EVERWIN VIDHYASHRAM

Std: IX BIOLOGY Term - II

Ln-15 IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES

OCT/NOV

Improvement in crop fields:

Kharif crops : These are grown in rainy season (from the month of

June to October).

Eg: Paddy, Soyabean, Pigeon pea, maize, cotton, etc.

Rabi Crops: There are grown in winter season. (from November to

April).

Eg: Wheat, Gram, Peas, Mustard, linseed, etc.

Groups of activities for improving crop yields can be classified as

* Crop Variety improvement.

* Crop production improvement.

* Crop protection management

Crop Variety improvement:

* Hybridisation (crossing between genetically dissimilar

plants).

* Crossing may be intervarietal and interspecific or

intergeneric .

Some of the factors for which crop variety improvement is done are:

* Higher yield

* Improved quality

* Biotic and Abiotic resistance

* Change in maturity duration

* Wider adaptability

* Desirable agronomic characteristics

Crop Production Management

i) Nutrient Management

* Macro nutrients (Required in large quantities)

* Micro nutrients (Required in small quantities)

ii) Manure:

* It is prepared by the decomposition of animal excreta and

Plant waste.

Manure can be classified as

* Compost and vermi - compost

* Green Manure

iii) Fertilizers:

Fertilizers supply nitrogen, phosphorous and Potassium to

the plants.

Organic farming:

It is a farming system with minimal or no use of chemicals

such as fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, etc and with a minimum

input of organic manures, recycled farm-wastes use of bio-agents

such as culture of blue green algae in preparation of bio fertilizers

neem leaves or turmeric specifically in grain storage as bio-

pesticides, with healthy cropping system.

Irrigation:

Kinds of irrigation systems are adopted to supply water to

agricultural lands are Wells, Canals, Rivers and tanks.

Cropping Patterns:

* Mixed Cropping

* Inter - Cropping

* Crop Rotation

Crop Protection Management

* Removal of weeds like Xanthium, Parthenium, Cyperinus

rotundus.

* Weeds, insects and diseases can be controlled by using

pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and fungicides.

Storage of grains:

* Factors responsible for storage losses are biotic - insects,

rodents) fungi, mites and bacteria.

* Abiotic - inappropriate moisture & temperatures in the

place of storage.

Animal Husbandry:

Animal husbandry is the scientific management of animal

livestock.

Cattle farming:

* It is done for purposes milk and draught labour for

agricultural work.

* Indian breeds - Bos indicus - Cows, Bos bubalis - Buffaloes

* Milk producing females - milch animals

* Labour - draught animals.

* Exotic or foreign breeds - Eg. Jersey

* Local breeds - Red Sindhi, Sahiwal

Poultry farming:

* Indigenous - Eg: Aseel

* Exotic Breed - Eg: Leghorn

Breeds for variety improvement to develop new varieties for the

following desirable traits.

* number and quality of chicks.

* dwarf broiler parent for commercial chick production.

* Summer adaptation capacity.

* Low maintenance requirements.

* Reduction in the size of the egg-laying bird with ability to

utilise

more fibrous cheaper diets formulated using agricultural

by -

products.

Egg and Broiler Production:

* Broilers for meat purposes.

* Egg layers for eggs purposes.

Fish Production:

* Natural Resources - Capture fishing

* Fish farming - Culture fishery

Marine fisheries:

* Eg: Pomphret, mackerel, tuna, Sardines and Bombay duct.

* Mullets, bhetki and pearls spots, shellfish such as prawns,

mussel

and oysters as well as seaweed.

Inland Fisheries:

* Capture fishing is done in inland water bodies.

* Intensive fish farming can be done in composite fish

culture

systems.

* Catlas - Surface feeders.

* Rohus - feed in the middle zone of the pond.

* Mrigals & Common carps - Bottom feeders.

* Composite fish culture is that many of these fish breed

only during

monsoon.

Bee - Keeping:

* Local varieties of Bees → Apis cerana.

* Apis indica

* Apis dorsata

* Apis florae

* Apis mellifera

Ch-13 WHY DO WE FALL ILL?

DECEMBER

→ Health & its Failure:

Health → idea of ‘being well’

Personal and Community issues Both matter for

Health:

Social equality and harmony are therefore necessary for

individual health.

Distinctions between ‘Healthy’ and ‘Disease - free’.

‘Disease’ - Disturbed ease (or) Being Uncomfortable.

‘Healthy’ - To have the opportunity to realize the Unique

potential in all of us is necessary for real health.

Disease and its causes:

What does disease look like?

* When there is a disease, either the functioning of one or

more systems of the body will change for the worse.

* Symptoms are being ‘Wrong’, like headache, cough, loose

motions, wound with pus.

Acute and chronic Diseases:

* Some diseases last for only very short periods of time and

these are called acute diseases.

* Diseases which last for a long time are called chronic

diseases.

Causes of Diseases:

* Unhygienic water * malnutrition * Genetic difference

* Poverty

Infections & Non-Infectious Causes.

* Diseases where microbes are the immediate causes are

called Infectious diseases.

* Diseases that are not caused by infectious agents are called

non-infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases:

→ SARS

→ Leishmania Causes Kala - azar

→ Staphylococci - acne

→ Trypanosoma - Sleeping sickness.

→ Ascaris lumbricoides - In the small intestine.

Examples of viral diseases: Common Cold, influenza, dengue fever

and AIDS

Examples of Bacterial diseases: Typhoid, fever, Cholera,

tuberculosis and anthrax.

Examples of fungal diseases: Infections in Skin.

Examples of Protozoan diseases: Malaria, Kala-azar.

Examples of diseases caused by worms: Elephantiasis

Means of Spread:

Microbial agents can commonly move from an affected

person to someone else is called ‘communicable diseases’.

Eg. Common Cold, Pneumonia & tuberculosis.

Organ - Specific and Tissue - Specific Manifestations.

Eg. Malaria - causing microbes, entering through a mosquito bite,

will go to the liver and then to the red blood cells.

→ The signs & Symptoms of a disease will thus depend on

the tissue or organ which the microbe targets.

→ An active immune system recruits many cells to the

affected tissue to kill off the disease - causing microbes. This

recruitment process is called inflammation.

Principles of Treatment:

* ‘Prevention is better than cure’

* For airborne microbes, we can prevent exposure by

providing living conditions that are not over crowded.

* For water - borne microbes, we can provide safe drinking

water.

* For Vector - borne infections, we can provide clean

environments.

Immunization:

The Vaccines against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough,

measles, polio of childhood immunization for preventing infectious

disease.

Ln-14 NATURAL RESOURCES

JANUARY

The Breath of Life: Air

CO2 is fixed in 2 wasys:

i) Green plants convert carbondioxide into glucose in the

presence of sunlight and many marine animals use carbonates

dissolved in sea water to make their shells.

The movement of Air: Winds

Activity 14.2

Rain: Activity: 14.3

Air Pollution:

Presence of high levels of the pollutants cause air pollution.

Effects of air pollution:

→ Allergies, cancer and heart diseases.

Water: A wonder Liquid.

Water on Earth’s surface is found in seas and oceans and is

saline.

Water Pollution:

→ fertilisers and pesticides on farms.

→ Sewage from our towns and cities and the waste from

factories causes water pollution.

Mineral Riches in the soil:

→ Soil is an important resource that decides the diversity of

life in an area.

→ Over long periods of time, thousands and millions of

years, the rocks at or near the surface of the earth are broken down

by various physical, chemical and some biological processes.

The factors or processes that make soil are:

1) The sun 2) Water 3) Wind 4) Living organisms

Soil Erosion:

→ The large -Scale deforestation that is happening all over

the world not only destroys biodiversity, it also leads to soil erosion.

Biogeochemical cycle:

→ A constant interaction between the biotic and abiotic

components of the biosphere is called Biogeochemical cycle.

The Water – Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle:

The Carbon Cycle:

The Green House Effect:

→ An increase in the percentage of CO2 CH4 gases in the

atmosphere would cause the average temperature to increase

world-wide and this is called the green house effect.

→ Co2 is one of the green house gases.

Ozone layer:

→ Ozone - O3

→ Ozone absorbs harmful radiations from the sun.

→ CFCs reach the ozone & getting depleted.

The Oxygen – Cycle:

IX NOL CHAPTER- 7

DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISM Jun/Jul

BIO-DIVERSITY

The variety of living organisms present on the earth

is called as bio-diversity.

It was coined by Walter G Rosen in 1986.

Taxonomy: It is a branch OF biology which identifies,

names and classifies different organisms present on earth.

Father of modern Taxonomy: Carolus Linnaeus

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISM:

Aristotle classified animals on the basis of the habitats

land, water and air.

In water the organism are differ from each other.

Therefore it was decieded to classify the living organism on

the basis of hierarchy.

Hierarchial classification based on similarities and

dissimilarities in the characteristics of the living organisms

Why do we need to classify organisms

For easy study

understanding how organisms are evolve

How different organisms are related with each other

We can learn why different organism found at

distinct geographical conditions.

Basis of classification:

Characteristics: Certain features or properties used for the

classification of living organisms are called characteristics.

Characteristics used for classification:

1. Presence and absence of nucleus in the cell.

2. Body composed of single cell or group of cells.

3. Nutrition i) Autotrophs ii) Heterotrops

4. Development and organization of different body parts.

So classification closely related to their evolution

Evolution:

Over a course of time the living organisms

accumulate changes. These changes could be in their body

or size or their features. These changes help them to

survive better in the environment.

Father of Evolution: Charles Darwin

Primitive Organism

Advanced organism

Primitive Organism: The organisms that have ancient body

design have not undergone any changes with time. They

are also called as lower organisms. Eg. Porifera.

Advanced organism: The organism that have recently

acquired body changes are called higher organisms.

Ex. Humans

HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION:

S.NO CLASSIFICATION PROPOSED BY

TYPES OF ORGANISMS

1 Two Kingdom

Classification

Carolus

Linneaus in 1758

1. Plant

2. Animal

2 Five Kingdom Classification

Robert Whittaker 1969

1. Monera 2. Protista 3. Fugi 4. Plantala 5. Animalia

Carlwoese 1977

1. Monera i) Archae ii)Eubacteria 2. Protista 3. Fugi 4. Plantale 5. Animalia

Further classification is done by naming the sub-groups at

various levels in the following:

Kingdom Phylum = Division (Plants/Animals) -

Class – order – family – species.

EVERWIN VIDHYASHRAM

Std: IX Chapter 6 – Tissues AUGUST

Are plants and Animals made of same types of tissues?

Plants are stationary, and hence are provided

with some tissues made up of dead cells, which

provide mechanical strength. They have to

withstand unfavourable conditions like strong

winds, storms, floods etc.

Animals on other hand move around in search of

food, mates, shelter. They consume more energy

as compared to plants. Most of the tissues they

contain are living. Cell growth in animas is more

uniform. The structural organisation of organs

and organ systems is far more specialized and

localised in complex animals than even in very

complex plants.

Plant tissues:

Meristematic Tissue

The growth of plants occurs only in certain

specific regions. This is because the dividing

tissue also known as meristematic tissue is the

region where they are present, meristematic

tissues are classified as apical, lateral and

intercalary.

Apical meristem is present at the apical or

growing tips of stems and roots. Apical meristem

increases the length of the plant.

Lateral meristem is present in the radial portion

of the stem or root. Lateral meristem increases

the girth of the plant.

Intercalary meristem occurs at the base of the

leaves or at the internodes. Intercalary meristem

increases the length of the internode.

Permanent Tissue

Old meristematic cells lose the capacity to divide

and transform into permanent tissues. This

process of taking up a permanent shape, size,

and function is called differentiation.

These are cells which have lost their capacity to

divide but are specified to provide strength,

flexibility and elasticity to the plant. These tissues

can be further classified into simple permanent,

complex permanent and special tissues.

Simple permanent can be categorized into

parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma

based on their function.

Parenchyma- they are live cells. They are usually

loosely packed. This tissue provides support to

plants and also stores food. In some situations it

contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis

and then it is called chlorenchyma. Parenchyma

which contains large air cavities in aquatic plants

is called aerenchyma. The aerenchyma helps in

buoyancy.

Collenchyma – These are elongated living cells

with small intercellular spaces. Their cell walls

are made up of cellulose and pectin. Collenchyma

occurs in the peripheral regions of stems and

leaves to provide mechanical support and

flexibility in plants.

Sclerenchyma – These are long, dead cells with a

deposit of lignin in their cell wall. They have no

intercellular spaces. Sclerenchyma occurs around

the vascular tissues in stems, in the veins of

leaves, and in the hard covering of seeds and

nuts. They provide strength to the plant.

Epidermis aids in protection against loss of water,

mechanical injury and invasion by parasitic fungi. Since it

has a protective role to play, cells of epidermal tissue form

a continuous layer without intercellular spaces. Epidermis

of the leaf contains small pores called stomata. These are

necessary for gases exchange and transpiration.

Cork – This is the outer protective tissue which replaces

the epidermal cells in older roots and stems. Cork cells

are dead and lack intercellular spaces. Their cell walls are

thickened by suberin which makes them impermeable to

water and gas molecules.

Complex permanent tissue:

Complex permanent tissue comprises of conducting

tissues called xylem and phloem. Xylem is useful in

transport of water and soluble substances. Xylem consists

of tracheids, vessels, fibres and xylem parenchyma.

Transport of minerals and water is unidirectional in xylem.

Phloem is useful in transport of food molecules. Phloem

comprises of sieve tubes, sieve cells, companion cells,

phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma. Phloem is unlike

xylem in that materials can move in both directions in it.

Animal Tissues:

These are the tissues present only in animals. Different

types of animal tissues are epithelial tissue, connective

tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue forms a lining all over the body of the

organism. It protects the inner lying parts. It is also

secretory in function to secrete sebum and excrete

wastes along with sweat. Sometimes it is absorptive in

nature. Epithelial tissues act like a barrier to keep the

different body systems separate. These are tightly packed

and form a continuous sheet without intercellular spaces.

Squamous epithelium has flat and thin cells with no

intercellular spaces. Squamous epithelium provides is

found in the outer layer of the skin, lining the cavities of

blood vessels, lung alveoli, lining of oesophagus and the

lining of the mouth.

Stratified epithelium has epithelial cells lined up one over

another. It is found in the epidermis of the skin. It helps

to prevent wear and tear of tissue.

Columnar epithelium consists of cylindrical cells. It is

found in the lining of the stomach and intestines, and

facilitates the movement across the epithelial barrier.

Columnar epithelial tissue with cilia is known as ciliated

epithelium. These cilia push the mucus forward into the

nasal tract to clear it.

Cuboidal epithelium consists of cubical cells. It is found in

the lining of the kidney tubules, salivary glands and

thyroid glands, where it provides mechanical support.

Glandular epithelium consists of modified columnar cells,

and is found in the sweat glands and tear glands to

produce secretions.

Connective tissue :

Connective tissues are fibrous in nature. They include

blood, bone, ligament, cartilage, areolar and adipose

tissues. These help in binding other tissues together. They

also provide support to other tissues.

Blood has plasma and blood cells. The blood cells

suspended in the plasma include RBC’s, WBC’s and

platelets. Blood flows within blood vessels, and transports

gases, digested food, hormones and waste materials to

different parts of the body.

Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix composed of

calcium and phosphorus compounds. Bones anchor the

muscles and support the main organs of the body.

Two bones can be connected to each other by another type

of connective tissue called ligament. Ligaments are tough

and elastic. They provide strength and flexibility. Tendons

connect muscles to bones and are another type of

connective tissue. Tendons are tough and non-elastic, and

provide great strength and limited flexibility.

Cartilage has widely spaced cells suspended in a matrix of

proteins and sugars. It is found in the nose, ears, and the

rings of the trachea to give flexibility.

Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and

muscles, around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone

marrow. It helps in repair of tissues.

Adipose tissue contains cells filled with fat globules. It is

found below the skin and acts as an insulator.

Muscular Tissue:

Muscle tissues consists of elongated cells also called

muscle fibres. This tissue is responsible for movement.

Muscles contain special proteins called contractile

proteins which contract and relax to cause movement.

These are elastic in nature they have tensile strength.

These muscles can be voluntary or involuntary in

function. Muscular tissues are of three kinds namely

striated muscles, unstriated muscles and cardiac

muscles.

Striated muscle cells are long, cylindrical, unbranched

and multinucleate. These are voluntary muscles.

Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles are found in the

iris of the eye, in ureters and in the bronchi of the lungs.

These are also called unstriated muscles. The cells are

long with pointed ends and uninucleate.

Hear muscles or cardiac muscles are cylindrical, branched and

uninucleate.

Nervous Tissue :

Nervous tissues are found in the brain, spinal cord and

nerves. Nervous tissue is the tissue which works in

coordinating the organs of the body by generating

impulses. It is made up of special cells called as

neurons. Each neuron consists of a cell body, which

contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, called cyton, from which

long thin hair like parts arise. Usually each neuron has a

single long part, called the axon, and many short

branched parts called dendrites.

IX NOL CHAPTER- 7

DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISM Jun/Jul

BIO-DIVERSITY

The variety of living organisms present on the earth is

called as bio-diversity.

It was coined by Walter G Rosen in 1986.

Taxonomy: It is a branch OF biology which identifies, names and

classifies different organisms present on earth.

Father of modern Taxonomy: Carolus Linnaeus

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISM:

Aristotle classified animals on the basis of the habitats land,

water and air.

In water the organism are differ from each other.

Therefore it was decieded to classify the living organism on the

basis of hierarchy.

Hierarchial classification based on similarities and dissimilarities

in the characteristics of the living organisms

Why do we need to classify organisms

For easy study

understanding how organisms are evolve

How different organisms are related with each other

We can learn why different organism found at distinct

geographical conditions.

Basis of classification:

Characteristics: Certain features or properties used for the

classification of living organisms are called characteristics.

Characteristics used for classification:

1. Presence and absence of nucleus in the cell.

2. Body composed of single cell or group of cells.

3. Nutrition i) Autotrophs ii) Heterotrops

4. Development and organization of different body parts.

So classification closely related to their evolution

Evolution:

Over a course of time the living organisms accumulate

changes. These changes could be in their body or size or their

features. These changes help them to survive better in the

environment.

Father of Evolution: Charles Darwin

Primitive Organism

Advanced organism

Primitive Organism: The organisms that have ancient body design

have not undergone any changes with time. They are also called

as lower organisms. Eg. Porifera.

Advanced organism: The organism that have recently acquired

body changes are called higher organisms.

Ex. Humans

HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION:

S.NO CLASSIFICATION PROPOSED BY

TYPES OF ORGANISMS

1 Two Kingdom Classification

Carolus Linneaus in 1758

1. Plant 2. Animal

2 Five Kingdom Classification

Robert Whittaker 1969

1. Monera 2. Protista 3. Fugi 4. Plantala 5. Animalia

Carlwoese 1977

1. Monera i) Archae

ii)Eubacteria 2. Protista 3. Fugi 4. Plantale 5. Animalia

Further classification is done by naming the sub-groups at

various levels in the following:

Kingdom Phylum = Division (Plants/Animals) -

Class – order – family – species.

FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATIONS Protista

- They are unicellular and primarily aquatic. - They have eukaryotic cell organelles and nucleus. - Organism bear flagella or cilia for movements. - Mode of nutrition is absorptive, ingestive or photo

autotrophic. - Reproduction may be asexual or sexual - Eg: Algae.

Fungi - They are non-green because of the absence of

chlorophyll. - They are heterotrophic and obtain food from dead and

decaying organic matter by absorption. - The body organisation is mycelial or secondarily

unicellular. - Cell wall is chitinous and cellulosic. - Asexual Reproduction is by spore formation some also

exhibit sexual formation. - Eg: Mushroom

Monera - Do not possess a clearly defined nucleus (i.e) nucleus

not enclosed by nuclear membrane. - Cell organelles are not covered by membrane. - Organisms are unicellular microscopic prokaryotic

living in moist condition. - Cell wall may or may not be present. - Mode of nutrition is autotrophic or heterotrophic. - Reproduction by asexual binary fission or budding. - Eg: Bacteria

Plantae - Complex multicellular plants which prepare their own

food by photosynthesis - They have cell wall made of cellulose. - Plants are immobile (do not show locomotion). - They have unlimited growth throughout their lives. - They show respiration through stomata. - Eg: Neem trees. -

Animalia - Multicellular, eukaryotes with tissue differentiation. - They are heterotrophic with ingestive mode of intake of

food. - Well-developed Nervous system. - Muscular system well developed for locomotion.

- They exhibit sexual reproduction. - Eg: Sponge, molluscs, fishes, birds, reptiles, mammals.

Gymnosperms - The plants bear naked seeds. - The sporophyte carries the male and female sex organs. - Ovules are not enclosed in ovary. - Plants of this group are evergreen perennial and woody. - Xylem lacks vessel. - Phloem does not contain companion cells. Eg: Pine,

Lycus

Angiosperm: - Seeds are enclosed in fruits. - Reproductive organs are flowers, carrying male and

female sex organs. - Ovules are enclosed in ovary. - Plants of this group may be annual, perennial, woody

or non - woody. - Xylem contains vessels. - Phloem contains companion cells. - Eg: Hibiscus plant.

Bryophyta - They are called amphibians of the plant kingdom - Plant body differentiated to form stem, leaf like

structures. - No specific tissue for conduction of water and other

substances. - Vegetative reproduction is common. - Sexual reproduction is oogamous type.

(Small male gamete and motile, female is non - motile and large) Eg: Funaria, Marchantia. Porifera

- They are primitive animals. - They are multicellular organisms with specialised cells. - They are marine (sea) some are fresh and river. - They have pores all over the body. - Reproduction is both sexual and asexual methods. - Sensory system is absent. - Mouth and anus are absent. - Canal system for circulation is present. - Eg: Sycon, Spongilla.

Coelenterates

- Diploblastic animals. - Body is radially symmetrical. - Body has tentacles with stinging cells called

Cnidoblasts. - There is a cavity in the body. - Body has two layers of cells. - Gonads with gonoducts are present - Reproduction by Asexual in polyp form and medusae

in sexual form. - They show polymorphism - Eg: Hydra, Jelly fish.

Platyhelminthes - Bilateral body symmetry. - Body dorsoventrally flattened like a ribbon. So they are

called flatworms. - They are Parasitic. - They are free living - Mostly Hermaphrodites. - They are Triploblastic. - Body do not have any pore or cavity. - They have power of Regeneration. - Eg: Liver fluke, Taenia solium

Nematoda (Aschelminthes) - They are small, cylindrical or round in shape. So they

are called as round worms. - Size varies from microscopic to few centimetres in

length. - Heterotrophic animals. - Triploblastic. - Body cavity have true coelom. - Respiratory and circulatory system absent. - Have a complete alimentary canal. - Sexes are separate.

Annelida

- Body Bilaterally symmetrical. - Triploblastic. - Metameric segmentation is present. - Closed circulatory system. - Nephridia for excretion. - Osmoregulation are present. - Found in fresh, marine water and on land. - Eg: Earthworm, Sand worm, Sea Mouse

Arthropoda

- They are bilaterally symmetrical and segmented. - Body covered with chitinous exoskeleton. - Joined legs are present. - Body cavity is blood filled and is called haemocoel. - Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen. - Circulatory system open. - Eg: Cockroach, Butterfly.

Mollusca

- Bilateral symmetry. - Soft body so called soft bodied animals. - Body is segmented (head, foot and visceral mars). - Glandular foot and Mantle present. - Calcareous shell around the body. - Open circulatory system. - Kidney like organs for excretion. - Eg: Pila, Sepia, Octopus

Echinodermata

- Marine and free living. - Triploblastic. - Have Coelomic cavity. - Body covered with calcareous spines so called as spiny

- skinned animals. - They have water driven tube system connected with all

tube feet for locomotion. - Sexes are separate. - Eg: Starfish, Sea urchin.

Protochordata

- Possess Notochord which separates nervous and alimentary canal.

- Live in sea water. - Show Bilateral symmetry. - They are Triploblastic. - Have coelom. - Eg: Amphioxus.

Vertebrates

- Have solid notochord. - Bilateral symmetry.

- True vertebral column. - Dorsal hollow nerve cord. - Triploblastic. - Respire through lungs and aquatic forms through gills. - They are coelomate. - Eg: Humans.

Non-Chordates

- Vertebral column absent. - Central nervous system is solid and ventral. - Heart is present dorsally.

- Haemoglobin seen. - Anus is posterior. - Eg: Protozoa, Arthropoda, Annelida.

Chordates

- Vertebral column is present. - Hollow and dorsal. - Heart is ventral. - Haemoglobin present in RBC. - Post anal tail is present. - Eg: Pisces, Aves, Reptilia, Mammals.

Amphibian:

- Live both on land and water. - Body not covered with scales. - Eggs do not have any tough covering. - Body divided into head and trunk. - They lay eggs in water and fertilisation takes place in

water. - Eg: Frog.

Reptiles:

- They live either on land or water. - They have scales on their bodies. - The eggs have a hard covering. - Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and tail. - Water is not necessary for fertilisation.

Aves:

- Their body is covered with feathers. - They have beaks. - Anterior limbs transform into wings

- They lay eggs. - Pinna absent. - No mammary glands to feed their young ones. - Diaphragm is absent. - Eg: Birds.

Mammalia: - Body covered with hair. - They don’t have beaks. - They don’t have wings. - Most of them give birth to young ones. - Pinna present.

- They have mammary glands to produce milk. - Diaphragm is present. - Eg: Bats, Humans.

Pteridophyta

- Plant body is divided into root, stem and leaves. - Fertilized egg form embryo. - They are also called vascular cryptogams as they have a

developed vascular system. - They have multicellular reproductive system. - Eg. Marsilea, Ferns.