’t know, that’s the answer to the exam)

-> unable to adapt, war or disease (couldn’t compete with homo-sapiens), inbreeding

Why did Homo Sapiens become dominant over Neanderthals?died out

What happened to the Neanderthals?we just don’t know

Did the two groups co-exist?-separate species and did not mate; also had war so probably not

Page 8What is the “out of Africa” hypothesis?-homo-sapiens arose in Africa migrated to other places in the world

Cultural anthropology is concerned with what area of study?

Physical anthropology is concerned with what area of study?-mechanisms, fossil record, genetic inheritance, human adaptability variation, evolution

From the chapter readings, please know the following:

Chapter 4:

What is the definition of the science of psychology?Defined as the science of behavior and mental processes; behavior includes people’s overt, external actions and mental processes including thoughts, feelings, memories, and a whole range of physical aspects such as physiological reactions of the nervous system as well as the action of hormones and other chemicals.

What are the five areas of research and theory within psychology?-physiological psychology, learning and cognition, development, personality theory, and social psychology

Know the behaviorist approach to the study of psychology.The behaviorists concentrated on what area of research?-they believe it is possible to understand human beings or animals by studying observable behavior as it relates to environmental stimuli-psychologists should avoid vague and abstract concepts such as mind, drive, wish, intuition, and imagination because these concepts are not directly observable, and hence cannot be empirically validated-use the term “conditioning” to describe the kind of learning that goes on either from classical conditioning (simple association of two stimuli) or operational conditioning (rewards and punishments)

Know the cognitive approach to the study of psychology.The cognitive psychologists have concentrated on what areas of research?Grew out of dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach of relying on observable behavior and environmental stimuli; instead they focus on internal processes of perception, information processing, memory, and thinking. They are interested in how the brain functions in order to learn and remember.

-assume that humans do not respond to environmental stimuli but actively impose their mental models on the world in order to understand it (understand how the brain works by using high-speed computers to solve problems)

What research problems are studied within developmental psychology?People are different at different ages, especially during early life. (people progress through a series of stages that are qualitatively different from one another)

-we don’t know more as well get older; we know differently

How did Piaget view human development?-studied how we know at different ages

Page 9-at four months of age (sensorimotor stage): we do not know that an object continues to exist after it has left our field of vision-for a four-year old (pre-operational stage): we may be completely convinced that two are more than one nickel; that a mother cannot also be a daughter; if an object such as a clay ball changes shape, it has also changed weight even though nothing has been added or taken away-for an eight year old (concrete operational stage): unable to reason about concepts not tied to the visible environment-adolescent (formal operational stage): develop the ability to manipulate abstract thought, such as logical propositions and think about our own thinking

What do social psychologists do?-begin with the premise that people are social animals and that their thoughts and actions

reflect that they are members of group. (attend to how the group and the social world in general affect an individual’s behaviors, thoughts, and feelings)

How does the research of the social psychologists differ from the research of the sociologist?Sociologists focus on the group itself (formation, evolution, function) while social psychologists attend to how the group and the social world in general affect an individual’s behaviors, thoughts, and feelings

What is self-actualization according to Carl Rogers? What is necessary to achieve self-actualization?-to achieve maximum potential; he believed a person needs a strong, positive self-concept. Development would work best if parents offer their children unconditional positive regard based on the child (not actions);

-this is seen through the humanistic perspective, which posits that human beings are born with a need to fulfill themselves (personality is structured around the concept of self (healthy self)

What do clinical psychologists do?Address a wide range of emotional and behavioral problems from psychoses such as schizophrenia to neurotic problems such as phobias; they are engaged in diagnosing mental illnesses or health, the presence of learning disabilities or attention deficit disorders, and intellectual abilities (act as therapists

Regardless of the type of therapy, what is the most important requirement of the person seeking therapy? (See Box 4.1)They must WANT to change and be willing to work at it, even though the old feelings and behaviors may be more comfortable. It’s not like getting an injection and then waiting for the medicine to work (it’s a kind of re-education and, like education, cannot be done to anybody. The person has to be willing to change

Chapter 10:

What is the ancient Greek definition of geography?Description of the earth

What is the modern definition?The study of the earth as the home of people

Are the two definitions close?

Page 10Yes

What are the most powerful tools in geography?Maps (answer the question of “where”?)

How do geographers look for causal factors of patterns?They ask the question, where? Begin with gathering of data to establish patterns and distributions (maps is one way)

When geographers find a pattern in a specific location, what their next step, typically?They pose the question of “why” that pattern or distribution “there?” In searching for answers, geographers aren’t shy when it comes to considering a wide range of causal factors

-consider contributing factors as diverse as soil types, history, climate, ethnic background, environmental perception, religion (patterns can rarely be explained by a single factor)

-> eventually, they will ask the most important question, “what is the significance”

What is GIS? Geographic information system: an integrated computer system for the input, storage, analysis, and display of spatial information (allows geographers to produce composite and graphic color maps on a computer screen) rather than laboriously overlaying a series of standard paper maps to consider geographic patterns and interrelationships

What is the meaning of the “cultural landscape”?-as soon as people occupy natural landscapes, they set about converting that into a cultural landscapeCheckerboard fields, road networks, strip cropping, irrigated green fields, forest clear-cut, towns and cities are all examples of humankind’s power to remake natural landscapes into cultural landscapes -they are people-induced modifications that convey information about a society’s history, means of livelihood, level of technology, and relationship with nature (pg. 84)

Chapter 11:

When did the social sciences begin?The social sciences began in 1,000,000 BC (or even earlier) in the Paleolithic Era (Old Stone

Age)

Why are Plato and Aristotle important for the development of the social sciences?Greek thought regarding human nature and the social order is based not on chance,

religion, tradition, and/or authority but on reason- Plato (Republic) and Aristotle (Politics) both offered comprehensive ideas about

humans and their behavior: one can’t be human without society; to be human is to be social; the good society is in principle possible if it is based on reason.

-the problem with them is that although their ideas are important, they concern what ought to be and not what the way things are. Therefore, their approach to the study of social phenomena is NOT disinterested and objective

What did Plato’s book The Republic address?

Page 11It’s a blueprint for a utopia ruled by humans of reason (addressed the search for new

foundations of social order to replace those that had been destroyed by war, revolution, and stasis)

Why were the work of Hobbes (Leviathan) and Locke (Two Treatises of Government) important for the development of the social sciences?

They disagreed with Plato and Aristotle (they believed humans are social by nature and could not considered “human” outside from their communities) and argued that humans are by nature free and that the government is established by contract. They agree that the function of the state ist hej protection of individual rights

-Hobbes stresses right of self-preservation (without government humans would fight each other off)-Locke stresses right to property

Both of them laid philosophical groundwork for the social sciences (note that Plato and Aristotle DID NOT, their beliefs were deemed unacceptable to the social scientist)

The chapter cites the contrasting views of Karl Marx and Herbert Spencer as important for the beginning of the social sciences.

Views of Karl Marx: offers statement about structure of society- the class structure of the society plays a strategic role in shaping the rest of its social organization and culture. All social institutions (family, religion, politics) are built upon the foundation of the society’s economy by the SOCIAL CLASSES which develop from the economy

-the economic institution is the basic institution in societyViews of Herbert Spencer: he applied the evolutionary principles to ALL human and social

diversity (change from simple to complex forms). He assumed that the Darwinian laws of natural selection, which operate in the struggle for existence and dictate the survival of the fittest, apply for individuals and societies. Humans are by nature selfish, egotistical, and societies were competitive and militaristic. This was the best way to survive.

Why did Marx despise the bourgeoisie (capitalists)?-He linked the change form agrarian to industrial society with the rise of bourgeoisie in the

late Middle Ages: class of factory owners became large enough and strong enough by money and power to challenge political control of nobility, clergy, and monarchy.

-As a result of their power, conditions of life for urban factory workers were at their worst (wages were fifty cents for a week of seven eighteen-hour days. Contracts were made with orphanages for the employment of children. Sometimes children were chained to the machines)

For Marx, how was communism supposed to improve society?Communism in a society would be classless, which would no longer breed exploitation. “the

free development of each is the condition for the free development of all”

According to Marx, how will class conflict end (see Box 11.2)?After the bourgeoisie establish industrial capitalism, (according to Marx) there will be a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and workers (proletariat). A revolution will occur, which will bring about a CLASSLESS society. Old conditions of production will be swept away, there will be no class antagonism.

According to Spencer, what is Social Darwinism? (see Box 11.3)?

Page 12It uses Darwin’s theory of evolution to justify existing forms of social organizations. Spencer coined the phrase survival of the fittest to describe his viewpoint that people who could not successfully adapt to industrial society were really inferior (this idea enabled dominant groups to oppose reforms or social welfare programs which they viewed as interfering with nature’s plan) It became a justification for the repression and neglect of African-Americans following the Civil War.

Did Spencer support government programs for the poor? Why or why not?No. He opposed any kind of government interference in the NATURAL growth of society, as for example, public education or even sanitary measures. To aid the poor and depend would encourage the survival of the unfit, and therefore, weaken society. The right to survive should be reserved for those best adapted to their environment.

Chapter 37:

What did Freud emphasize as the causes for human behavior?He emphasized the cause is our biological instincts which could be molded into a variety of behaviors, some conscious and some unconscious. Humans are propelled by powerful biological drives or urges, which needs to be satisfied. (there is a battle between eros, which are urges toward both sexual and asexual love referred to as the life instincts). There are three main components to our psyche: id, ego, and superego

What did Skinner emphasize as the causes for human behavior?The individual is a product of his or her environment; the environment molds the behavior of the individual (at birth, the child may be thought of as a TABULA RASA, a blank slate); he would say that it doesn’t make any difference if these things might be unconscious: causality of behavior does not depend upon awareness

What are Freud’s id, ego and superego constructs for personality?The three main components to our psyche

What is the function of each construct?Id: states that it operates irrationally and unconsciously. It is amoral. It is instinctive, and seeks solely for pleasure-seeking and bodily gratification Ego: the part of the personality that seeks to “play by the rules,” and develop the ability to reason and gratify needs in socially approved ways. (rational, conscious part)Superego: conscience; imposes morality; an internalization of other’s ideas (culture’s, parent’s)

What is the message of Freud’s book, Civilization and Its Discontents?He suggests that society and the individual are enemies, with the latter yielding to the former reluctantly and only out of compulsion

Did Skinner believe that behavior in a society should be controlled by reward or by punishment?Yes; he believed that a person is conditioned to behavior through rewards and punishments. Responses that are rewarded are repeated and become part of the individual’s repertoire. Responses that are punished are discontinued.

What reasons did Skinner give for his position on this issue?He brought up the idea of a utopian society based on a planned order that eliminated aversive controls; a viable society is possible if we condition people positively for changes. (he argues that

Page 13today, we are generally controlled by the less effective negative or aversive reinforcement in society rather than by the more effective positive reinforcement)

Chapter 38 :

What is Erikson’s attitude toward Freud’s work?He accepts and builds upon many of the basic tenets of Freudian theory. He is concerned mostly with the psychosocial development of the ego. He has been able to introduce innovations into psychoanalytic theory without either rejecting or ignoring Freud’s monumental contribution.

Focus on the conflicts of the different ages according to Erikson. Know the exact terms and what the terms mean that express the conflicts of these age periods. Eight Ages of Man:

Trust vs. Mistrust: happens in the oral stage, which is the first year of life; the degree to which the child comes to trust the world, other people and himself depends to a considerable extent upon the quality of the care that he receives. The infant whose needs are met (cuddled fondled, played with) will learn to trust, whereas an infant whose care is inconsistent would foster a basic mistrust.

Autonomy vs. Doubt: happens in the anal stage, which is roughly the 2 nd and 3 rd year of life; child is now able to take pride new accomplishments and wants to do everything himself (climb, open and close, drop push, etc.). IF parents recognize this need for independence, then the child develops a sense of autonomy. However, if his caretakers are impatient and do for him what he is capable of doing himself, they reinforce a sense of shame and doubt. (note that too much autonomy can be harmful)

Initiative vs. Guilty: happens in the phallic stage, which is from age 4 to 5; initiative is reinforced when parents answer their children’s questions (intellectual imitative) and do not inhibit fantasy or play activity; if a child is made to feel that motor activity is bad, or that his questions are a nuisance, and that his play is stupid, then he may develop a sense of guilt over self-initiative.

Industry vs. Inferiority: happens in the latency phase, which is from 6 to 11. Industry: when children are encouraged in their efforts to make, do, or build practical things, are allowed to finish their products, and are praised and rewarded for results, then the sense of industry is enhanced. If parents don’t see these efforts and perceive them as “mischief” then that encourages in the children a sense of inferiority.

Identity vs. Role Confusion: adolescence (12-18); influence of parents during this stage is indirect; adolescent has newfound integrative abilities, and his task is to bring together all of the things he has learned about himself and integrate those images of himself into a whole that makes senses and that shows continuity with the past. If he cannot attain a sense of personal identity, he has role confusion – a sense of not knowing what he is, where he belongs, or whom he belongs to.

Intimacy vs. Isolation: young adulthood; intimacy means the ability to share with and care about another person without fear of losing oneself in the process (does not have to be romantic); if the person fails to find this ability, he will have a sense of isolation – of being alone without anyone to share with or care for.

Generativity vs. self-absorption: middle-age; a person will either be concerned with others beyond his immediate family with future generations and the nature of society and the world in which those generations will live, or be concerned with only himself, his personal needs and comforts. (think Scrooge)Integrity vs. Despair: period where the person’s efforts are nearing completion; sense of

integrity would arise from the individual’s ability to look back on his life with satisfaction. At the

Page 14other extreme, the person would look back upon his life as a series of missed opportunities and missed directions and would realize that it is too late to start again.

What is the purpose of psycho-historical investigation developed by Erikson?Psycho-historical investigations are a combination of psychoanalytic insight with a true historial imagination (he wrote essays on men as varied as Maxim Gorky, George Shaw, Freud, etc.) These writings are meant to give social and historical perspective. He’s like a painter, and his “sketches” are like paintings that direct the viewer’s gaze to the background. EX: Erikson’s investigation of Martin Luther would have a focus on Luther’s unhappiness with the papal intermediaries of Christianity.

According to Erikson, how can a crisis or an episode in a person’s life then give purpose or meaning to the future life of that individual? Know the example of Martin Luther given in the text (pp 432-433).It seemed to crystallize a life-theme that united the activities of the past and gave direction to activities for the future; much as an artist might, Erickson could proceed to fill in the background of the episode and add social and historical perspective. For Martin Luther, he mentioned Luther’s dissatisfaction with the papal intermediaries and related it to his own dissatisfaction with the intermediaries of Freud’s system.

Chapter 40:

Please know the case of Anna reviewed in the chapter.

What happened to Anna in the first six years of her life?-she was an illegitimate child, which in turn led to her being shifted about. -at the age of 3 she was already in miserable condition (had vaginitis), and taken to multiple children’s home; it seemed like no one wanted her-she was left entirely without attention and received only enough care to barely keep her alive

Describe her physical condition at age 6.Was seldom moved from one position to another; her clothing and bedding were filthy; she could not talk, walk or do anything that showed intelligence; she was extremely emaciated and undernourished, had skeleton-like legs and a bloated abdomen (fed nothing except cow’s milk)

After age 6, when she was given proper care, how did Anna develop mentally?-had progressed to the point where she could walk, understand simple commands, feed herself a achieve some neatness, remember people (but she did not speak) - more than five months later, she was large for her age; could hear entirely normal, vision normal, able to climb stairs, speech in the babbling stage and promise or developing intelligible speech later

Did she learn to talk after her rescue?Yes. She was characterized as being at about the two-year level in this regard; she could call attendants by name and bring in one when she was asked to.

Compare Anna’s case to the similar case of Isabelle.What was the prognosis for Isabelle’s future mental development when she was evaluated at age 6.5 years old?

Page 15She had no chance to develop speech; her means of communication was by gestures. Lack of sunshine and inadequacy of diet had caused Isabelle to become rachitic.

What was Isabelle’s actual progress regarding her mental development up to age 14?She went through stages of learning characteristics of the years from one to six not only in proper succession by far more rapidly than normal. In a little over two months, after her first vocalization she was putting sentences together. Nine months after she could identify words and sentences on printed page, could write well, could add to ten, and could retell a story after hearing it. She had reached a normal level by the time she was 8. Today she is 14 and has passed the sixth grade in a public school.

According to Box 40.1, is there are critical period for language development? YesIf so, when does this critical period end? There are critical periods where humans are most open to experiences which will affect learning abilities. It ends at around puberty.

According to Box 40.2 who was Genie and what happened to her? She is 13 and a half year old girl who was found in California in 1970. She has been deprived of socialization for 12 years, twice as long as Anna or Isabelle. She was strapped to a potty chair or caged in a crib and upon discovery, weighted 59 pounds and had the mental development and social maturity of a one-year-old child. (her ability to use language never became better than that of a 4-year-old)

What hypothesis was offered as to why Genie never attained the normal use of language?Without social experience leading to the development of language in early childhood, the human brain loses much of its capacity for subsequent development.

According to Box 40.3 who was the “Wild Boy of Aveyron”. According to Itard, what prevented this boy from acquiring the use of language?Background info: three hunters had found a naked eleven-year-old boy in a forest in southern France. He shuffled about on all fours, could only make animal-like noises, and bit and scratched anyone who approached him. A physician named Jean Itard felt that he could train the child and make him normal. Even after five years of devoted effort, the boy did not become fully human. He never learned to speak or to interact with anyone. He concluded that lack of early human contact was the reason. If certain things are not learned early, they may never be learned.

Chapter 6:

What is the definition of anthropology?-it is the study of the human race (includes everything that has to do with human beings, past and present. Since no single anthropologist would be able to investigate such a broad field, the discipline is divided into at least two subfields: physical anthropology and cultural anthropology

Physical: focuses on humans as biological organism (examine evidence for human evolution)

Cultural: archeology (cultures of the past), linguistics (language), ethnography (cultures of the present) What makes humans different from all other animals?

Page 16They possess culture: socially learned and shared patterns of behavior passed on from one generation to another; without a culture transmitted form the past, each new generation would have to solve again elementary problems of existence. (fire, the wheel, domestication, moral code, etc.)

Why is culture important?without a culture transmitted form the past, each new generation would have to solve again elementary problems of existence. (fire, the wheel, domestication, moral code, etc.)

What are the two sub fields of anthropology?physical anthropology and cultural anthropology

What is ethnocentrism? What is cultural relativism?Cultural relativism: understand values, norms, beliefs, are not in themselves correct or incorrect, desirable or undesirable. They simply exist within the total cultural framework of a people. Everything should be considered in relation to how it fits into THAT culture rather than how it fails to fit into OUR culture Ethnocentrism: we consider our way of life superior to all others; we judge other life styles in terms of our own conceptions, and we see those who are different as inferior, ignorant, crazy, or immoral

What is culture shock? Is ethnocentrism always wrong?Culture shock: feelings of disorientation and stress that people experience when they enter an unfamiliar cultural setting

-yes, but it’s important to understand that in advocating cultural relativism, you are not suggesting that we can or should even condone everything people in other societies do. EX: we do not want to lend our wives to strangers. It does not mean abandonment of our own moral standards, but rather an attempt to understand the standards of other cultures.

Chapter 22:

What is non-verbal communication? Why is this form of communication important? What is our conclusion when there is a lack of agreement between a verbal and a non-verbal message from the same person?Non-verbal communication: first form of communication you ever learn; includes posture, gestures, facial expressions, costume, the way you walk, even your treatment of time and space and material things

-it is important because it is less subject to conscious deception that often occurs in verbal systems; we depend on our body movement in our conversation a lot-when there is a lack of agreement, the conclusion is that the individual is not sincere, and it makes the other person anxious and uncomfortable.

What is meant by territoriality (personal space)? -everyone has around himself an invisible bubble of space that contracts and expands

depending several factors: his emotional state, the activity he’s performing at the time, and his cultural background. This is the “territory” that he will defend against intrusion. If he is accustomed to close personal distance b/w him and others, his bubble will be smaller than that of someone who’s accustomed to greater personal distance.

Page 17

What controls the amount of territoriality between people? Emotion, stress, cultural background, activity he’s performing -EX: in urban places where it is highly congested, stress tends to be higher among people, and the amount of territory tends to be larger

What are the four zones (main distances) most white middle-class Americans use in business and social relations? Intimate, personal, social, and public

What is the distance of each of these zones? 1) Intimate: direct physical contact with another person to a distance of six to 18 inches and is used for our most private activities – caressing, making love (you are overwhelmed by sensory inputs from the other person – heat from the body, tactile stimulation of skin, fragrance, sound of breathing)2) Personal (second zone): one and a half to two and a half feet; distance wives stand from their husbands in public (close phase)

-the far phase, which is at arm’s length, is the most common spacing used by people in conversation

3) Social distance (third zone): employed during business transactions or exchanges with a clerk or repairman; people who work together tend to use close social distance (4 to 7 feet)

-the far phase is from 7-12 feet; it lends a formal tone to business or social discourse. “Stand back so I can look at you.” The desk serves to keep people at this distance 4) Public distance: used by teachers in classrooms or speakers at public gatherings; 25 feet and beyond. It is used for important public figures. Violations of this distance can lead to serious complications.

What is the importance of these distances in dating other persons?On the first date, if a woman sits or stands so close to a man that he is actively conscious of her physical presence, inside the intimate-distance zone, the man usually construes it to mean that she is encouraging him. However, before the man starts moving in on the woman, he should be sure what message she’s really sending.

-what is close to someone of northern European background may be neutral or distant to someone of Italian heritage. Also, a woman sometimes uses space as way of misleading a man.

-how a woman communicates interest in a man-> smiling, glancing shyly, blush, and then look away-> a “come-on” look and move in very close when he approaches, etc.

Chapter 42:

What is the difference between sex and gender?Sex: biological identity Gender: socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with a member of each sex

(once a sex label is assigned, society assumes about one’s identity and treats one in terms of that identity What is homophobia? Is homophobia more common among men or women? Does it differ by racial/ethnic group?

Homophobia: ?

Page 18Do you think our society currently has a third gender? Would you expect in the next 50 years that we might develop one??

Chapter 18:

What was the “great advancement” in the time course of human evolution? It was in eastern Africa that a new type of primate arose- an animal not so different from its apelike ancestors except in one crucial respect: this creature stood on two legs instead of scurrying along chimplike on all fours. (it would then develop a large complex brain, and from that would spring all of civilization)

What did Yohannes Haile-Selassie discover that appears to confirm the existence of this advancement? Found remains of what appears to be the most ancient human ancestor every discovered; it’s a chimp size creature that lived in the Ethiopian forests between 5.8 million and 5.2 million years ago – nearly a million and a half years earlier than the previous record holder and very close to the time when humans and chimps first went their separate evolutionary ways.

Where were these discoveries made?Ethiopian forests