evangelizing the evangelized? lessons from the entry of protestant missions into ethiopia and ...

7/25/2019 Evangelizing the Evangelized? Lessons from the entry of Protestant missions into Ethiopia and their relationship to

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WILLIAM CAREY INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Evangelizing the evangelized?

lessons fo! the ent" of #otestant !issions into Ethio$ia and

thei elationshi$ to the Ethio$ian Othodo% Ch&'h

Dan PoenaruMentor: Stephen D. Morad

Course 12 Research PaperJune 30, 2015


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The Great Commsson, !hether n ts con"entona# Mathe! 2$:1% artcu#aton1or n

Geness 12:32, encoura&es the Church to ta'e the Gospe# across the !or#d, to a## natons (ethnes).

The &eo&raphca# destnatons, !h#e not c#ear#* dent+ed n Scrptures, are nterpreted * most

to e -the heathen3/ those p#aces !here peop#e !ho ha"e not heard the Gospe# resde. "er the

centures, these -heathen !ere dent+ed as nhatn& prmar#* the e! or#d and +rca.4ndeed the* !ere there, */and/#ar&e !th a +e! e6ceptons7 such as 8topa, a#so re+erred to

as *ssna9. hat does a &ood mssonar* do !hen he (or she) arr"es n a remote +rcan

countr*, on#* to +nd a Chrstaned naton there; Does he start hs o!n church or denomnaton,

not reco&nn& the "a#dt* o+ the e6stn& church; r does he tr* to !or' a#on&sde the

Chrstans he meets, u#dn& the e6stn& church; 4+ the +ormer, !hat t*pe o+ re#atonshps

shou#d he ha"e !th the natona# church; 4+ the #atter, ho!;

These are the cha##en&es presented * the e6amp#e at hand, the ad"ent o+ the Protestant

mssonares entr*n& 8thopa, prmar#* durn& the 1% thand 20thcentures. 4t s the thess o+ ths

paper that ths un


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re#atonshp !th the hstorca# host church. Ths !## #ead to a re+ ana#*ss o+ the connectons

and tensons et!een the o#d and ne! churches, !th app#catons e6tended to contemporar*

msson mo"ements.

(ief histo" of Chistianit" in Ethio$ia

ccordn& to tradton, Chrstant* !as +rst ntroduced nto *sna * t!o S*ran o*s,

8dsus and >rumentus. ccdenta##* shp!rec'ed on ther "o*a&e to 4nda, the* !ere rou&ht to

the court o+ 8mperor 8##a mda, !here throu&h pet*, re#a#t* and !sdom the* &aned

poston and trust, ena#n& >rumentus to encoura&e the e6stn& Chrstan merchants n the

'n&dom to esta#sh churches (Sha! 1%%?, 5@). hen re#eased +rom the court * *oun& An&

8ana, >rumentus "sted patrarch thanasus o+ #e6andra as'n& +or he#p n e"an&e#n& the

countr* at !hch the patrarch prompt#* consecrated >rumentus as shop and sent hm ac'B

Thus n 350 >rumentus returned, and soon a+ter!ards !e ha"e e"dence o+ An& 8anas radca#

con"erson to Chrstant*, to&ether !th hs entoura&e (Sha! 1%%?, 5@ Marcus 1%%9, @). Thus

8thopa ecame one o+ the +rst Chrstan natons, =ust decades a+ter Constantnes con"erson n

Rome. Theo#o&ca##* the church +o##o!ed the renta# monoph*ste rte5, re=ectn& ear#* on

8mperor Constantus 44s attempt to s!a* t to ransm and the #ater Counc# o+ Cha#cedons

(951) dua# (diophysite) nature o+ Chrst?(Grma 2011, 151). The church &re! o"er the centures,

4 0he 5riental hurches include the optic 5rthodo6 hurch of

!le6andria, the 3thiopian 5rthodo6 Tewahedo hurch )350, the 3ritrean

5rthodo6 hurch, the Syrian 5rthodo6 hurch of !ntioch and !ll the 3ast, the

!rmenian !postolic hurch, and the $alankara 5rthodo6 Syrian hurch of

India

7 0hus monophysites a8rm that hrist has only one nature at a time

0his is in contrast to the ouncil of halcedon "hich de9ned hrist :as

perfect God and man, consubstantial "ith the Father and consubstantial "ith

$an, one soul being in t"o natures, "ithout division or separation and

"ithout confusion or change# )0he halcedonian ;e9nition on

earlychurchte6tscom 0he 5riental 5rthodo6 churches have identi9ed

themselves more "ith the miaphysiteposition )Girma %


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partcu#ar#* throu&h the stron& n+#uence o+ the -nne sants@n the 5thcentur*, and the #ater

ro*a# protecton * the 8thopan monarch* !hch sa! tse#+ as descendants o+ the Da"dc #ne

(Grma 2011, 19@)$. En+ortunate#*, the +re


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h#e the ear#* Protestant mssonares ma* ha"e ndeed encountered a !ea' church n

dec#ne, * the 20thcentur* some !nds o+ chan&e dd appear. 4n the !a'e o+ the natona#st

mo"ement ntated * the 8mperor Ia#e Se#asse11a+ter endn& the 4ta#an occupaton, ntense

dscussons started et!een 8&*ptan and 8thopan c#ercs, u#tmate#* #eadn& to the

-repatraton o+ the abunashp12

n 1%5% (Sund'#er and Steed 2000, ?%5). Some modernatone++orts at the tme nc#uded a ne! trans#aton o+ the F#e nto mharc and the +oundaton o+ the

Ia#e Se#asse En"erst* o+ dds aa, ncorporatn& the thodo6 Semnar* (Sund'#er and

Steed 2000, ?%5). Despte ts sometmes esoterc rtua#s and ancent practces, the churchs

"ta#t* !as seen n ntense, pro#on&ed !orshp, mass p#&rma&es to stes #'e 'sum and

a#e#a13,and numerous accounts o+ supernatura# hea#n&s19. The 8thopan Church o+ the md/

20thcentur*, and thus the church !hch the man protestant mssonar* !a"es encountered, !as a

#ar&e ut "er* conser"at"e nsttuton numern& ?1,000 prests, 12,000 mon's, 5@,000 deacons,

31,000 debteras(chor #eaders) and $2@ monasteres (1%@0 data, Sund'#er and Steed 2000, %2$).

Non)Othodo% !issions to Ethio$ia

The ear#est recorded mssonares to 8thopa !ere proa#* the Portu&uese Jesuts, !ho

came n the 15thcentur* and #asted unt# unt# 1?2? (Sha! 1%%?, 112). Ther +a#ed attempt to

11 Haile Selassie# means o"er of the 0rinity# another e6ample of

the depth of penetration of the 5rthodo6 faith in the culture and life of the

3thiopian people 0he emperororEs other titles "ere onuering Jion of

Budah, 3lect of God, ;escendent of the Aueen of Sheba and Cing Solomon#

1% Since the beginning of the 350, its leadership had remained for

1,4


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catho#ce 8thopa15s proa#* one o+ the hstorca# causes +or 8TCs pre"a#n& suspcon o+

+ore&n mssons nto the present da* (Grma 2011, 1?3 De!e# 2013, 3). The ne6t emsar* +rom

Rome, aarst Justn de Jacos, !as nta##* !e## rece"ed ecause o+ hs hum#t*,

ser"anthood, and deep dent+caton !th 8thopas +ath tradton, at a tme !hen the 8TC had

no abun. et hs churchs +ate !as e"entua##* one o+ se"ere persecuton and destructon at thehands o+AbunSa#ama (Sha! 1%%?, 1$1).

The +rst Protestant to enter 8thopa1?!as Peter Ie*#n& (1?0@/1?52), a ph*scan and

#a!*er !hose desre !as to -re=u"enate the ancent churches o+ the rent and n+use them !th

Kne! e"an&e#ca# #+e (rLn 1%@$, 35). Ie attempted to acomp#sh ths throu&h F#e

trans#aton and teachn&, ut hs un


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&ro!n& numer o+ e"an&e#ca#s !thn the rthodo6 Church, !ho n tme +ound themse#"es n

con+#ct !th the conser"at"e c#er&* and e"entua##* started n a ne! denomnaton the

8thopan 8"an&e#ca# Church Me'ane esus (Place of Jesus)(88CM)1@(Sund'#er and Steed

2000, ?%@).

The s&n+cant +ore&n msson n+#u6 o+ the 20th

centur* !as hera#ded * Dr. Thomasame o+ the Pres*teran Msson n 1%1%, !hose *ssnan >ronters Msson #ater =oned

S4M and sent ts +rst mssonares to 8thopa n 1%2@ (Cottere## 1%@3, 11). +ter months o+

see'n& appro"a#s +rom &o"ernment and church o++ca#s +or ther !or', the* e"entua##* mo"ed

to the south to!ards the mus#m areas, ut #ost ther !a* and sett#ed n the o#ata re&on, !here

the* started ther mnstr* (otan&o 200@, 1% Cottere## 1%@3, 22/25). En#'e ther predecessors,

S4M mssonares came +rom a stron& petst ac'&round !hch made a co##son !th the 8TC

una"oda#e (Grma 2011, 212/213). Ther stated &oa# +rom the onset !as church p#antn&, and

ths resu#ted, o"er se"era# decades, n the Aa#e Ie*!et (Word of Life) Church, one o+ the man

protestant denomnatons n contemporar* 8thopa.Protestant msson !or' !as +ac#tated * a 1%99 8thopan &o"ernment decree a##o!n&

+ore&n Chrstan mssons to e esta#shed n the predomnent#* non/Chrstan -open areas

(Steed 2000, ?%?), +o##o!ed * the 1%55 consttuton ma'n& the +rst pro"son +or +reedom o+

re#&on (Iausten 200%, 11$). Ths concded nce#* !th the +orced !thdra!a# and need +or re/

dep#o*ment o+ the Scandna"an mssonares +rom Maos Chna n 1%9% thus soon the -"od

o+ the -open areas !as +##ed !th Protestant mssonares, partcu#ar#* amon& the romo. Thus

Ia#e Se#asses po#c* o+ -open and -c#osed areas &a"e un+ortunate#* rse, n Grmas !ords,

-to a re/de+nton o+ 8thopan Chrstant* a#on& ethnc #nes1$(Grma 2011, 1%%).

Pentecosta#sm entered re#at"e#* #ater n 8thopa, throu&h >nnsh (1%51) and S!edsh

(1%5%) Pentecosta# mssonares. Fut un#'e other Protestant denomnatons, much o+ the

pentecosta# mo"ement arose nd&enous#*1%, n the asence o+ +ore&n mssonares, and t*pca##*

amon& students and the uran e#te rather than n rura# areas (Tee 200%, 19$/19%). 8"entua##*

1= In the "ords of Girma, the 33$ "as the result of failed

missionary policy to reform the 350, not of any intention by the Jutheran

missions to launch a native independent evangelical church# )Girma %


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the mo"ements cr*sta##ed nto se"era# ne! churches, prmar#* the >u## Gospe# Fe#e"ers

ssocaton (Mulu Wongelchurch, 1%?$) (Tete 200%, 1@0/1@2).

h#e most 8thopan Protestansm !as read#* seen as a -+ore&n ntruson, an a#ternat"e

"e! emer&ed, seen& t rather as a antns "e!, -ponts to an 8thopan cu#tura# practce o+ dentt*

demarcaton (Iausten and >antn 2013, 15@).

Relationshi$ *et+een the Othodo% and the #otestant Ch&'h

Io! shou#d the ne! mssonares address the e6stence o+ a hstorca# church n ther

chosen -heathen #and; The t!o churches, the rthodo6 and the Protestant, d++ered &reat#* n

ther theo#o&* and practce. Ae* d"s"e ponts !ere the "eneraton o+ Mar*20and the meann&

o+ the 8ucharst, ut other contentous ssues nc#uded aptsm21, methods o+ e"an&e#sm and the

use o+ mharc rather than Geezn !orshp22(>ar&her 1%%?, ?$/@9).

1( 0his includes the so/called Harar, *azareth, and Haile Sellassie I

Pniversity streams# )0ibebe %


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4n a +e! nstances, especa##* n the ear#* *ears, the ans!er !as an attempt at co##aoraton

and partnershp. 4n the !ords o+ Thomas Cochrane, -the cha##en&e o+ *ssna s a dou#e one:

to &"e the Chrstan messa&e to the non/Chrstan *ssnans, and to re""e the *ssnan

church (>ar&her 1%%?, @9). Some e"an&e#ca# #eaders !ere actua# e6/rthodo6 prests, and the*

o+ten #oo'ed +or a re""ed rthodo6 mode# n the ne! churches23

(Sund'#er and Steed 2000,?%@). The CMS mssonares accepted the 8TC as a true church and amed -to !or' !thn t to

pur+* t o+ corruptons o+ doctrne and practce (Sha! 1%%?, 1@%). centur* #ater, the ncan

F#e Churchmens Mssonar* Socet* !as commtted to !or' !th and +or the rthodo6

%1 In a vivid parallel, rotestants "ere not only called $ary haters#

but also matabbreakers#, refering to the baptismal cord "hich every

5rthodo6 hristian "ore 0he accusation carried nationalistic overtones, as

breaking the cord broke the national unity )Fargher 1((7, =


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Church29,and so !as the S!edsh 8"an&e#ca# Msson (Fosterlandstiftelsen) at ed=o25

(Sund'#er and Steed 2000, ?%@). 4ndeed pror to 1%2@ t appears that most msson socetes had a

stated po#c* o+ not esta#shn& ne! (non/rthodo6) churches (>ar&her 1%%?, 6). s +or S4M, t

s !orth notn& that a#thou&h the* decded +rom the onset to p#ant ther o!n churches, ther nta#

&oa# !as to &o -to the south 7 +ndn& out !here the densest areas o+ popu#aton are, !hereMohammedan (sic) ad"ance s most threatenn&, !here s#a"e radn& s most pre"a#ent and !here

the peop#e #"e !ho are most recept"e to the &ospe# messa&e (Cottere## 1%@3, 1$)2?.

Mostpentemssonares ho!e"er ha"e had a !de#* d"er&ent "e! concernn& the 8TC,

&enera##* -enta#n& host#e =ud&ments aout the sprtua# condton o+ o+ the countr* (Crumme*

1%@2, 5). Ths !as comned !th the smp#stc "e! that contemporar* -8TC e"an&e#sts dd

not preach the &ospe# as t ou&ht to e (otan&o 200@, 21) thus e"an&e#n& rthodo6

Chrstans ecame +u##* =ust+ed.

The response o+ the 8TC to the Protestant mssonares !as, predcta#*, o"er!he#mn*

ne&at"e. Ths atttude !as #'e#* ased on #on&/he#d suspcons o+ dsrupt"e +ore&n e#ements n8thopa, partcu#ar#* the memor* o+ the +a#ed attempt o+ Portu&uese Catho#cs to -con"ert ther

countr* n the 1@thcentur* (vide supra). Te##n*, De!e## descres the n&raned ma&e o+ a

-Chrstan acs o+ the 8thopan Chrstan h&h#ands surrounded * an ocean o+ une#e+ and

threat (Gascon 200?). ot surprsn* there+ore, !hen S4M mssonares !ere as'ed to present

ther +ath statement n +ront o+ the 8TC, the* !ere +ound unsats+actor* and re


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CMS mssonares attempt to !or' !th the 8TC !ere e"entua##* turned do!n, conc#udn&

that Protestansm !as -a re#&ous re"o#uton more radca# and more o++ens"e than the 8TC

cou#d accept (Iastn&s 1%%9, 225). Io! un+ortunate ndeed, that a m##ena# church n &reat need

o+ rene!a# pre+ered to entrench tse#+ e"en deeper nto ts conser"at"e poston rather than use

the opportunt* to rn& tse#+ n #ne !th the contemporar* !or#d2@

7Moreo"er, t s mportant to reco&ne that, despte some nta# theo#o&ca# ar&her 1%%?, @5).

En+ortunate#* the poston o+ the 8TC !as not #mted to re+usa# to cooperate drect

opposton to the Protestant !or' !as encountered +rom the onset. Thus the S4M mssonares

+ound themse#"es persstent#* -ordered out o+ ther "arous stes (Cottere## 1%@3, 2$/3?). The

opposton to them he&htened !hen the* mo"ed +orm the south to the north, the stron&ho#d o+

the 8TC (Cottere## 1%@3, @$). "er the ensun& decades, persecuton too' the +orm o+emprsonment, e"ctons, house urnn&s, eatn&s, and e"en murders (Cottere## 1%@3, 19@/159

Grma 2011, 21?). 4t came o+ten +rom the 8TC, ut a#so +rom the sem/pa&an ru#ers n the

south, and +rom the 4ta#an occupants n the 1%30s/90s. ot surprsn*, ths persecuton on#*

stren&thened the e"an&e#ca# church.

Despte these "s#e s&ns o+ tenson, durn& the ear#* *ears o+ 1%2@/1%99 there !ere

re#at"e* +e! open con+#cts et!een the t!o churches. >ar&her apt#* summares ther poston

"s//"s each other: -4n man* areas the theo#o&ca# dstance et!een them !as so &reat that that

peace+u# co/e6stence depended on them sta*n& +ar a!a* +orm one another. Perhaps the* smp#*

&nored each other (>ar&her 1%%?, @9).

Pltimately, the legitimacy of rotestanism in 3thiopia hangs on the

ans"er to the uestion, in GirmaEs "ords, of "hether its birth "as a

paradigm shift, even a clash of paradigms, or a proselytism that "ent "rong

by evangelizing the evangelized# )Girma %


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super9cial, token conversions to hristianity outside the 5rthodo6 core# and

the emergence of authentic, non/e6patriate led 3thiopian charismatic

evangelicalism lead us to support the former

A$$li'ations fo 'onte!$oa" !issions

hat are the #essons !hch !e can ean +rom the +ascnatn& hstorca# and msso#o&ca#

e"ents descred so +ar n ths essa*; Epon care+u# n"est&aton, t appears that the t!o &reat

church tradtons, the rthodo6 and the Protestant, come n contact !th each other on the

8thopan so#, mo"ed +or a #tt#e !h#e to&etehr, then, #'e ce#esta# odes pursun& ther pre/set

orts, dstanced themse#"es permanent#* +rom one another. Ths summat"e oser"aton e&st!o


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do&matca##* unased n ther attempt to re=u"enate the 8TC (Grma 2011, 23?). r dd the*

ntentona##* u#d ther o!n churches, !here the* cou#d -contro# the ne! con"erts and

dscp#es, and then report ac' sats+actor#* to ther consttuences the -pro&ress o+ the

Gospe#32;

>aced !th these rea#tes ntrnsc to the hstorca# encounter et!een the t!o churches,there are some !orth!h#e #essons +or toda*s Chrstan de"e#opment !or'ers. The stor* o+ the

8TC !arns us aout the serous dan&ers o+ the church en& ntmate#* ted n !th an* one

&o"ernment, naton, #an&ua&e, or peop#e &roup. The Protestant mssonares to 8thopa remnd

us that rene!a# n the e6stent church s =ust as mportant as startn& ne! churches, and that !e

must perse"ere n ache"n& -the ond o+ peace (8ph. 9:3) amon& memers o+ the Fod* o+

Chrst.

To the second


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Pentecosta#sm n+#tratn& all8thopan churches35,nc#udn& the 8TC, s sure#* pro"dn& a

ne! common denomnator. ## ths #eads Grma to oser"e a -msso#o&ca# un+o#dn&, !th

-oth sdes mo"n&, at #east suconscous#*, to!ards the centre and to!ards an ecumenca#

co##aoraton (Grma 2011, 299)3?.

>or 8thopa as +or oa# mssons and de"e#opment !or', the ans!er ma* #e ndsco"ern& (or rather uncovering) a common msson, su++cent#* s&n+cant to o"ercome the

dstractn& +orces o+ natona#sm, conser"atsm, nd"dua#sm, and other such -sms. Ths #eads

us to Foschs #ternat"e Communt* (the -n/et!een peop#e) as e#o


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opportuntes +or the 8thopan as +or the oa# Church. >or Grmas c#aron ca## to the 8thopan

church resonates tru#* oa##*:

0he ongoing, urgent needs of 3thiopian hristianity involve a

rene"ed understanding of mission and evangelism, conte6tualization

that transcends cultural and ethnic "alls, and reconciliation that leads to

"orking together for Mustice and for the liberation of the poor# )Girma

%ects hristEs call to us all'

Q I pray also for those "ho "ill believe in me through their

message, that all of them may be one, Father, Must as you are in me and

I am in you $ay they also be in us so that the "orld may believe that

you have sent me I have given them the glory that you gave me, that

they may be one as "e are oneTI in them and you in meTso that they

may be brought to complete unity 0hen the "orld "ill kno" that you

sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me )Bn 1='%


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(i*lioga$h"

rLn, Gusta". 1%@$.#vangelical pioneers in #thiopia$ origins of the #vangelical %hurch

Me&ane 'esus( Stoc'ho#m: 8>S/+r#. dds aa: The 8"an&e#ca# Church Me'ane esus,

1%@$. uoted n Grma, Fe'e#e. 2011. )he in*beteen people$ a reading of David +osc through

the lend of !ission history and conte!porary challenges in #thiopia. 8u&ene, R: p+ U

Stoc', Pt!c' Pu#catons.

Fa''e, Johnn*. 1%$@. %hristian Ministry$ Patterns and Functions Within the #thiopian

#vangelical %hurch Me&ane 'esus(t#antc I&h#ands, J: Iumantes Press 4nternatona#.

uoted n Grma, Fe'e#e. 2011. )he in*beteen people$ a reading of David +osc through the

lend of !ission history and conte!porary challenges in #thiopia. 8u&ene, R: p+ U Stoc',

Pt!c' Pu#catons.

Cottere##, >. Peter. 1%@3.+orn at !idnight(Chca&o: Mood* Press.

Crumme*, Dona#d. 1%@2.Priests and Politicians$ Protestant and %atholic Missions in

,rthodo- #thiopia. /0"1*/020(6+ord: C#arendon Press. uoted n Grma, Fe'e#e. 2011. )he

in*beteen people$ a reading of David +osc through the lend of !ission history and

conte!porary challenges in #thiopia. 8u&ene, R: p+ U Stoc', Pt!c' Pu#catons.

De!e#, Ser&e/P. 2019. )he charis!atic !ove!ent in #thiopia$ historical and social

bac&grund for an identity proble!atic(n#ne pu#caton.

https:!!!.academa.edu9%@90?3TheVCharsmatcVMo"ementVo+V8thopa.VIstorca#VandV

Soca#VFac'&roundV+orVanV4dentt*VPro#ematc.(accessed June 1?, 2015).

8ar#* Church Te6ts. )he %halcedonian Definition.

http:!!!.ear#*churchte6ts.commancha#cedoncha#cedonanVde+nton.shtm#. (accessed June1?, 2015).

>ar&her, Fran . 1%%?. )he origins of the 3e %hurches Move!ent in 4outhern #thiopia.

/567*/588( eden, The ether#ands: 8.J.Fr##.

Gascon, #an. 200?. 4ur les hautes terres co!!e au ciel( 9dentit:s et territoires en

#thiopie( Pars: 8dtons de #a Soronne. De!e#, Ser&e/P. 2019. )he charis!atic !ove!ent in

#thiopia$ historical and social bac&grund for an identity proble!atic(n#ne pu#caton.

https:!!!.academa.edu9%@90?3TheVCharsmatcVMo"ementVo+V8thopa.VIstorca#VandV

Soca#VFac'&roundV+orVanV4dentt*VPro#ematc.(accessed June 1?, 2015).

Getache! Ia#e. 200?. )he Geez Acts of Abba #stifanos of Gendagende. ou"an:Peeters. Grma, Fe'e#e. 2011. )he in*beteen people$ a reading of David +osc through the lend

of !ission history and conte!porary challenges in #thiopia. 8u&ene, R: p+ U Stoc', Pt!c'

Pu#catons.

Ghe# R, Geahe&n , and J. . "an u'. 1%?$. >ath Iea#n& and Sprt Possesson n

Ghon, 8thopa. Soc Sc Med. 2(1):?3/@%. uoted n Sund'#er, Fen&t and Chrstopher Steed.

2000.A history of the church in Africa( Camrd&e: Camrd&e En"erst* Press.
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uoted n Sha!, Mar'. 1%%?. )he antn, 8manue#e. 2013. Guest #ditorial$ )he #thiopian Pentecostal

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aunhardt, Johannes. 2009.#vangelicals in Addis Ababa /5/5 @ /55/B$ ith special

reference to the #thiopian #vangelical %hurch Me&ane 'esus and the Addis Ababa 4ynod(

Mnster: t. uoted n Grma Fe'e#e. 2011. )he in*beteen people$ a reading of David +oscthrough the lend of !ission history and conte!porary challenges in #thiopia. 8u&ene, R: p+

U Stoc', Pt!c' Pu#catons.

Marcus, Iaro#d G. 1%%9.A history of #thiopia(Fer'e#e*, C: En"erst* o+ Ca#+orma

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Sha!, Mar'. 1%%?. )he

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