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European Cinema 1. How useful is the concept of the auteur in the context of the post-war European cinema? In answering the question, you should make detailed reference to the work of one of the directors that we have studied over the course of the module. In answering “How useful is the concept of the auteur in the context of the post-war European cinema?.. .” , I am going to be discussing acclaimed filmmaker Krzysztof Kieslowski with detailed reference to some of his infamous works. I will be considering Kieslowski in relation to Polish National Cinema, as well as an overview of European cinema as a whole and its recent shift into pan-European cinema.

I am also going to analyse the overall concept of the auteur and its coinage in relation to the post-war period in Europe and in Hollywood. The term auteur essentially relates to the idea of,

..greater emphasis on the imagination and vision of the film-maker who is not an anonymous figure in the background, a mere technician in the pay of the studio, but a kind of author…who’s creativity informs the films he or she produces… . (McNeil,1999:1)

The term was coined during the 1920s in relation to the ‘French Film d’Art’ and the continuous High Art Vs Low Art debates, which to an extent concluded film theory to be highly accepted. The ‘Auteur theory’ eventually became widespread during the 1950s/1960s via critics such as Alexandre Astruc, who discussed it in the Journal ‘L’Ecran François’ in 1948, defining this modern European Art Cinema to be, “…(the work of the) hands of a creative director… the camera became its pen”. After Astruc, and the emergence of the ‘Cahiers Du Cinema’ in 1951, critics François Truffaut and Andre Bazin habituated the theory when they rejected the popular French ‘Cinema of Quality’(Hayward,2000:19-27). The ‘Cinema of Quality’ can be described as essentially classic French ‘Heritage’ Cinema, derived from classic literary adaptations and studio based works; structured and idealistically portraying ‘Frenchness’. For example Jean de Florette (1986), The ‘Cahiers du Cinema’ effectively changed the face of not only film theory but also European film. It encouraged a variety of international movements such as the French Nouvelle Vague, the Hollywood Renaissance, the ‘Third Reich’ / ‘Young German Cinema’ and ‘The Cinema of Moral Concern’/ ‘The Cinema of Distrust’ to arise. It can be considered, in relation to Truffaut, that after WW2, when American films began to be exhibited again in French and European Cinemas, they were deemed as ‘refreshing’ (Hayward,2000:19-27). The American filmmakers of this era

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have been considered to be the ‘Hollywood Brats’ of the Hollywood Renaissance (1970s). Educated and knowledgeable of the European ‘Art’ cinema and managing to convey their own ‘personal style’ through the confinement of the Hollywood studio system. For example, Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock (King, 2002: 85-115). Their artistic expression in relation to style was something that Truffaut praised and he believed that European directors should aspire to be more ‘Artistic Visionaries’ than simply ‘Metteurs en scene’. It is conceivable that post-war European cinema basically became what can be regarded as ‘Art’ cinema, to a western audience. It is sometimes considered that what is regarded as ‘Art’ in the west isn’t also regarded as ‘Art’ in Europe. For example A bout de soufflé (Godard,1960). Even though it broke the classical conventions of French cinema (The French Nouvelle Vague), it was a huge commercial hit in France and therefore was considered to be ‘Art’ outside of France because it broke the conventions but not in France. The post-war directors of Europe were ‘now’ aiming for artistic expression through their own reoccurring thematic concerns and recognizable styles, influenced by the great American auteurs of Hollywood. They began to develop the initiative to be free and film what they wanted, when they wanted and why they wanted. It can be considered that a major influence on this ‘ideology’ is the concept of ‘French Existentialism’, coined by Jean-Paul Sartre. Existentialism stressed the individual, the

experience of free choice, the absence of any rational understanding of the universe and a sense of the absurdity in human life. (Nottingham, 1998:1)

At a time of economic, industrial and personal ‘renovation’, the auteur can be considered to embody to ideology of ‘social freedom’ after the war and also in some ways an ideology related to ‘anarchy of the people’. However, this is perhaps a very British take on the period. This ‘social freedom’ is exampled in the shift away from the classical Hollywood influenced ‘Cinema of Quality’ to something more ‘fluid’. In consideration of Krzysztof Kieslowski and his native Polish national Cinema, the ‘Auteur theory’ erupted in a period of economic and industrial flux in Poland. It is considered by Gerald Pratley that “If we were to judge only by their films, the poles would seem the most depressed people on the earth” (Haltof, 2002: 146-176). In this fluctuating Post-war period, a ‘Young Culture’ of filmmakers was developed in response to a collection of essays written by two Polish poets Julian Kurnhauser and Adam Zagajewski called The Unrepresented World (1974). These essays essentially became the “Manifesto and the theoretical formula for the generation…” (Ibid). The ‘Young Culture’ were inspired by these essays to display ‘life as it is’(Haltof, 2002:146-176), in contrast to the idealised world that was considered to be predominately displayed in film before this point. In response to this ‘The Cinema of Moral Concern/ ‘Cinema of Distrust’ evolved, which consequently “explored the corrupt side of communism in the late 1970s… (with regards to)… contemporary themes… realism… (and)… social initiation of a young protagonist” (Haltof, 2002: 146-176).

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What is and what should be; the disparity between the dreamed picture of the society, between the idealized picture of human personality and the actual state of things full of conflicts and animosity in relations between people… Due to the fact that what exists remains unrecognised, the very existence of reality is incomplete and lame, because

to exist means to be described in culture. (Haltof, 2002:146-176)

The films made in Poland in this period were essentially centred around the conflict between the State and the Individual. Feliks Falk’s Top Dog (1976) and Krzysztof Kieslowski’s Camera Buff’(1979), have been described as two of the films that almost perfectly implicate this movement. In terms of ‘usefulness’, the concept of the auteur in post-war European cinema has so far been discussed to be very useful, helping to construct the newfound freedom of the people through artistic individuality and innovation and with influence from conventions concerning the ideology of ‘French Existentialism’. As an auteur, Kieslowski has been described as virtually embodying a ‘Cinema-Verite style’ (Haltof, 2004:29-34). He too was under the influence of the ‘Cinema of Distrust’ and the conventions of ‘French Existentialism’. His films were centred around crude realities and idealistic concepts, hoping to convey ‘life as it is’(Haltof, 2002:146-176). He focuses on “seemingly meaningless gestures, daily routine(s) and the vulnerability of his protagonists” (Ibid). With close reference to Kieslowski’s Dekalog (1989) series and the Three Colours (1993-1994) trilogy, his auteristic style is unmistakable. Centred around displaced political tensions, it was a “…documentary-like, unobtrusive observation…of…(a) portrayed group of people…”(Haltof, 2004:29-34). Kieslowski utilises:

…an improvisation on the set, an episodic plot, a reliance on a number of non-professional

actors…a hand-held camera, the focus on peoples faces and everyday behaviours and finally a thinly veiled political and social criticism. (Ibid)

Kieslowski’s A Short film about Love (1988) has an extremely voyeuristic ambiance, as if the audience are being let into the world of the characters, observing their ‘normal’ lives. This sensation is also true of the final film in the Three Colours trilogy, Three Colours Red (1994).The audience also seem to voyeuristically follow the main protagonist, Valentine, in her ‘normal’ life. The camera pans with her movements and tracks her walking and driving down the street in a drawn-out, laborious manner. Close-up are also articulated so that the audience can gather a clear understanding of her emotions with regards to certain situations, therefore generating intense understanding of her as a character. Three Colours Red also carries underlying political involvement regarding distrust of the government and possible reference to the ‘war-time’ communist

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regime, with regards to the pubic having no perceived privacy. This could have course have been influenced by the imposition of Martial Law in 1981 by General Wojciech Jaruzelsk. This imposition came at a time of supposed freedom, generated via workers protests in 1980, which introduced the ‘period of Solidarity’ (Haltof, 2002:146-176). Distrust of the government (State) perhaps derived from this ‘period of Solidarity being taken away from the people of Poland.

Valentine, the main protagonist, discovers that the lawyer is listening into his neighbours’ phone conversations and is essentially a ‘corrupt human’ (this could also be a manifestation of his untrustworthy political background as a Lawyer). Valentine is deployed to be extremely vulnerable, righteous and moral. She saves the lawyers dog when she runs it over by accident and she doesn’t like listening to the phone conversations like he does. It could be discussed that she represents the ‘public’ and The Lawyer the ‘State’; scandalous.

It is clear from this exploration that the themes of the ‘Cinema of Distrust’ can been extensively recognised throughout Kieslowski’s films, “An outstanding example of the cinema of Moral Concern” (Rao, 2007:1).

Although Kieslowski has been described as the “Best known contemporary Polish Film-Maker” (Haltof, 2004:29-34) via films such as Personnel (1976), which directly relate to the political situation in Poland. The fact that he is an auteur, influenced by many of the great European (Jean Renoir) and Hollywood auteurs (David Lynch), he can also be described as a pan-European director/auteur, celebrating and encouraging transnational cinema (the break down of barriers between national cinemas). This could be considered to be evident in the Three Colours trilogy as he is a Polish filmmaker, making films dealing with the social circumstances in France as well as universal human affaires. For example, Three Colours Blue (1993) concerns how the wife of a composer deals with the death of her husband and her child in a contemporary French society. The construction of universal human affaires, such as the loss of a child, also helps to transcend the national boundaries of European cinema so that the films are not culturally specific. The Three Colours trilogy is available in the languages French, Romanian, English and Polish, also allowing transnational viewing. This therefore suggests the concept of the auteur to be useful in the context of the post-war European cinema, with reference to Kieslowski being transnational through the style and content of his films. Although “National elites have sought to use film to establish or solidify official cultural narrative…(and that the auteur)…(is a) representative and bearer of national and/or ethnic identity”, it has become clear that the cinemas function has primarily developed to the display of “visual currency”, as discussed by Peter Bloom, for ‘global and transcultural knowledge’. This is of course true of Kieslowski, of which I have previously discussed (Rowden & Ezra, 2006). In conclusion, it should be considered that in contemporary cinema, the auteur is often considered to be a ‘brand’. The defining of a filmmaker as an auteur simply adds to their enormous market value, for example ‘A Film by Krzysztof Kieslowski’ or ‘A Krzysztof Kieslowski Film’. Auteurs should also be considered in relation to the “heavily industrial and business-orientated process’ that is film-making, where they could be seen as having little or no control as they are just simply one element which determines the creative nature of the film in the filmmaking process (King, 2002: 85-115).

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Although this critique could be considered to be dominant in relation to Hollywood, pan-European cinema is in the modern day becoming more universal thanks to film festivals as an alternative means of distribution and presentation, nationally and internationally(Rowden & Ezra, 2006). Therefore, although in post-war Europe the term was coined in relation to ‘artistic expression’ and innovation, it could now be seen, with regards to this development and also the consideration of Kieslowski ‘the pan-European auteur’ as simply a sales ‘hook’.

This global cine-literacy has been created and made necessary by the degree to which capitalism as the catalytic agent in the expansion of popular culture has undermined the viability of cultural or national insularity” (Rowden & Ezra, 2006).

On the other hand, though my analysis I have concluded that post-war European cinema is perhaps on a different level to Hollywood’s ‘package driven system’. Hollywood creations, with particular reference to auteristic Blockbusters such as Steven Spielberg’s movies, are essentially created via hegemonic domination for star transportation.

Therefore, I believe auterism is a particularly debatable concept, with regards to free expression expressed by such directors as Kieslowski, in relation to the now international acclaimed and popularist post-war European cinema. It has fundamentally taken influence from, but not been entirely submerged into the Hollywood formulae. Word count: 2,085

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Bibliography Primary Texts Kieslowski Krzysztof (Dir), A Short Film About Love, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, 1988. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Dekalog: Sieden (Thou Shalt not Steal)- Season One, Episode Seven, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Polish TV, 1990. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Three Colours Blue, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Conseil deL’Europe, 1993. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Three Colours Red, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Conseil deL’Europe, 1994. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Three Colours White, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Conseil deL’Europe, 1994. Secondary Sources Atkin Ian, ‘Current problems in the study of European Cinema and the role of questions on Cultural Identity’, in Everett Wendy (Ed.), European Identity in Cinema, Intellect Books: UK, 2005. Austin Guy, Contemporary French Cinema- An Introduction, Manchester University Press: UK, 1996. Haltof Marek, Polish National Cinema, Berghahn Books: UK, 2002. Haltof Marek, The Cinema of Krzysztof Kieslowski – Variations on Destiny and Chance, Wallflower Press: UK, 2004. Http:// www . imdb.com/ title /tt0078763/ ( Rao Lait, Camera Buff 1979, IMDB, 2007) – Accessed 01/03/2009 Http :// ourworld. Compuserve.com /homepages/ Stephen_Nottingham/ cintxt2.htm – Accessed 19/02/2009 Hayward Susan, Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts, Routledge: USA, 2000. Insdorf Annette, Double Lives, Second Chances: The Cinema of Krzysztof Kieslowski, Talk Miramax Books: USA, 1999. King Geoff, New Hollywood Cinema – An Introduction, I.B.Tauris & co Ltd: UK, 2002 McNeil Tony, Introduction to Post-War French Cinema, Http:// seacoast . Sunderland .ac.uk /~os0tmc/contem/film.htm – Accessed 28/02/2009

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Rowden Terry Ezra Elizabeth, Transnational Cinema: The Film Reader, Taylor & Francis: USA, 2006.

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Filmography Bergman Ingmar (Dir), The Seventh Seal, DVD, Svensk Filmindustri (SF), 1957. Berri Claude (Dir), Jean De Florette, DVD, DD Productions, 1986. Falk Feliks (Dir), Top Dog, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “X”, 1978. Godard Jean-Luc (Dir), À Bout De Souffle (Breathless), DVD, Société Nouvelle De Cinématographie (SNC), 1960. Godard Jean-Luc (Dir), Le Week-End, DVD, Cinecidi, 1967. Hitchcock Alfred (Dir), Psycho, DVD, Shamley Productions, 1960. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), A Short Film About Love, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, 1988. Kieslowski Krzysztof (Dir), Camera Buff, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, 1979. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Dekalog: Sieden (Thou Shalt not Steal)- Season One, Episode Seven, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Polish TV, 1990. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Three Colours Blue, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Conseil deL’Europe, 1993. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Three Colours Red, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Conseil deL’Europe, 1994. Kieslowski Krzystof (Dir), Three Colours White, DVD, Zespol Filmowy “Tor”, Conseil deL’Europe, 1994. Lynch David (Dir), Eraserhead, DVD, American Film Institute (AFI), 1977. Renoir Jean (Dir), French Cancan, DVD, Jolly Film, 1954. Sirk Douglas (Dir), All That Heaven Allows, DVD, Universal International Pictures, 1955. Steven Spielberg (Dir), Jaws, DVD, Universal Pictures, 1975. Welles Orson (Dir), Citizen Kane, DVD, Mercury Productions, 1941.