evolution charles darwin giant tortoise- galapagos islands

EvolutionEvolution

Charles Darwin

Giant tortoise-Galapagos Islands

• Evolution: gradual change in a species over time• Scientific theory: a well tested concept that explains

a wide range of observations• Darwin came up with the theory of evolution based

on observations & evidence he collected from the Galapagos Islands.

Observations made by Darwin:

Observations made by Darwin:

1. Tortoise shell shape2. Finches (sizes & shapes of their beaks)3. Iguanas’ claw size-larger so they can grip on slippery rocks to eat seaweed

Animals of the Galapagos Islands

Iguana

Different finches

Natural Selection

• . Natural selection: process by which individuals that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive & reproduce successfully

• Darwin said evolution happened as a result of natural selection.

Overproduction

• Species produce way more offspring than can survive.

• There are not enough resources (food, water, space) to support them.

• Why does this happen?

Baby turtles

Variation

• Any difference between individuals of the same species

• Ex. Brown labrador retriever & a black labrador retriever

• How can variation such as color affect the process of natural selection?

Competiton (survival of the fittest)

• Members of a species compete for: food, water, space, ability to get away from predators

•

Turtle eating a mayfly Alligator eating a

fish

Selection

• Some variations make individuals better adapted to their environment

• These individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce (pass favorable traits onto their offspring)

Environmental Change

• A change in the environment can affect an organism’s ability to survive.

• This change can lead to selection.

Monkey flower

Evidence of Evolution:

• 1. fossils-comparing animals from millions of years ago to the alive today

• 2. Similarities in early development• 3. Similarities in body structure (homologous-

structures that are similar because of a common ancestor)

• 4. Similar DNA

Elephant shrew

Selective Breeding (genetic engineering)

• Breeding plants & animals for a particular trait.

• Ex. Thoroughbred horses are bred for sped in racing.

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin

• Influenced by Charles LyellInfluenced by Charles Lyell who published “Principles of Geology”.“Principles of Geology”.

• This publication led DarwinDarwin to realize that natural forces gradually change Earth’s surface and that the forces of the past are still operating in modern times.


• Darwin set sail on the H.M.S. BeagleH.M.S. Beagle (1831-1836) to survey the south seas (mainly South America (mainly South America and the Galapagos Islands)and the Galapagos Islands) to collect plants and animals.

• On the Galapagos Islands, Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed species that lived no where else in the world.

• These observations led Darwin to write a book.


• Wrote in 1859Wrote in 1859: “On the Origin of Species by “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”Means of Natural Selection”

• Two main points:Two main points:

1.1. Species were not created in their present Species were not created in their present form, but evolved from ancestral species.form, but evolved from ancestral species.

2.2. Proposed a mechanism for evolution:Proposed a mechanism for evolution: NATURAL SELECTIONNATURAL SELECTION

Natural SelectionNatural Selection• IndividualsIndividuals with favorablefavorable traitstraits are more

likely to leave more offspring better suited for their environmentenvironment.

• Also known as “Differential Reproduction”“Differential Reproduction”

• Example:Example:

English peppered moth (English peppered moth (Biston betularia))

- light and dark phases- light and dark phases

http://tidepool.st.usm.edu/crswr/peppermoths.html



Artificial SelectionArtificial Selection

• The selective breedingselective breeding of domesticated plants and animals by man.

• Question:Question:

What’s the ancestor of the domesticated dog?

• Answer:Answer: WOLFWOLF

Evidence of EvolutionEvidence of Evolution

1.1. Biogeography: Biogeography:

Geographical distribution of species.Geographical distribution of species.

2. Fossil Record:2. Fossil Record:

Fossils and the order in which they Fossils and the order in which they appear appear in layers of sedimentary rock in layers of sedimentary rock (strongest (strongest evidence).evidence).

Eastern Long Necked Turtle


3. Taxonomy:3. Taxonomy:

Classification of life forms.Classification of life forms.

4. Homologous structures:4. Homologous structures:Structures that are similar because Structures that are similar because

of of common ancestry common ancestry (comparative (comparative anatomy)anatomy)


5. Comparative embryology:5. Comparative embryology:

Study of structures that appear Study of structures that appear during during embryonic development.embryonic development.

6. Molecular biology:6. Molecular biology:

DNA and proteins (amino acids)DNA and proteins (amino acids)

Population GeneticsPopulation Genetics

• The sciencescience of genetic changegenetic change in population.

• Remember:Remember: Hardy-Weinberg equation.

PopulationPopulation

• A localized group of individualsindividuals belonging to the same speciessame species.

SpeciesSpecies

• A group of populationspopulations whose individualsindividuals have the potential to interbreedinterbreed and produce viableviable offspring.

Gene PoolGene Pool

• The total collection of genescollection of genes in a population at any one time.

Hardy-Weinberg PrincipleHardy-Weinberg Principle

• The conceptconcept that the shuffling of genesshuffling of genes that occur during sexual reproduction, by itself, cannot changecannot change the overall genetic makeup of a population.


• This principleprinciple will be maintained in nature only if all fivefive of the following conditions are met:

1.1. Very large populationVery large population

2.2. Isolation from other populationsIsolation from other populations

3.3. No net mutationsNo net mutations

4.4. Random matingRandom mating

5.5. No natural selectionNo natural selection


• Remember:Remember:

If these conditions are met, the population is at equilibriumequilibrium.

• This means “No Change” or “No “No Change” or “No Evolution”.Evolution”.

MacroevolutionMacroevolution

• The origin of taxonomic groups higher higher than the species levelthan the species level.

MicroevolutionMicroevolution

• A change in a population’s gene poolpopulation’s gene pool over a secession of generations.

• Evolutionary changesEvolutionary changes in species over relatively brief periods of geological timegeological time.

Five Mechanisms of MicroevolutionFive Mechanisms of Microevolution

1. Genetic drift:1. Genetic drift:

Change in the gene pool of a Change in the gene pool of a small small population due to chance.population due to chance.

• Two examples:Two examples:

a. Bottleneck effecta. Bottleneck effect

b. Founder effectb. Founder effect

a. Bottleneck Effecta. Bottleneck Effect

• Genetic driftGenetic drift (reduction of alleles in a population) resulting from a disasterdisaster that drastically reduces reduces population sizepopulation size.

• Examples:Examples:

1.1. EarthquakesEarthquakes

2.2. Volcano’sVolcano’s

b. Founder Effectb. Founder Effect

• Genetic driftGenetic drift resulting from the colonizationcolonization of a new location by a small number of individuals.

• Results in random changerandom change of the gene pool.


1.1. Islands (first Darwin finch)Islands (first Darwin finch)


2. Gene Flow:2. Gene Flow:

TThe gain or loss of allelesgain or loss of alleles from a population by the movementmovement of individuals or gametes.

• Immigration or emigrationImmigration or emigration.


3. Mutation:3. Mutation:

Change in an organism’s DNA thatChange in an organism’s DNA thatcreates a new allele.creates a new allele.

4. Non-random mating:4. Non-random mating:

The selection of mates other thanThe selection of mates other thanby chance.by chance.

5. Natural selection:5. Natural selection:

Differential reproduction.Differential reproduction.

Modes of ActionModes of Action

• Natural selectionNatural selection has three modesthree modes of action:

1.1. Stabilizing selectionStabilizing selection

2.2. Directional selectionDirectional selection

3.3. Diversifying selectionDiversifying selection

Number ofIndividuals

Size of individualsSmall Large

1.1. Stabilizing SelectionStabilizing Selection

• ActsActs upon extremesextremes and favorsfavors the intermediateintermediate.



2.2. Directional SelectionDirectional Selection

• FavorsFavors variants of one extremeone extreme.



3.3. Diversifying SelectionDiversifying Selection

• FavorsFavors variants of opposite extremesopposite extremes.



SpeciationSpeciation

• The evolutionevolution of new species.

Reproductive BarriersReproductive Barriers

• Any mechanismmechanism that impedesimpedes two species from producing fertile and/or viable hybrid fertile and/or viable hybrid offspringoffspring.

• Two barriers:Two barriers:

1.1. Pre-zygotic barriersPre-zygotic barriers

2.2. Post-zygotic barriersPost-zygotic barriers

1.1. Pre-zygotic BarriersPre-zygotic Barriers

a. Temporal isolation:a. Temporal isolation:

Breeding occurs at different times for different species.

b. Habitat isolation:b. Habitat isolation:

Species breed in different habitats.

c. Behavioral isolation:c. Behavioral isolation:

Little or no sexual attraction between species.

1.1. Pre-zygotic BarriersPre-zygotic Barriers

d. Mechanical isolation:d. Mechanical isolation:

Structural differences prevent gamete exchange.

e. Gametic isolation:e. Gametic isolation:

Gametes die before uniting with gametes of other species, or gametes fail to unite.

2.2. Post-zygotic BarriersPost-zygotic Barriers

a. Hybrid inviability:a. Hybrid inviability:

Hybrid zygotes fail to develop or fail to reach sexual maturity.

b. Hybrid sterility:b. Hybrid sterility:

Hybrid fails to produce functional gametes.

c. Hybrid breakdown:c. Hybrid breakdown:

Offspring of hybrids are weak or infertile.

Allopatric SpeciationAllopatric Speciation

• Induced when the ancestralancestral population becomes separatedseparated by a geographical geographical barrier.barrier.


Grand Canyon and ground squirrels

Adaptive RadiationAdaptive Radiation

• Emergence of numerous speciesEmergence of numerous species from a common ancestorcommon ancestor introduced to new and diverse environments.


Darwin’s FinchesDarwin’s Finches

Sympatric SpeciationSympatric Speciation

• Result of a radical change in the genome that produces a reproductively isolated sub-reproductively isolated sub-populationpopulation within the parent population (rare).

• Example: Plant evolution - polyploidExample: Plant evolution - polyploid

A species doubles it’s chromosome #chromosome # to become tetraploid.

reproductive sub-population

Parent population

Interpretations of SpeciationInterpretations of Speciation

• Two theories:Two theories:

1.1. Gradualist Model (Neo-Darwinian):Gradualist Model (Neo-Darwinian):

Slow changes in species overtime.

2.2. Punctuated Equilibrium:Punctuated Equilibrium:

Evolution occurs in spurts of relatively rapid change.

Convergent EvolutionConvergent Evolution

• SpeciesSpecies from different evolutionary branchesevolutionary branches may come to resemble one another if they live in very similar environments.very similar environments.


1.1. Ostrich (Africa) and Emu (Australia).Ostrich (Africa) and Emu (Australia).

2.2. Sidewinder (Mojave Desert) andSidewinder (Mojave Desert) and

Horned Viper (Middle East Desert)Horned Viper (Middle East Desert)

CoevolutionCoevolution

• Evolutionary changeEvolutionary change, in which one species act as a selective forceselective force on a secondsecond species, inducing adaptations that in turn act as selective force on the firstfirst species.


1.1. Acacia ants and acacia treesAcacia ants and acacia trees

2.2. Humming birds and plants with Humming birds and plants with flowers flowers with long tubeswith long tubes

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evolution charles darwin giant tortoise- galapagos islands

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