ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by sidama
TRANSCRIPT
이학박사 학위논문
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants used by
Sidama people of Hawassa Zuria district, Sidama
Zone, Southern Ethiopia
Banchiamlak Nigussie Tefera
생명과학과 (Department of Life Science)
식물학 전공 (Major in Botany)
한림대학교 대학원
Graduate School, Hallym University
김영동교수지도
이학박사 학위논문
Banchiamlak Nigussie Tefera의 박사 학위논문을 합격으로 판정함.
2019년 06월 19일
심사위원장 정동훈
심사위원 신현철
심사위원 오상훈
심사위원 고영호
심사위원 강동철
심사위원 김영동
I
Table of contents
Contents Page
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………..1
1. 1. Background…………………………………………………………………….1
1. 2. Statement of the problem………………………………………………………3
1. 3. Resesearch hypotheses…………………………………………………………4
1. 4. Objective of the study………………………………………………………….5
1. 4. 1. General objectives……………………………………………………..5
1. 4. 2. Specific objectives …………………………………………………….5
1. 5. Plant and people interaction…………………………………………………………5
1. 6. Origin and development of ethnobotany…………………………………………….7
1. 7. Indigenous knowledge and traditional medicinal plants…………………………….8
1.8. History of use of medicinal plants in Ethiopia……………………………………….9
1.9. Medicinal plants in livestock healthcare system……………………………………..10
1.10. Medicinal plant diversity and distribution in Ethiopia ……………………………..11
1.11. Threats to indigenous knowledge and medicinal plants in Ethiopia………………..11
1.12. Conservation of traditional medicinal plants ……………………………………….12
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS …………………………………………………………13
2.1. Description of the Study Area………………………………………………………..13
2.2. Informants sampling………………………………………………………………….14
2.3. Ethnobotanical data collection ……………………………………………………….15
2.4. Plant specimen’s collection and identification………………………………………..15
2.5. Ethical consideration………………………………………………………………….16
2.6. Data analysis………………………………………………………………………….16
2.7. Quantitative analysis………………………………………………………………….16
II
2.8. Preference ranking…………………………………………………………………….17
2.9. Direct matrix ranking ………………………………………………………………...18
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………...19
3.1. Medicinal plant resources of Hawassa Zuria district………………………………....19
3.1.1. Endemic medicinal plant species……………………………………………….20
3.1.2. Antimalarial and insect repellent plants ………………………………………..21
3.1.3. Forms and growth habits of medicinal plants………………………………......30
3.1.4. Medicinal plant parts…………………………………………………………....31
3.1.5. Methods of preparation ………………………………………………………...32
3.1.6. Routes of administration …………………...…………………………………..33
3.2. Medicinal plants used to treat human health problems……………………………....34
3.3. Medicinal plants used to treat both human and livestock health problems…………..35
3.4. Medicinal plants used to treat livestock aliments …………………………………….36
3.5. Medicinal plants used for purpose other than medicinal value ……………………...37
3.6. Importance of medicinal plants ………………………………………………………38
3.6.1. Use Value (UV)…………………………………………………………………38
3.6.2. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)……………………………………………..39
3.6.3. Fidelity Level (FL)……………………………………………………………...39
3.7. Ranking of medicinal plants ………………………………………………………….43
3.7.1. Preference ranking ……………………………………………………………...43
3.7.2. Direct matrix ranking …………………………………………………………..45
3.8. Therapeutic indications ………………………………………………………………47
3.9. New reports and new uses…………………………………………………………….48
3.10. Indigenous knowledge of the Sidama people ……………………………………….49
3.10.1. Demographic characterstics of the informants………………………………….49
III
3.10.2. Traditional knowledge with respect to gender………………………………….49
3.10.3. Traditional knowledge with respect to age…………………………………….50
3.10.4. Traditional knowledge with respect to education ……………………………..50
3.11. Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity……………………………………………………51
3.12. Threats to medicinal plants…………………………………………………………..52
4. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………54
5. RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………………………………55
6. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….57
ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH………………………………………………………………….70
ABSTRACT IN KOREAN…………………………………………………………………..72
ACKNOWLEDGMENT……………………………………………………………………..74
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………..75
IV
List of Tables
Table Page
1. List of medicinal plants used by Sidama people in Hawassa Zuria district…………..22
2. Endemic plant species found in the study area ……………………………………….20
3. Human ailments that can be treated by medicinal plants……………………………..33
4. Human and livestock ailments that can be treated by medicinal plants………………36
5. Livestock ailments that can be treated by medicinal plants…………………………..37
6. Categories of diseases, informant consensus factor and fidelity level of
common plants in the study area …………………………………………………….41
7. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating stomachache in human…....43
8. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating cancer both in human
and livestock………………………………………………………………………….44
9. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used against malaria disease………………...45
10. Direct matrix ranking of medicinal plants by informants based on use category
values…………………………………………………………………………………46
11. Demographic characterstics of informants ………………………………………….49
12. Comparison of number of use reports by different informant groups………………51
13. Comparison of species found in the study area with that of other study areas …….52
V
List of Figures
Figure Page
1. Map of Hawassa Zuria district, Sidama zone, Southern region, Ethiopia…………...14
2. Diversity of medicinal plant species across the different families…………………...20
3. Types of insects and ectoparasites…………………………………………………….21
4. Growth habits of medicinal plants used to treat human and livestock ailments……...30
5. Medicinal plant parts used to treat human and livestock ailments…………………....31
6. Methods of preparation of medicinal plants…………………………………………..33
7. Routes of administration of medicinal plants………………………………………....34
8. Use categories of medicinal plants in Hawassa Zuria district………………………...38
9. Percent of number of diseases treated by medicinal plant in each
disease category ………………………………………………………………………47
10. Threats to medicinal plants in the study area………………………………………….53
VI
List of Appendices
Appendix Page
A. Semi-structured questionnaire, interview guide and other documents…………..75
B. Glimpse of photographs clicked during ethnobotanical survey………………….77
1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Ethnobotany is the study of the direct inter relations between humans and plants. Human
beings have depended on nature for their simple requirements as being the source of
medicines, shelters, food, fragrances, clothing, flavors, fertilizers and means of transportation
throughout their lives. Plants have been used for medicinal purposes since long before the
prehistoric period (WHO 1998). Medicinal plants have made a significant contribution to the
primary healthcare of people around the world. The increasing use of plant materials as a
source of medicine for a wide variety of human ailments are due to population increases,
inadequate supplies of drugs, the prohibitive cost of treatments, side effects of several
synthetic drugs and the development of drug resistance to infectious diseases. Recently, the
WHO estimated that 80% of people worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some aspects of
their primary healthcare needs. According to the WHO, around 21,000 plant species can
potentially be used as medicinal plants (Lucy and Edgar 1999).
Africa has rich resources of medicinal plant species. Ethiopia is believed to be home for
about 6,500 to 7,000 species, with approximately 12% of these endemic (Mesfin et al. 2009).
In Ethiopia, approximately 80% of humans and 90% of the livestock population rely on
traditional medicinal plants to cure different ailments (Abebe 2001) due to difficulties in
accessing modern health facilities, the cultural acceptability of healers, and low cost of
traditional medicine (Nguta et al. 2010).
Southern Ethiopia is the main homeland of numerous ethnicities, containing more than 45
indigenous ethnic groups who speak at least 12 languages from four linguistic families (CSA
2006). The Sidama ethnic group (19.38%) is the predominant group in the Southern Nations
2
Nationalities and Peoples Region. They number about 4.8 million, of whom 3.9 are urban
inhabitants. The main spoken language is Sidamegna (18%) from the Cushitic linguistic
family (CSA 2007). The daily lives of the Sidama peoples depend on agriculture. Ensete
(Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman.), also known locally as the wesse plant, is an
important staple food. Coffee (Coffee Arabica L.) is the most important source of income,
and the Sidama zone is the major contributor to coffee production. The Hawassa Zuria district
is well known as a maize (Zea mays L.) growing district, with other crops also grown. The
people raise cattle, and there is high value attached to livestock by the Sidama. The number
of cattle owned is a good indicator of wealth, and popularity increases for farmers who own
more cattle. The zone is also rich in water resources, which are underutilized.
Greater numbers of medicinal plants are found in the south and southwestern parts of
Ethiopia due to the high biological and cultural diversity in these regions (Anteneh et al. 2012,
Mesfine et al. 2009). Thus far, 1,000 identified medicinal plant species have been reported
among Ethiopian flora, but others remain not yet identified. There are approximately 887
medicinal plant species that are currently used by the Ethiopian people. Nearly 300 of these
are frequently mentioned in many sources. The majority of medicinal plants are herbs,
followed by shrubs and trees (Mirutse 2007). Most of the medicinal plant species are found in
wild forests (Giday et al. 2003). Over 40% of medicinal plant species have enormous socio-
economic value in Ethiopia, and these require further investigations (Desalegn 1997).
Ethnobotanical studies documented in Southern Ethiopia have studied the following: the
Amaro district (Getu 2017), the Benna Tsemay district (Assegid and Tesfaye 2014), Burji
district (Mersha et al. 2016), Cheha district (Behailu and Temesgen 2017), Kembatta ethnic
group (Melesse 2015), Konsso ethnicity (Getachew et al. 2013), the Konta special woreda
(Tesfaye et al. 2009), the Lemo district (Mulugeta and Erchafo 2017), Maale and Ari
(Berhane et al. 2014), the Wolaita zone (Takele 2018), the Wonago woreda (Mesfin et al 2009)
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and the Wolaita zone (Asfaw and Tarekegn 2017). However, there is still limited
ethnobotanical documentation on medicinal plants and relatively few phytochemical analyses
of documented medicinal plants. Ethnobotanical studies of medicinal plants conducted in the
Sidama zone of southern Ethiopia have focused on the Boricha district (Asnake et al. 2016),
the Dale district (Gonfa et al 2015), Hawassa city (Reta 2013), the Bensa district (Tekle 2015)
and Wondo genet (Sintayehu 2011).
Higher concentration of medicinal plants is found in the south and southwestern parts of the
country in keeping with the concentration of biological and cultural diversity (Edwards 2001).
This indicates that there is high traditional medicinal plant knowledge in the southern part of
Ethiopia, but the indigenous knowledge has not been systematically documented in the region.
Particularly, there is no ethnobotanical study in the current study area of the Hawassa Zuria
district. In addition, indigenous knowledge is disappearing due to a lack of written documents
on medicinal plants, the deaths of tribal elders without the transfer of traditional skills to
other members of the family, the migration of people due to social problems, urbanization
and modernization, and the influence of modern medicine and exotic cultures. Thus, the
purpose of the present study was to document the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants
used to treat human and livestock ailments by the Sidama people of the Hawassa Zuria
district and to measure medicinal plant knowledge with regard to age, gender, and education
level while also establishing baseline data for future phytochemical studies.
1.2. Statement of the problem
Hawassa Zuria district is located in southern Ethiopia and traditional medicine is the major
part of their primary healthcare system. There are few clinics and healthcare centers
distributed to each kebele/villages. Elderly people in this area treat different human and
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livestock ailments using indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants. However, the indigenous
knowledge of plants is limited to elderly people and thus leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and medicinal plants as well. The reason behind the loss of medicinal plants
knowledge is due to poor traditional knowledge transferring system, and emint
ethnobotanical studies to document the knowledge. Furthermore, deforestation,
environmental degradation, firewood collection and agricultural expansions are the major
driving factors for the loss of medicinal plants and associated knowledge. Therefore, this
study aimed to document the ethnobotanical knowledge associated with medicinal plants
used by Sidama people in Hawassa Zuria district.
1.3. Resesearch hypothesis
The following major research hypothesis were considered in this study:
The study area has diverse medicinal plants used for treating different health
problems of human and livestock.
Indigenous knowledge on use of medicinal plants varies based on gender, age,
and education level of the local people.
Local ethnobotanical knowledge loss is driven by deforestation, environmental
degradation, firewood collection and agriculture expansions.
Traditional practices and knowledge have contribution to conservation of
medicinal plants in the study area.
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1.4. Objectives of the study
1.4.1. General objectives:
To collect, identify and document medicinal plants and to collate the associated
indigenous knowledge of Sidama people with regard to how they treat various human
and livestock ailments in Hawassa Zuria district of Sidama zone, Southern Ethiopia.
1.4. 2. Specific objectives:
To collect, identify and record medicinal plants used to treat human and livestock
diseases
To collect, identify and record medicinal plants used as repellent plant
To measure and compare the indigenous knowledge of the Sidama people among
social groups
To find out the traditional knowledge gap and threats to medicinal plants
To provide baseline data for further phytomedicine and phytochemical researches
1.5. Plant and people interaction
Plants play an important role in every aspects of our lives and without them life is not
possible. Plants not only regulate the concentration of gases in the air, but also the
only organisms capable of transforming sunlight into food energy on which all other
forms of life ultimately depend upon. People of all cultures have always depended on
plant for their primary needs such as food, shelter, medicine etc and have naturally learned
diverse applications of plants. In particular, indigenous people around the world possess
unique knowledge of plant resources on which they depend for food, medicine and general
utility including tremendous botanical expertise (Martin 1995). Humans are dependent on
6
organisms such as plants and other animals for their life.Plants have been used for
medicinal purposes since long before the prehistoric period (WHO 1998). Human beings
have depended on nature for their simple requirements as being the source of medicines,
shelters, food, fragrances, clothing, flavors, fertilizers and means of transportation throughout
their lives. Medicinal plants have made a significant contribution to the primary healthcare of
people around the world.
The use of plant materials as a source of medicine for a wide variety of human ailments are
increasing due to population increases, inadequate supplies of drugs, the prohibitive cost of
treatments, side effects of several synthetic drugs and the development of drug resistance to
infectious diseases. Recently, the WHO estimated that 80% of people worldwide rely on
herbal medicines for some aspects of their primary healthcare needs. According to the WHO,
around 21,000 plant species can potentially be used as medicinal plants (Lucy and Edgar
1999).
Plants have been used as a source of traditional medicine in Ethiopia from time
immemorial to combat different ailments and human sufferings (Zemede et al. 1999).
Ethiopians have been used traditional medicines for many centuries, the use of which
has become integral part of the different cultures in modern Ethiopia. The traditional
health practitioners are generally categorized into herbalists, bone settlers, traditional
birth attendants, spiritual healers, diviners, ‘depteras’ and magicians.
In Ethiopia, the majority of human and livestock population depend on traditional medicinal
plant in their primary health care delivery. Traditional remedies are sometimes the only
source of therapeutic for nearly 80% of human population and 90% of livestock in
Ethiopia of which 95% are plant origin (Dawit 1986). Traditional medicine has become
an integral part of the culture of Ethiopian people due to it’s long period of practice and
7
existence (Mirgissa 1998). The major reasons why medicinal plants are demanded in Ethiopia
are due to culturally linked traditions, the trust the communities have in the medicinal values
of traditional medicine and relatively low cost in using them.
1.6. Origin and development of ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is coined with two terms that is ‘ethno'- study of people and ‘botany'-
study of plants. Ethnobotany is the studies of plants to know their usage that how people
practice them (Ijaz et al. 2015; Ijaz 2016). Since the beginning of civilization, both the
Babylon (1770 BC) and the pre historic Egyptian age (ca-1550 BC) signify the usage of
medicinal plants. The pre historic Egyptians believed that medicinal plants were very
valuable for their pharaohs (Egyptian king) in their next life after death (Veilleux 1996).
The term Ethnobotany was first discovered by John Harshberger in 1895. He defined
the term as ‘the use of plants by aboriginal people' (Harshberger 1896; cited in Cotton
1996). Since then, different scientists defined Ethnobotany in various ways. Martin
(1996) defined Ethnobotany as the subject dealing with the study of direct interaction
between human and plants. Balick and Cox (1996) defined as it includes the use of
plants as food, medicine, forage and for any other economic purposes within the field
of ethnobotany. Ethnobotany encompasses all studies that concern the mutual
relationships between plants and traditional people (Cotton 1996). Nancy Turner (1995)
defined Ethnobotany as the science of people's interactions with plants over time and space
including uses, knowledge, beliefs, management, classification systems of both modern and
traditional societies. Ethnobotany is strongly linked with taxonomy, phytochemistry,
pharmacognosy, ecologyand conservation biology.Ethnobotany played important role in the
development of new drugs for many centuries and becoming increasingly important in
defining strategies for biodiversity conservation. It is estimated that 25%of prescription
8
drugs contain active principles derived from higher plants. Numeriousdrugs have
entered into the international market through exploration of ethnopharmacology and
traditional medicine (Bussmann 2002) , Mukherjee and Wahile (2006) with
extensive uses of medicinal plants.
1.7. Indigenous knowledge and traditional medicinal plants
Indigenous knowledge on plants appeared when humans started and learned how to use
plants (Posey 1999). Indigenous knowledge defined as knowledge gained through long period
of observations or experiences and trial and errors, being guided by the force of necessity.
Indigenous knowledge refers to the accumulation of knowledge, rule, standards, skills
and mental set, which are possessed by local people in a particular area (Quanash
1998). Indigenous knowledge is a local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society
and the base for agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, environmental
conservation and host of other activities (Thomas 1995).
Over centuries, indigenous people of different localities have developed their own specific
knowledge on plant resources use, management and conservation (Cotton 1996). The close
interaction between human and plants is studied under the field called Ethnobotany.
Ethnomedicinal knowledge involves traditional diagnosis, collection of raw materials,
preparation of remedies and its prescription to the patients.
According to WHO, traditional medicine defined as the sum total of the knowledge,
skill and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenious to
different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as
well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvements or treatment of physical and
mental illness (WHO 2002). About 75-90% of the rural population in the world excluding
western countries relies on traditional medicines as their only health care sytem (Fasil 2001).
9
In Africa, traditional medicine plays a central role in health care needs of rural and urban
poor people (Jansen 1981).
1.8. History of use of medicinal plants in Ethiopia
The long history of use of medicinal plants in Ethiopia is reflected in various medico
religious manuscript believed to have originated several centuries ago (Fassil 2001). The
majority of Ethiopians have been depending almost entirely on the traditional medicine
between 17th
and 18th
centuries (Pankhurst 1990).
‘Metsehafe Fews' of the 17th
century which contains a wide range of medicinal plants
prescription is an evidence for the traditional plant use in Ethiopia (Fekadu 2001). Etse
debdabe' is also the first book written by Debterras which consists of information on plants
with medicinal values and name of diseases (Teferi and Jurgen 2003). Travelers who visited
Ethiopia between 1830 and 1930 carried out some studies in traditional medicinal practice.
The traditional knowledge is passed by word of mouth from one generation to the next by
priest, with doctor or medicine men (Desalegn 2000). The healers pass the knowledge only to
their first born sons when they are about to die. It is always men who take up the art, though
many women pass the knowledge especially those dealing with childbirths (Kokwaro 1976).
Hence, this kind of traditional knowledge transferring system may lead to the loss of valuable
medicinal plants. Therefore, ethnobotanical research is important to document the medicinal
plants and associated indigenous knowledge.
In Ethiopia, Ethnobotanical studies began during early 2000 with emphasis on documenting
medicinal plants and its use. The role of medicinal plants in human healthcare system being
enormous. Most of the modern drugs have been developed from knowledge and materials
from medicinal plants use. It has been estimated that 95% of traditional medical preparations
10
in Ethiopia are of plant origin (Dawit 1986). In Ethiopia, formal recognition to traditional
medicine is given in 1942. Most of the raw materials used come from the wild in Ethiopia
(Ermias and Haile 2005). Roots has been used as the major plant parts for the preparation of
traditional remedies in Ethiopia (Dawit and Ahadu 1993). Over usage of root part has impacts
on the availability of medicinal plants. Conservation of medicinal plants should take into
consideration.
1.9. Medicinal plants in livestock healthcare system
In Ethiopia, livestock production plays an important role in the lively hood and economy of
majority of the population. Ethnoveterinary medicine is defined as the application of
traditional medicine to veterinary medicine and also constitutes information, practices,
beliefs, skills, tools and technologies. The majority of livestock population relies on
medicinal plants due to high cost of treatment, unavailability of veterinary drugs and animal
clinics in Ethiopia. People have been used medicinal plants for treating livestock diseases. In
Ethiopia, the major animal diseases are anthrax, black leg, leech infestation, mastitis
and trypanosomiais. Cattle, sheep, goats, camels, hen, dogs were treated with
medicinal plants for various ailments such as internal parasites, skin diseases, wounds,
urinary problems and mastitis (Pieroni 2006). Ethiopia has the largest livestock
population in Africa (Teshale 2004). Ethnoveterinary medicine is important as a source
of modern medicine and drug development (Alemayeu 2015). In Ethiopia,
ethnoveterinary medicine is highly practiced by various local groups. People have used
traditional veterinary methods to treat livestock diseases for generations. Plants comprise the
largest component of the diverse therapeutic elements of traditional livestock healthcare
practices. For the role played by plant derived products in human and livestock health,
systematic scientific investigations are vital (WHO 1998).
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1.10. Medicinal plant diversity and distribution in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is the origin and center of diversity for many plant species and its history can be
traced back to the reign of Queen Sheba (992 BC). Ethiopia is believed to be home for
about 6,500 species of higher plants with approximately 12% endemism, and hence
one of the six plant biodiversity rich countries (UNEP 1995). The number of different
languages spoken in Ethiopia approaches 90 (Maffi 1999) and each corresponds to it's
unique socio cultural population thus accounting to the high human cultural diversity.
Around 1,000 medicinal species are identified in the Ethiopian flora however many
others are not yet identified. About 300 of these species are frequently mentioned in
many sources.
The great concentrations of medicinal plants are found in the South and South Western
Ethiopian parts of the country following the concentration of biological and cultural
diversity (Edwards 2001). Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in Ethiopia is
unevenly distributed among community members (Zemede 2001). In southern Ethiopia,
medicinal plants occupy a crucial place in traditional health care system (Zewdu and
Demissie 2001). A comparable study from Wondo Genet district of Sidama reports 85 plant
species used as cures for 61 ailments (Sintayehu 2011). Another comparable study by Ruelle
of “The healing agriculture” in the northern Ethiopian community identified 142 plants of
which 29 had medicinal uses (Ruelle 2014).
1.11. Threats to indigenous knowledge and medicinal plants in Ethiopia
Loss of medicinal plant species and the associated indigenous knowledge is the major
threats to indigenous knowledge and medicinal plants. The threats to medicinal plants are
loss of forests and woodlands, fire, cultivation of marginal lands, overgrazing, environmental
degradation, deforestation, urbanization, over harvesting, rapid increase in population,
12
agricultural expansion (Ensermu et al. 1992). The threats to indigenous knowledge are
secrecy of traditional practioners, unavailability of written documents, passed from
generation to next orally, modern education.
In general, man made and natural factors are the two sources of threats to medicinal plants.
The man made factors include rapid population increasement, need for fuel, urbanization,
timber production, over harvesting, invasive species, degradation, agriculture expansion and
habitat destruction. Whereas the natural factors include drought, bush fire and disease and
pest outbreaks (Ensermu et al. 1992). Therefore, this study focused on the documentation
of medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge loss in Hawassa Zuria district.
1.12. Conservation of traditional medicinal plants
Conservation is defined as the sustainable use of biological resources. Medicinal plants can
be conserved by ensuring and encouraging their growth in special place, as they have been
traditionally (Zemede 2001). Conservation is achieved through in situ and ex situ means. In
situ conservation is conservation of species in their natural habitat. Ex situ conservation is the
process of protection of species outside their natural habitat. There are some conservation
actions that have been undertaken around the world designed to protect threthened medicinal
plant from further damage (Cunninghum 1996). Collection of roots, barks, seeds and the
whole part for medicinal purpose are considered as conservation risk. Use of roots, stem and
bark for medicinal preparations kill the plant in harvest (Dawit and Ahadu 1993).
According to Zemede Asfaw (2001), medicinal plants can be conserved using appropriate
conservational methods in gene banks and botanical gardens. This type of conservation of
medicinal plants can also be possible in home gardens, as the home garden is strategic and
ideal farming system for the conservation, production and enhancement of medicinal plants.
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2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Description of the Study Area
Hawassa Zuria district, is found in Sidama Zone, Southern Nations Nationalities Peoples
Region, located at 07°01′54″ to 07°50′36″N latitude and 38°15′39″ to 38°25′43″E longitude,
and the altitudinal range is 1700m to 1850m a.s.l. The study site is about 290 km South of
Addis Ababa and 20 km South west of the regional capital Hawassa. The area size of the
district is 22, 643 hectare and dry zone accounts 75% (SZFEDB 2003). The district is
bordered by Lake Hawassa in the North, Tula town in the East, Oromia region in the West,
Hawassa town in the East and Boricha district in South. (Figure 1). Hawassa Zuria district
has 23 Kebeles (smallest administrative unit).The annual mean maximum and minimum
temperature are 30°C and 17°C respectively and the mean annual rainfall is 1015 mm. This
woreda has a total population of 124,472, of whom 62,774 are men and 61,698 women (CSA
2007).
14
Figure 1. Map of Hawassa Zuria district, Sidama zone, Southern Ethiopia. Study area
kebeles: (1) Dore Bafeno, (2) Galo Argiso, (3) Jara Damowa, (4) Jara Dado, (5) Lebu Korem,
(6) Jara Hirnesa, (7) Tenkaka Umbulo, (8) Doyo Otilcho, (9) Jara Gelalcha, (10) Jara Qerara
2.2. Informants sampling
A total of 150 informants (118 males and 32 females) above 18 years old ages were selected
from ten kebeles (small administritives). Out of these, 30 key informants were selected based
on recommendations from village administrators and local guides. Purposive stratified
sampling and snowball sampling method was used and appointment was made prior to visit
the key informants. The names of the villages are Dore Bafeno, Lebu Koremo, Gallo Argisa,
Doyo Otilcho, Jara Qerara, Jara Hirnesa, Jara Galalcha, Jara Damowa, Jara Dado and
Tenkaka Umbulo.
Map of Ethiopia
Map of SNNPR
Hawassa Zuria district
15
2.3. Ethnobotanical data collection
Ethnobotanical data were collected from January to February of 2018. Semi structured
questionnaire, group discussion, field observation and guided field walk were the techniques
employed for data collection in the study area. General and key informants were interviewed
in Sidama language focusing on indigenous knowledge of the local community specifically
on use and threats of medicinal plants.
A semi-structured questionnaire were prepared that focus to collect socio economic status of
the participants and both the informants and key informants were asked to give their
knowledge about the medicinal plants they used to treat different aliements, plant parts used,
method of preparation of the remedy, details of administration and dosage. Key informants
were interviewed some additional questions such as the collection place and time of
medicinal plants, side effect and antidotes from the use of medicinal plants, method of
storage and conservation of medicinal plants, source of indigenous knowledge, and uses other
than medicinal plants (Appendix A).
2.4. Plant specimen's collection and identification
The reported medicinal plants were collected from wild forest, home garden and road sides.
Sample specimens of the plants cited for their medicinal use were collected, numbered,
pressed and dried for identification (Appendix B). Plant identification was performed at the
National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University. Preliminary identification was done in the
field and reconfirmed at the National Herbarium. Identification of plant specimens with the
assistance of experts was done using the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea books and also by
comparison with authenticated specimens at the National Herbarium. Voucher specimens
were deposited in the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University.
16
2.5. Ethical consideration
Permission to conduct the ethno botanical study was obtained from Hawassa Zuria district
administration office. Identification and deposit work collaboration with the National
Herbarium of AAU were allowed using official letter.
2.6. Data analysis
Descriptive statistical methods were used to analyze and summarize the data on medicinal
plants, use and associated knowledge. MS Excel was used to determine proportions, simple
calculations (percentage and frequency), draw bar graphs and analyzed the data.
Based on the disease categories proposed by Heinrich et al. (1998) and with some
modification, the data of medicinal plants were grouped into 14 ailment categories: gastro-
intestinal ailments (GIA), dermatological infections/diseases (DID), respiratory systems
diseases (RSD), genito-urinary ailments (GUA), fever (F), skeleto-muscular system disorders
(SMSD), poisonous bites (PB), cardiovascular system diseases (CSD),
endocrine/metabolic/nutritional (EMN), ear and eye disease (EED), Sensory neuron disease
(SND), fetal and pregnancy related disease (FPRD), general and unspecified (GU) and
Insects and ectoparasites (IE).
2.7. Quantitative analysis
The collected data was analyzed through Use value (UV), Informant consensus factor (ICF)
and Fidelity level (FL) (Ayyanar 2011). The Use value was calculated using the formula UV
= ∑Ui/n, where: Ui = the number of uses mentioned by each informant for a given species,
n = the total number of informants (Phillips et al. 1994). The Informant Consensus Factor
17
was calculated using the formula: ICF = nur-nt/nur-1 where, ICF is informant consensus
factor, nur is number of use citation, nt is number of species used (Heinrich et al. 1998).
ICF values range from 0.00 to 1.00. High ICF values are obtained when only one or a few
plant species are reported to be used by a high proportion of informants to treat a particular
ailment. Low ICF values indicate that informants disagree over which plant to use. High ICF
values can thus be used to find particularly important species for the search of bioactive
compounds (Canales et al. 2005). Fidelity level was used to analayze plant use using the
formula FL=Np/N*100, where Np: number of informants who reported the use of plant to
treat a particular disease, N is the number of informants that used the plants as a medicine
(Friedmen et al. 1986).
Jaccard's similarity indices were used to compare similarity of medicinal plant knowledge
among the studied communities (Hoft et al. 1999). This index uses plant presence/positive
reply or absence/negative reply data sets and is expressed as: JI= c /a + b + c, Where JI is
the Jaccard similarity index, c is the number of species shared by the study sites, a is the
number of species in study site A only and b is the number of species in study site B only.
The JI values range between 0 and 1, whereby a value of 1 indicates complete similarity.
2.8. Preference ranking
Key informants were selected to assess the degree of effectiveness of medicinal plants when
used to treat human and animal diseases following Martin (1995). The medicinal plants
believed to be most effective to treat an illness were given the highest value (5), and the least
effective receivedthe lowest value (1). The value of each species was summed up and the
rank for each species was determined based on the total score. This helped to indicate the
most effective medicinal plants used by the community to treat the diseases.
18
2.9. Direct matrix ranking
By following Cotton (1996), direct matrix ranking was conducted in order to compare
multipurpose medicinal plants commonly reported by informants. Based on the relative
benefits obtained from each plant, eight multipurpose tree species were selected out of the
total medicinal plants and seven use diversities of these plants were listed. Three key
informants were chosen to assign use values of each attributes (5=best, 4= very good, 3=
good, 2= less, 1= least used). The use categories include food, fodder, house construction,
farming utensils, material cleaning, cultural value, and firewood. Based on data obtained
from informants, the average diversity value for each species was determined and the values
of each species were finally summed and ranked.
19
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Medicinal plant resources of Hawassa Zuria district
One hundred five medicinal plant species distributed into 95 genera and 52 families were
documented in the study area (Table 2). Among these, 50 plant species (47%) were used only
to treat human diseases, 47 species (45%) for both human and livestock ailments and the
remaining 8 species (8%) were used only for livestock diseases. Higher number of medicinal
plants were recorded in the current study compared to previous studies of other districts in
Sidama zone (Reta 2015; Solomon 2016; Yibrah 2015; Sintayehu 2011).
The leading family was Fabaceae with 11 species, followed by Lamiaceae with 7 species,
Cucurbitaceae (6 species), Euphorbiaceae (5 species ), Solanaceae and Asteraceae (4 species
each) (Figure 2). Anacardiaceae, Boraginaceae, Cappardiaceae, Malvaceae, Myrtaceae
Poaceae, and Rutaceae were represented by three species each, whereas Celastraceae,
Meliaceae, Moraceae, Musaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, and Verbenaceae were represented by
two species each. Each of the remaining families was represented by one species. The family
Fabaceae contributes higher number of plant species than others in the current study area.
This finding is agree with the work of Reta (2013), Ermias (2008) and Teferi (2009),
reported Fabaceae as the higheset number of plant species. However, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae,
Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae were reported as the most commonly used plant families in
previous studies (Tesfaye 2009 and Tamiru 2016).
20
Figure 2. Diversity of medicinal plant species across the diverse families
3.1.1. Endemic medicinal plant species
Among the medicinal plants documented in the study area, 75 species (71%) were
indigenious and 21 species (20%) were introduced to Ethiopia. A total of 5 endemic species
were recorded representing 5% of the total medicial plant species. The endemic plant species
belong to the families Xanthorrhoeaceae, Asteraceae, Crassulaceae, Verbenaceae and
Leguminosae (Table 2).
Table 2. Endemic plant species found in the study area.
No. Scientific name Local name Family IUCN category
1 Echinops kebericho ቀበርቾ Asteraceae VU
2 Kalanchoe petitiana እንዳሁላ Crassulaceae LC
3 Millettia ferruginea ብርብራ Fabaceae LC
4 Lippia adoensis ኮሰረት Verbenaceae LC
5 Aloe adigratana እሬት Xanthorrhoeaceae VU
IUCN=international for union conservation of nature, VU= vulnerable, LC= least concern; Source: IUCN red list of endemic
trees & shrubs of Ethiopia/ & Eritrea books and Vivero et al. (2005)
No. of species
21
3.1.2. Antimalarial and insect repellent plants
A total of 21 antimalarial plants and 7 repellent plant species were documented (Table 1). The
majority of repellent plants were used to control ectoparasites such as ticks and leech. About
41% of repellent plants were used as ticks control whereas the rest controls leech (16%),
Corn worm, weevils, cockroach, housefly and bee (8% each) and mosquito (3%) (Figure 3).
The seven plant species recorded as repellent plants were Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex
Delile, Datura stramonium L., Nicotiana tabacum L., Premna schimperi Engl., Schinus molle
L., Azadirachta indica L., Dodonaea viscose subsp. angustifolia (Table 1).
Figure 3. Types of insects and ectoparasites.
41%
16%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
3%
Ticks Leech Weevils Coackroach
Cornworm Honey bee Housefly Mosquito
22
Table 1. List of medicinal plants used by Sidama people in Hawassa Zuria district
No. Scientific name Family Local
name
Voucher
no.
Habit PPU MOP ROA Used to
treat
Ailments UV
1. Acacia seyal Delile. Fabaceae ግራር፣ ዋጮ BN090 T L Chewing, spitting O H Cancer 0.02
2. Acacia etbaica Schweinf. Fabaceae ጠደቻ ET041 T L, Ba Powdering,
grinding, chewing,
spitting
O, D L Wound,cancer, swelling 0.33
3. Acacia abyssinica Benth. Fabaceae ዶማ ጩጬ ET036 T L Rubbing, spitting D L ‘Balaamo’ 0.01
4. Acacia albida Delile Fabaceae ቡራ BN065 T St Chewing, brushing O H Toothache 0.01
5. Acanthus eminens C. B.
Clarke
Acanthaceae አሜሳ ቡቲቾ BN030 S L, R Boiling, chewing,
spitting, liquid form
D, O HL ‘Fancho’,snakebite,wound,
menstrual problem
0.19
6. Afrocarpus falcatus (Thunb.)
*
Podocarpaceae ዳጉቾ BN056 T L Grinding O ,D HL Malaria,‘magarto’, ‘gadanesa’ 0.03
7. Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-
Ham. *
Lamiaceae አናሙሮ BN031 H L Grinding, drinking O H Stomachache 0.02
8. Albizia gummifera
(J.F.Gmel.) C.A.Sm.
Fabaceae ማቲቾ፣ ሰንሰል ET044 T L,Fr,
Ba,R,
St
Grinding, boiling, O,D HL Swelling of stomach, evil eye 0.29
9. Allium sativum L.* Amaryllidaceae ነጭ ሸንኩርት BN077 H Bu,Fr,
L
Eating, grinding,
chewing, spitting
O,D HL Abdominal pain, malaria,
‘mitch’
0.90
10. Aloe adigratana Reynolds. * Xanthorrhoeaceae እሬት ET028 S L,Ba,
R,St
Liquid form,
rubbing, grinding
D, O, Ex HU Skin disease, gastritis 0.87
11. Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthaceae ገርባቦ ET053 Cl R Chewing,spitting O H Cancer 0.01
12. Ampelocissus bombycina
(Baker) Planch. *
Vitaceae ሞላማ ET049 Cl R Grinding O H ‘Azurit’ disease 0.01
23
13. Argemone mexicana L. * Papaveraceae ኮኮሌ ET008 H Sh,L,
R, St
Liquid form,
grinding,
powdering, chewing
D, O HL Wound, headache, malaria, 0.62
14. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. * Meliaceae ሚሚ፣ኒም ET005 T L,Ba,
R
Grinding, chewing,
boiling, Liquid
form
O,D, Ex H Malaria, toothache,
weevils, stomachache
0.69
15. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.)
Delile
Balanitaceae ጎዲቾ ET043 T Fr Chewing,liquid
form, grinding
D, O HL Stomachache, diarrhea,
headache
0.01
16. Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Melianthaceae ጠበራኮ ET048 S Ba,
St, Fr,
L
Grinding,chewing,
spitting,eating,
burining
O, D HL Cough, headache, stomachache 0.45
17. Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. Capparidiaceae
ሺሻ
BN101
S
L
Boiling
O
H
Swelling,butter sweetener 0.01
18. Brassica carinata A. Braun Brassicaceae የሀበሻ ጎመን BN089 H L, Fr,
St
Grinding, liquid
form, rubbing
O, Oc L Eye wound, swelling of
stomach, abdominal pain
0.03
19. Calpurnia aurea (Aiton)
Benth.
Fabaceae ጨካታ፣ጪኬ BN062 S L,R,S
h
Chewing,rubbing,p
owdering, grinding
O,D HU Gastritis,stomachache,
toothache,
0.18
20. Capparis tomentosa Lam. Capparidaceae ጋኦ፣ጉሞሬ BN067 S R, Fr Grinding, chewing O HU Abdominal pain,
cancer, tonsillitis
0.11
21. Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae ጎራ፣አጋም BN046 Cl R Boiling O H Diarrhea 0.16
22. Carica papaya L. * Caricaceae ፓፓያ ET082 T Fr,L,L
x,St,
R
Eating, liquid form,
squeezing, grinding,
O, D H Gastritis, malaria, tapeworm 0.54
23. Casimiroa edulis La Llave. Rutaceae ካዝሚር ET039 T Fr Eating O H Gastritis, stomachache 0.06
24. Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. Celasteraceae ጫት ET050 S L Eating, boiling,
chewing,spitting,
mixed with water
O H Gastritis, gonorrhea,
toothache, evil eye
0.30
25. Ceiba pentandra L. Gaertn. Malvaceae የጥጥ ፍሬ ET006 T Fr Grinding, hold on
teeth
O HU Toothache 0.01
26. Citrus aurantiifolia
(Christm.) Swingle
Rutaceae ሎሚ BN094 T Fr Eating O H Gastritis, low blood
pressure, hypertension
0.02
24
27. Coffea arabica L. Rubiaceae ቡና ET057 T L Boiling and
drinking
O H Gastritis,’fancho’, worms 0.02
28. Colocasia esculenta (L.)
Schott
Araceae ቆልጮማ BN068 T L Boiling,drinking O L Placenta delay 0.01
29. Commelina africana L. Commeliniaceae ላሎንጤ ET037 H L, St Rubbing, cutting
grinding, liquid
form
O, D HU Skin disease,
chirt,quaqucha
0.05
30. Cordia africana Lam. Boraginaceae ዋንዛ ET033 T Ba Chewing O H Stomachache 0.01
31. Croton macrostachyus
Hochst. ex Delile *
Euphorbiaceae ብሳና፣ ማሲንቾ ET022 T Sh,
Fr,L
Grinding, liquid
form, chewing ,
boiling,
O,D, Oc HU Tuberculosis, gastritits,
goiter
0.81
32. Cucurbita pepo L. Cucurbitaceae ባላቃ ET052 H L Grinding D H Swelling 0.04
33. Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb.
ex Spach
Cucurbitaceae ባሱ ባቁላ ET055 H Fr, R,
Ba, L
Grinding,chewing,
hold on teeth
O, D HU Cough, cancer, black leg 1.17
34. Cynoglossum coeruleum
Hochst. ex. A.DC.
Boraginaceae ሂፋቲቾ፣ጪጎጊት
ET007 H R Chewing. spitting O H Cancer 0.01
35. Datura stramonium L. * Solanaceae ባንጄ ET020 H Fr,L,
St
Grinding, rubbing,
liquid form, boiling
O, D,Oc HU Toothache, malaria,
‘Dingetegna’
0.17
36. Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae ሀሬ BN093 Cl R, L Grinding, Chewing,
Spitting Squeezing
O, D HU Gadanesa,evil
eye, ‘fancho’
0.01
37. Dodonaea viscose subsp.
angustifolia (L.f.) J.G. West
L.f *
Sapindaceae
ኢታንቻ
ET011
S
L
Boiling,Grinding,
Squeezing,
O,D,Ex HL Evil eye, diarrhea,
ticks
0.59
38. Echinops kebericho Mesfin Asteraceae ቡርሳ፣ቀበርቾ BN066 H R Smoke form D H Headache 0.01
39. Ehretia cymosa Thonn. Boraginaceae ጊዲንቾ ET021 S L, Ba Chewing,
grinding,boiling,
squeezing, spitting
O, D, Ex HL Cancer, toothache, wound 0.27
40. Ficus vasta Forssk. Moraceae ዋዲቾ፣ዋርካ ET034 T Ba Eating ,chewing O HL Stomachache, bloody
urine, toothache
0.01
25
41. Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae ኦዳኮ፣የሾላ ዛፍ ET035 T Fr Eating O H Stomach ache 0.01
42. Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Meliaceae ኦሎንቾ BN098 T L,Ba,
St
Boiling, grinding O HL Goiter, tuberculosis, anthrax 0.05
43. Eleusine coracana (L.)
Gaertn.
Poaceae ዳጉሳ BN087 H St Grinding, mix with
food
O H Back pain 0.01
44. Ensete ventricosum (Welw.)
Cheesman.
Musaceae እንሰት BN075 S L, R,
Bu
Boiling, chewing O, D HL Plazenta delay, weight gain 0.12
45. Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.
Gmel. *
Euphorbiaceae ቁልቁዋል ET004 T R,L,
Lx,
Fl,
Fr,Ba
Chewing, liquid
form, rubbing,
O,D,N HL Swelling, gastritis,
malaria, headache
0.54
46. Euphorbia tirucalli L.
Euphorbiaceae
ቅንጭብ፣ማጦ BN100
S
Lx
Drop the milk
D
H
‘Kintarot’ 0.01
47. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. * Myrtaceae ነጭ ባሀርዛፍ ET023 T L,Fr,F
l, Sh
Rubbing,smelling,s
queezing,chewing,g
rinding,liquid form
N, O H Headache, mitch, cough
stomachache ,common cold
0.42
48. Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Dehnh.
Myrtaceae ጥቁር ባህር ዛፍ
ET042 T L Rubbing and hold
on teeth
O H Toothache 0.01
49. Gardenia ternifolia
Schumach. & Thonn.
Rubiaceae ጋምቤላ BN099 T L Boiling, grinding
rubbing
D L Evil eye, ‘gadanesa’ 0.01
50. Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce ex
Steud.) J.F.Gmel.
Rosaceae ኮሶ ዛፍ BN081 T L,Fl,
Fr
Grinding O,D HL Diarrhea,weight gain, cancer 0.41
51. Hordeum vulgare L. Poaceae ገብስ BN086 H St Grinding, mix with
water
O H Weight gain 0.01
52. Ipomoea batatas L. Lam. Convolvulaceae ማጣጡሪሻ BN064 H R Chewing, spitting D H Wound 0.01
53. Juniperus procera Hochst. ex
Endl.
Cupressaceae
ሆኒቾ
BN072
T
L
Grinding
O
L
Diarrhea 0.01
54. Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich. Crassulaceae ሀንሹሉሌ ET016 H L,Bu,
R, Fr
Chewing, eating,
grinding, squeezing
O,D,Oc,
Ex
HU Dingetegna,gastritis,
eye pain
0.19
26
55. Laggera crispata (Vahl)
Hepper & J.R.I.Wood
Asteraceae አሜሳ ሜኢሻና ET026 H L Chewing,spitting D HL Ear disease 0.41
56. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina)
Standl.
Cucurbitaceae ቡቄ፣ ቅል ET058 H L Grinding O H Liver problem 0.01
57. Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae የወፍ ቆሎ ET038 S Fr Grinding, and
rubbing
D H ‘Chirt’ 0.01
58. Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae ሸላላ፣ተልባ BN083 H St Grinding, liquid
form
O H Weight gain, asthema,
liver disease
0.03
59. Lippia adoensis Hochst. Verbenaceae ሀናሾ፣ ኮሰረት BN071 S L Eating O H Stomachache 0.01
60. Maerua aethiopica (Fenzl)
Oliv.
Capparidiaceae ቆንጥር ፍሬ BN091 S Fr Chewing O H Cancer 0.01
61. Maesa lanceolata Frossk. Primulaceae ጎዋቾ BN061 S L, Ba Grinding, boiling O, D HU ‘Gadanesa’ 0.02
62. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae ማንጎ BN092 T Fr Eating O H Disease protector 0.01
63. Gymnosporia senegalensis
(Lam.) Loes.
Celasteraceae ጩጮ ET032 S L Chewing, spitting D L Swelling 0.01
64. Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.)
Baker
Fabaceae ጋላጫጭ ET047 T Ba Grinding, mix with
water, Chewing
O H ‘Woranto’, toothache 0.01
65. Momordica boivinii Baill. Cucurbitaceae ኪሬ BN103 Cl L, Fr Grinding,eating,
boiling, Squeezing
O,D,Oc HL Stomachache, evil eye,
weight gain
0.09
66. Momordica foetida
Schumach.
Cucurbitaceae ሄራሴ BN102 H L Liquid form,
grinding
O HL Livestock disease, gastritis 0.01
67. Moringa stenopetala (Baker
f.) Cufod. *
Moringaceae ሃለቆ፣ሸፈራዉ ET009 T L,R,
Ba, Fr
Grinding, boiling,
hold on teeth,
chewing
O, D HL Amoeba, hypertension,
malaria
1.36
68. Musa accuminata Colla Musaceae ሙዝ BN088 H L Liquid form D H Wound, cancer 0.03
69. Nicotiana tabacum L. * Solanaceae አራዶ፣ትነባሆ BN060 H L Boiling, chewing
and spitting
O, D, N HL Toothache,snakebite,
headache,tick
1.01
70. Nigella sativa L. * Ranunnculaceae ጥቁር አዝሙድ BN078 H Fr, St Chewing, grinding,
powdering, boiling,
O, D H Stomachache, gastritis,
headache
0.54
27
smelling
71. Ocimum gratissimum L. * Lamiaceae ዳማከሴ፣አንጋቢሻ
ET015 S L, R Grinding, Eating,
smelling
O,D,N HL ‘Mitch’, malaria, cancer 0.51
72. Olea welwitschii (Knobl.)
Gilg & G. Schellenb.
Oleaceae ወይራ ET019 Tree L,R,,S
h, St
Squeezing,
chewing, smoking,
grinding,spitting
O, Ex HL Eye disease, headache 0.69
73. Olinia rochetiana A.Juss Oliniaceae ኖሌ BN097 T L,R,
Ba
Grinding,
boiling ,rubbing
O, D HL Evil eye, cancer, diarrhea 0.42
74. Osyris quadripartita Salzm.
ex Decne.
Santalaceae ጡንጦ ET045 S L, R Squeezing
powdering grinding
liquid form
O,D,N,E
x
HL Stomacache, cough, swelling 0.23
75. Peponium vogelii (Hook.f)
Engl. *
Cucurbitaceae ሱሩፓ ET014 H L,Fr Grinding, Eating,
Liquid form,
Boiling
O, D HL Malaria,wound, stomachache 0.73
76. Persea americana Mill. Lauraceae አቮካዶ BN085 T Fr Eating O H Diabetes, dandruff 0.04
77. Phytolacca dodecandra
L’Her.
Phytolaceae ሀራንጂቾ ET051 S L,R,Fr Grinding,
powdering,chewing
D,O HL Cancer, ‘gadanesa’, wound 0.39
78. Plectranthus igniarius
(Schweinf.) Agnew
Lamiaceae ቶንቶን ET059 H L Grinding,rubbing,
squeezing
D,O H Evil eye, sun problem,
wound, weight loss
0.01
79. Premna schimperi Engl. * Lamiaceae ኡዶ BN063 S L,R,
St
Grinding,chewing,r
ubbing, boiling
D,O,Ex HL Toothache,coughing,
stomachache
0.37
80. Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae ዘይቱን ET010 T Fr Eating O, H Eyedisease,gastritis,
worms, headache
0.24
81. Rhamnus prinoides L’ Her. * Rhamnaceae ጌሾ ET002 S Fr, L Grinding, chewing,
rubbing
O, D H ‘Quaqucha’,stomachache,
gastritis, wound
0.29
82. Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex
C.Krauss) F. A. Barkley
Anacardiaceae ዳዎዌሳ ET001
T
L Chewing,grinding,s
pitting,powdering
O,D, N HL
Stomachache,snakebite,
weight gain
0.25
83. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae ጉሎ ET018 S R, Fr, Grinding, chewing, O,Ex HL Coughing, constipation,
swelling
0.05
28
L spitting
84. Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.)
Steane & Mabb. *
Lamiaceae ማዲሲሳ BN025 S Ba, L,
R
Rubbing,grinding,e
ating, boiling
O HL ‘Mitch’, cancer, toothache, 0.93
85. Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae ጤና አዳም ET084 H L,Sh,
St
Grinding,liquid
form
O H Amoeba, headache, gonorrhea 0.06
86. Rubus steudneri Schweinf. Rosaceae ጎሬ፣እንጆሪ BN074 H St Liquid form D H Child cleaning 0.01
87. Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Polygonaceae ሾሾን፣መቅመቆ BN073 H Ba, R,
St
Eating, grinding,
mix with boiled
water,
O, D H Stomachache, ‘kintarot’ 0.01
88. Salvia nilotica Juss. Ex Jacq. Lamiaceae
ኮት ጀቤሳ
BN070
H
L, R,
Ba
Chewing,
spitting,grinding,
rubbing
O,D HL ‘Mitch’, skin disease,
toothache
0.19
89. Satureja punctata (Benth.)
R.Br.ex Briq.
Lamiaceae አሜሳ BN096 H L Boiling O H ‘Shifeta’/’fancho’ 0.11
90. Schinus molle L. * Anacardiaceae ቁንዶ በርበሬ ET054 T Ba, L Chewing,squeezing,
put the leaf
O ,Ex H Toothache, ‘mitch’, housefly 0.03
91. Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.)
H.S.Irwin & Barneby
Fabaceae ጨቢቻ ET017 S L Grinding,
squeezing, liquid
form, chewing
O, D
HL ‘Mitch’, wound, eye
disease, diarrhea
0.14
92. Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.)
H.S. Irwin & Barneby.
Fabaceae
ሀማሻቃ
BN069
H
L
Rubbing
D
H
Snakebite 0.01
93. Sida ovata Forssk. Malvaceae ቅርቅጫ BN104 S L, R Liquid form O H Toothache 0.01
94. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae ጪኪቾ ET027 H R Powdering and mix
with water
O H Abdominal pain 0.04
95. Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae እምቡዋይ ET013 S Fr, R,
St
Grinding, chewing,
spitting, rubbing
O,D HL Cough,
stomachache
0.47
96. Solanum americanum Mill.
*
Solanaceae ጡናዬ ET003 S L,Fr Grinding,boiling,ch
ewing, eating
O,D,Oc HL Malaria, toothache,
snakebite
0.59
29
PPU=plant parts used; MOP=methods of preparation, ROA=Routs of administration; Habit: S=shrub, T=tree, Cl=climber, H=herb; un=unknown; Plant parts used: R=root, L=leaf, St=stem,
Bu=bulb, Lx=latex, Fl=flower, Sd=seed, Sh=shoot, Fr=fruit,Ba=bark; Routes of administration: O=oral, D=dermal, E=external, N=nasal,Oc= ocular; Used to treat: H= human, L=livestock,
HL= human and livestock; UV=use value; * =antimalarial and repellent plant; Plant names were checked based on www.theplantlist.org
97. Stephania abyssinica (Quart.-
Dill. & A.Rich.) Walp.
Menispermaceae ከላላ BN105 H L, R,
Fr
Grinding, boiling,
liquid form,
D, Oc,
O
HL ‘Gadanesa’, eye disease,
amoeba
0.22
98. Tragia brevipes Pax Euphorbiaceae ሶኒቾ ET029 H L,
Fr ,Fl
Grinding, eating O, D L Evil eye, cancer,
anthrax, diarrhea
1.02
99. Trigonella foenum- graecum
L.
Fabaceae አብሽ BN079 H St, Fr,
L, R
Powdering,
grinding, boiling,
Liquid form
O,D H Amoeba, weight
gain, stomachache
0.51
100. Triticum dicoccon (Schrank)
Schubl.
Poaceae አጃ BN080 H St, Fr Boiling, grinding,
roasting
O H Weight gain, bone fractures 0.08
101. Unidentified Unidentified ጋጋሳ ET024 Un L Grinding, drying,
burning
D,E H Leech, cockroach 0.03
102. Vernonia filigera Oliv. &
Hiern
Asteraceae ረጂቾ ET012 S L Grinding D H Leg pain 0.02
103. Vernonia schimperi DC. * Asteraceae ግራዋ BN076 H Sh,
Ba,L,
R,St ,
Fr
Grinding,
powdering,
chewing, spitting,
sprinkling, smoking
D, O HL Abdominal pain,
wound, headache,
back pain, ‘gadanesa’
0.64
104. Vigna sp. Fabaceae ሜኢ ጮርቃዬ ET040 Cl L, Fr Eating, grinding
squeezing
O HL Gastritis, cancer, headache 0.06
105. Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae
ዝንጅብል
BN095 S
L
Chewing, spitting O
H Eye disease 0.01
30
3.1.3. Forms and growth habits of medicinal plants
The majority of the medicinal plants were harvested freshly from wild forest, home garden
and road sides. Medicinal plants were mainly harvested fresh (66%) whereas the remaining
(34%) were used in dry form. The result showed that medicinal plants used to treat human
and livestock aliments constitutes 35 herbs species (34%), 34 tree species (33%), 29 shrub
species (28%) and 6 climber species (6%). This shows the majority of life form of medicinal
plants in the study area were herbs followed by trees and shrubs (Figure 3).
This findings agrees with Tizazu (2005) and Debela (2001) which indicates half of the
reported plants were herbs. Endalew (2007) reported that herb were the most used forms for
medicine. However, Tolossa et al. (2013), Teklehaymanot and Giday (2010) reported the
majority of medicinal plants were trees. Fisseha (2009) reported shrubs as the major growth
habits in Wonago district.
Figure 4. Growth habits of medicinal plants used to treat human and livestock ailments.
Percent
31
3.1.4. Medicinal plant parts
The most frequently used plant part to treat human and livestock diseases include leaf, shoot
tip, stem, root, bark, fruit, flower, seed, latex and bulb. Traditional medicinal plant
practitioners of the study area reported that leaves (56%) were the dominant plant part used to
prepare remedies followed by fruit (15%), root (12%), bark (5%), seed, stem and bulb (4%),
shoot tip (2%), flower and latex (1%) (Figure 4). The result indicates the use of leaf part of
the medicinal plants have contribution for the conservation of plants rather than harvesting
the whole plant and root part. Berhane (2014) reported leaves as the predominant plant part
used in Maale and Ari ethnic communities. Ketema (2013) also mentioned leaves were the
most commonly used plant parts in South Omo. The most frequently used plant parts were
leaves and roots in Hadiya zone (Tamiru 2016).
Figure 5. Medicinal plant parts used to treat human and livestock ailments
32
3.1.5. Methods of preparation
Depending on what type of disease is treated, the local people use different preparation
methods of medicinal plants to treat human and livestock diseases in the study area. The
informants reported various methods of remedy preparation and application such as teeth
brushing, cutting, tieing, spraying, roasting, soaking and hanging dried leaf on window and
door. The most commonly used methods of remedy preparation were grinding (39%),
followed by chewing (11%), boiling (11%), eating (8%), and liquid form (6%) (Figure 5).
Similarly, Fisseha (2014) reported that the majority remedies in Amaro wereda were prepared
by powder (22%), crushing (19%) and chewing (17%).
In the present study, the ingredients mixed during remedy preparation were water, milk,
butter, coffee, food, salt, fodder, sugar and two or more other medicinal plants. Medicinal
plants such as Allium sativum L., Nigella sativa L., Aframomum corrorima (A.Braun)
P.C.M.Jansen, Vernonia schimperi DC., Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile., Lagenaria
siceraria (Molina) Standl, and Premna schimperi Engl. were the major plant species used as
plant ingredients for remedy preparation. The importance of mixing the medicinal plants with
other ingredients is to make the traditional medicine strong and effective, to increase the
effectivness of the medicine and to make it comfortable while taking it.
Similar studies by (Asnake et al. 2016) in Boricha district indicated that coffee with some
amount of salt was used as an additive for some of the remedies. In Wondo Genet some of the
remedies are taken with different additives, like butter, honey, sugar, tea, salt, food, water,
coffee and milk (Sintayehu 2011).
33
Figure 6. Methods of preparation of medicinal plants
3.1.6. Routes of administration
The medicinal plants preparation were applied through different routes of administration
such as oral, dermal, ocular, ear, external and nasal. The most commonly used routes were
oral (74%), followed by dermal (20%). The remaining (2%) were applied through external,
ocular, nasal and ear as shown in Figure 6. Similarly, the majority of the medicinal plants
were administered orally in Endrta (Gidey 2010). Assegid (2014) reported the majority of
plants use oral application of medicinal plants in Tsemay district. Sintayehu (2011)
mentioned the prepared remedies were widely administered orally in Wondo Genet.
34
Figure 7. Routes of administration of medicinal plants
3. 2. Medicinal plants used to treat human health problems
A total of 50 species which belongs to 46 genera and 30 families were recorded to treat
human diseases. In the study area, 34 human ailments were identified to be treated by many
medicinal plants (Table 3). A single plant can treat a number of human ailments, and a single
ailment can be treated by a number of plants. For instance, stomach-ache is a major disease
and can be treated by 41 medicinal plants (Table 3). Among the total 50 plant species
documented in this study, 11 species were mentioned in Kewessa et al. (2015), 4 species in
Luizza et al. (2013), 10 species in Fisseha (2009) and 4 species in Fisseha (2014).
Percent
35
Table 3 Human ailments that can be treated by medicinal plants.
No. Human ailments No. of medicinal plants
1 Stomach-ache 41
2 Headache 28
3 Malaria 18
4 Gastritis 15
5 Mitch 14
6 Amoeba 12
7 Goiter 12
8 Tuberculosis 11
9 Gonorrhea 11
10 Urine problems 10
11 Fancho/shefeta 10
12 Liver disease 10
13 Kintarot 9
14 Dingetegna 9
15 Hypertension 9
16 Toothache 7
17 Skin disease 6
3.3. Medicinal plants used to treat both human and livestock health problems
A total of 47 species which belongs to 46 genera and 32 families were recorded as being used
to treat both human and livestock diseases. In the Hawassa Zuria district, 22 types of human
and livestock ailments were recorded (Table 4) and 47 medicinal plants were identified to
treat both human and livestock ailments.
The medicinal plant species used to treat both human and livestock ailments in the current
study are also reported in other parts of Ethiopia. Among the total 47 plant species
documented in this study, 11 species are mentioned in Kewessa et al. (2015), 3 species in
Assegid (2014), 21 species in Ermias et al. (2008), 3 species in Sintayehu (2011), 5 species in
Luizza et al. (2013), 5 species in Fisseha (2009), 4 species in Gidey (2010) and 6 species in
Fisseha (2014).
36
Table 4 Human and livestock ailments that can be treated by medicinal plants
No. Human and livestock ailments No. of medicinal plants
1 Cancer 19
2 Headache 15
3 Coughing and sneezing 14
4 Diarrhea 14
5 Wound 13
6 Eye pain 13
7 Weight gain 13
8 Toothache 12
9 Dingetegna 11
10 Worms 10
11 Swelling 10
3.4. Medicinal plants used to treat livestock aliments
A total of eight species belonging to seven genera and seven families were recorded to treat
livestock diseases. In this study, livestock diseases are treated with fewer plants compared to
those used to treat human diseases. A total of 13 livestock diseases were treated by eight
species of plants (Table 5). The most common diseases which affect animals in the study area
were wounds, ticks, placenta delay and swelling.
In this study, livestock diseases are treated with a few number of plant species compared to
human diseases. Some of the medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases were Colocasia
esculenta (L.) Schott., Brassica carinata A. Br., Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Excell,
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl., Tragia brevipes Pax, Acacia etbaica Schweinf,
Acacia abyssinica Benth. and Gardenia temifolia. Among the documented species to treat
livestock diseases, only 1 species mentioned in Damtew et al. (2012) research works.
37
Table 5 Livestock ailments that can be treated by medicinal plants
No. Livestock ailments No. of medicinal plants
1 Wound 6
2 Ticks 5
3 Swelling 3
4 Anthrax 2
5 Evil eye 2
6 Gadanesa 2
7 Abdominal pain 2
8 Bloody urine and shivering 2
9 Lelit wof besheta 2
10 Black leg 1
11 Rabies 1
12 Leech 2
13 Placenta delay 1
3.5. Medicinal plants used for purpose other than medicinal value
In the study area, the respondents reported different functions of medicinal plants other than
their medicinal value. The majority of respondents reported that the medicinal plants can also
used as food, fodder and house construction in the study area. 33% of the medicinal plant
species were used for food, followed by fodder (28%) and house construction (26%)
(Figure 7). Similar findings reported that the majority of plant species were used for food
purpose other than medicinal value in Wonago district (Fisseha 2009).
38
Figure 8. Use categories of medicinal plants in Hawassa Zuria district
3.6. Importance of medicinal plants
3.6.1. Use Value (UV)
The highest UVs were recorded for Moringa stenopetala (1.36) used in 3 disease categories
and followed by Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach (1.17) used in 3 disease categories,
Tragia brevipes Pax (1.02) in 4 categories, Nicotiana tabacum L. (1.01) in 3 disease
categories, and Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Steane & Mabb. (0.93) in 3 categories.
The use value range between 0.01 and 1.36 (Table 2). The plants with the highest UV
indicates species that are considered most important by Sidama people in Hawassa Zuria
district. Least UV recorded for 35 plants such as Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Baker, Ceiba
pentandra L. Gaertn., Rumex abyssinicus Jacq., and Hordeum vulgare L., could be due to
limited applications of these plant uses in healing ailments.
39
3.6.2. Informant consensus factor (ICF)
The disease in the study area were grouped into 14 disease categories based on the usage
reports of the informants and resemblance to the disease category. A total of 61 disea
ses treated by 105 plant species were documented in the study area. Among the
disease categories, the categories with the highest ICF values were insects and ectoparasites
(0.95), followed by Fever (Malaria) (0.91) and sensory neuron disease (0.86) (Table 6). The
medicinal plants that had higher ICF values were persummed to be more common
and effective when used to treat a certain disease. However, fetal disease and pregnancy
related category had lower ICF value (0.59). Lower ICF values indicated that the informants
disagree on taxa to be used as a treatment within the disease category. The highest plant use
citation was found for gastrointestinal disease (418), followed by sensory neuron disease (297)
and then general and unspecified diseases (241). Similar findings were also reported that
gonorrhea, wound and stomachache had high degree of ICF in Hawassa city (Reta 2012).
3.6.3. Fidelity Level (FL)
Eucalyptus globulus (100%) and Ensete ventricosum (87.27%) were the two plant species
with the highest fidelity level and were found from gastrointestinal ailment and Fetal disease
pregnancy related disease category respectively. The next recorded highest fidelity level
values were Olea welwitschii (86.6%) and Moringa stenopetala (81.69%) within ear and eye
disease and cardiovascular system disease category respectively (Table 6). Higher FL can
imply that a particular plant purpose is most preferred as long as there is high number of use
mentions from the informants. In contrast, the lowest fidelity level values were Dodonaea
viscosa subsp. angustifolia (29.31%) from insects and ectoparasite, Croton macrostachyus
(31.18) from skeleton muscular system disorders, followed by Peponium vogelii (38.36) from
40
fever, Vernonia schimperi (40.32) from general and unspecified disease category. Lower
fidelity level implies a particular plant purpose is not preferable. In general, stomachache and
ticks showed higher fidelity level. However, previous findings reported that malaria showed
highest FL in Hawassa city (Reta 2012).
41
Table 6 . Categories of diseases, informant consensus factor and fidelity level of common plants in the study area.
No. Category name Reported diseases Code
No. of
use
report
No. of
taxa
ICF Frequently used
species
FL (%) Particular disease
1 Gastro-intestinal ailments Diarrhea, Abdominal pain, Swelling of Stomach ,Stomach ache,
Tape worms, Amoeba, Cholera, Gastritis ,Vomiting, Constipation,
Liver disease, Tooth ache, Indigestion.
GIA 418 101 0.76 Eucalyptus globulus
100 Stomachache
2 Dermatological
infections/diseases
Wound, Chirt, Quaqucha, ‘Bugunji', Itching, Skin disease, Bijajo
(hand wound), Dandruff.
DID 132 28 0.79 Rhamnus prinoides 64 Wound
3 Skeleto-muscular system
disorders
Leg pain, Leg swelling, Back pain, Bone fracture, Anthrax,
Swelling, Black leg.
SMSD 67 18 0.74 Croton
macrostachyus
31.18 Bone fracture
4 Respiratory systems diseases Tuberculosis, Tonsillitis, Coughing, Sneezing, Common cold, Cold,
and Asthema.
RSD 81 27 0.68 Aloe adigratana 63.64 Coughing
5 Genito-urinary ailments Gonorrhea (STD), ‘Kintarot', Urine problem, Kidney disease GUA 69 22 0.69 Catha edulis 74 Kintarot
6 Poisonous bites Rabies, Snake bite and Spider poisoning. PB 25 8 0.71 Datura stramonium 70 Rabies
7 Cardiovascular system
diseases
Hypertension, Heart disease, Low blood pressure. CSD 20 7 0.68 Moringa
stenopetala
81.69 Hypertension
8 Endocrine/metabolic/nutritio
nal
Diabetes, Weight loss, Goiter, Weight gain. EMN 124 30 0.76 Cucurbita pepo 50 Weight gain
9 Sensory neuron disease Cancer, Tetanus, Headache, Brain pain, ‘Azurit', and Typhoid. SND 297 41 0.86 Cucumis dipsaceus 62.96 Cancer
10 Fetal disease pregnancy
related
Abortion, Fontanelle closure and Plazenta delay. FD 18 8 0.59 Ensete ventricosum 87.27 Plazenta delay
11 Ear and Eye health Ear disease and Eye pain. EEH 73 14 0.82 Olea welwitschii 86.6 Eye pain
12 Fever Malaria. F 79 8 0.91 Peponium vogelii 38.36 Malaria
42
13
General and unspecified Mitch, Dingetegna (Wugat, Kurtimat), Evil eye, Sun problem, Lelit
wof disease, Fancho/Shifeta, Woranto, Kuwashakore, Balaamo,
Magarto, Gadaanesa.
GU
241 61 0.75 Vernonia schimperi 40.32 Mitch
14 Insects and ectoparasites Cockroach, Weevils, Honeybee, House fly, Corn worm, Ticks and
Lice.
IE 164 8 0.95 Dodonaea viscose
subsp. angustifolia
29.17 Ticks
ICF=informant consensus factor, FL=fidelity level
43
3.7. Ranking of medicinal plants
3.7.1. Preference ranking
Key informants were asked to compare medicinal plants based on their knowledge of the
medicinal plants to treat the illness and effectiveness of medicinal plants in treating the most
common human and livestock health problems by giving five for the most effective medicinal
plants and one for the least effective medicinal plants. Stomach-ache, wound and cancer were
the most common health problems in the study area.
As shown in table 7, Eucalyptus globulus Labil was ranked as the first most preferable
medicinal plants followed by Nigella sativa L. and Casimiro edulis La Llave. as second and
third rank for treating stomach-ache compared to the other plants. Similar findings in South
Omo reported that the highest numbers of plant species were reported to treat abdominal or
stomach disorders (Ketema 2013). Gastrointestinal disorder and parasite infections were the
most commonly treated diseases in Zegie peninsula (Tilahun and Mirutse 2007). Teferi (2009)
indicated that diarrhea and malaria are the most frequently reported disease in Benta ethnic
group.
Table 7. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating stomachache in human.
Medicinal plants
Informants Total
score
Rank
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10
Ruta chalepensis 4 3 4 5 4 5 2 3 2 3 35 5
Casimiro edulis 3 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 44 3
Eucalyptus globulus 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 50 1
Azadirachta indica 2 3 2 2 3 4 3 4 3 4 30 6
Rhamnus prinoides 4 4 5 3 3 5 5 4 5 5 43 4
Nigella sativa 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 48 2
Sida rhombifolia 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 19 7
44
According to the result, cancer was the most common diseases that challenge both human and
livestock in Hawassa Zuria district. Preference ranking results showed Cucumis dipsaceus
Ehrenb. ex Spach were the most preferable medicinal plants for treating cancer both in
human and livestock. Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Steane & Mabb. and Euphorbia
abyssinica J.F.Gmel. were ranked as 2nd
and 3rd
medicinal plants which are better to treat the
disease (Table 8).
Table 8. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating cancer both in human and
livestock
Medicinal plants
Informants Total
score
Rank
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10
Olinia rochetiana 5 3 3 4 5 4 4 3 4 4 39 4
Euphorbia abyssinica 4 4 5 5 5 4 3 4 4 4 42 3
Rotheca myricoides 5 5 4 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 46 2
Cucumis dipsaceus 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 50 1
Dodonaea viscose 3 4 3 5 4 3 3 4 3 4 36 6
Vernonia schimperi 3 3 2 4 3 2 3 2 3 2 27 7
Bersama abyssinica 5 4 3 3 3 4 3 5 4 3 37 5
Ten key informants were asked to rank seven selected medicinal plant species used against
malaria disease. The result showed that Azadirachta indica. was the most preferred
antimalarial plant and followed by Aloe adigratana, Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod.,
Peponium vogelii (Hook.f) Engl.), and Allium sativum L. in the preference ranking conducted
by key informants (Table 9). This is due to the preferred plant species were strong enough to
treat malaria disease and also easily availability of the plant from home garden and road side.
45
Table 9. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used against malaria disease.
Medicinal plants
Informants (I1-I10) Total
score
Rank
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10
Azadirachta indica 5 5 4 4 5 3 5 5 4 5 45 1st
Aloe adigratana 4 4 3 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 39 2nd
Moringa stenopetala 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 3 35 3rd
Peponium vogelii 3 4 4.5 4 4 3 4 3 3 2 33 4th
Allium sativum 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 24 5th
Vernonia amygdalina 2 2 1.5 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 16 6th
Eucalyptus globules 2 1 1.5 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 14 7th
3.7.2. Direct matrix ranking
Key informants evaluate the functionality of multifunctional medicinal plants to the local
people and indicated their scores for each medicinal plant (on a scale of 1-5). Eight medicinal
plants were selected to be evaluated by seven usage categories. The output of the direct
matrix analysis found Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman. to be the preferred medicinal
plant used for various purposes by the local people. followed by Olea welwitschii (Knobl.)
Gilg & G. Schellenb. and Dodonaea viscose subsp. angustifolia (Table 10). Ensete
ventricosum were used as food, fodder, house construction material, robe making, cultural
and spiritual value. Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg & G. Schellenb. used mainly for house
construction material, material cleaning, incense, firewood and cultural value. However, the
future availability of the plant species were under question if the local people keeps the
medicinal plants for firewood and other purposes. Conservation of medicinal plant species
should be considered.
46
Table 10. Direct matrix ranking of medicinal plants by informants (I1-I3) based on usage category values
Medicinal plants
Food Cultural value Farming utensils House
construction
Firewood Fodder Material
cleaning
Total
Rank
I1 I2 I3 I1 I2 I3 I1 I2 I3 I1 I2 I3 I1 I2 I3 I1 I2 I3 I1 I2 I3
Tragia brevipes 5 4 3 1 2 2 3 5 4 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 3 2 53 7th
Nicotiana tabacum 1 3 2 3 4 3 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 3 3 1 4 3 1 2 3 48 8th
Dodonaea viscose 1 2 2 2 2 1 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 1 4 2 2 1 66 3rd
Albizia gummifera 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 5 4 5 5 5 4 2 1 3 2 3 3 63 5th
Ensete ventricosum 5 4 5 4 4 2 3 1 2 5 4 4 4 3 4 5 4 4 3 1 2 73 1st
Ehretia cymosa 1 2 3 5 4 1 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 2 56 6th
Acacia etbaica 1 3 2 4 2 1 5 1 4 5 5 4 5 4 3 2 2 3 2 3 3 64 4th
Olea welwitschii 1 2 3 4 4 5 3 1 3 5 4 5 4 4 4 2 3 3 4 4 4 72 2nd
Total 73 80 69 93 82 62 60
Rank 4th 3rd 5th 1st 2nd 6th 7th
47
3.8. Therapeutic indications
The present study showed that 16% of diseases to treat medicinal plants were from
gastrointestinal ailments disease category followed by general and unspecified diseases at
14%, dermatological infections disease at 10%, and skeletomuscular system disorder,
respiratory systems diseases, insect and ectoparasites at 9% each (Figure 8). Similarly, 16.9%
of medicinal plants were used to treat gastrointestinal complaints among the Sheko ethnic
groups (Mirutse 2007). The highest proportions of Meinit (Giday et al. 2009) and Dek Island
(Teklehaymanot 2009) medicinal plants were used to treat gastrointestinal complaints.
Figure 9. Percent of number of diseases treated by medicinal plant in each disease category
(GIA=Gastro-intestinal ailments, GU=General and unspecified, DID=Dermatological infections/diseases,
SMSD=Skeleto-muscular system disorders, RSD=Respiratory systems diseases,IE=Insects and ectoparasites,
SND=Sensory neuron disease, GUA=Genito-urinary ailments,EMN=Endocrine/metabolic/nutritional,
PB=Poisonous bites, CSD= Cardiovascular system diseases,FD= Fetal disease pregnancy related, EEH= Ear
and Eye health, F= Fever )
48
3.9. New reports and new uses
Moringa stenopetala is used for amoeba treatment in the study area, and as inflammation,
wound, diabetes, eye disease and headache in other regions of Ethiopia (Temam and Dillo
2016). Nicotiana tabacum used against snake bites, toothache and headache in the present
study, whereas Tolossa et al. (2013) reported for common cold, leeches, tick infestation and
stomachache. Tragia brevipes Pax is used for evil eye, cancer, anthrax and diarrhea, where as
it is used as babesiosis according to Yibrah (2015). Cucumis dipsaceus is documented for
cough, cancer and black leg treatment in the current study. Whereas it is used for malaria,
intestinal parasite, pneumonia, gonorrhea, stomach problem according to the report by
Asnake et al., (2016) and Sintayehu (2011).
Aloe adigratana Reynolds. was a new Aloe species mentioned for the first time in the present
study. It was reported in the present study for the treatment of skin disease and gastritis. The
previous studies conducted in other area mentioned the use of Aloe spp for cold and malaria
treatment in Kembata (Melesse et al.,2015) and Boricha district Asnake et al., (2016).
Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Steane & Mabb. also know by the synonym name
Clerodendrum myricoides was reported to be used for mitch, cancer and toothache treatment
in the present study. Similarly, (Yibrah, 2014) reported the use of this plant for teeth pain in
Kochore district. Asnake et al., (2016) reported the plant to be used against malaria in
Boricha district.
According to the comparison of our findings with others ethnobotanical study in Ethiopia,
novel plant uses of some medicinal plants were documented. Aloe adigratana, Tragia
brevipes, Cucumis dipsaceus, Rotheca myricoides, was completely novel use in our study
area and never ever reported in other similar investigations. The pharmacological activity of
these plants are novel findings that only known in this area for such medicinal purpose.
49
3.10. Indigenous knowledge of Sidama people
3.10.1. Demographic characterstics of the informants
One hundred fifty informants participated in the ethnobotanical survey of Hawassa Zuria
district. Of these, 118 informants (78.6%) were male, 32 informants (21.4%) were females a
nd 30 informants were key informants. The majority of respondents were more than 50
years old (42.4%) and 56 informants ranged in age between 36 and 50 years (37.4%). Thirty
informants were between 20 and 35 years old (20%) (Table 11). The majority of informants
had attended elementary school (48%); 76% were farmers and 83% were followers of the
protestant religion.
Table 11. Demographic characterstics of informants.
Gender Count % Age Count % Educational status Count %
Male 118 78.6 Young (20-35 ) 30 20 Illiterate 63 42
Female 32 21.4 Adult (36-50) 56 37.4 Elementary (1-8) 72 48
Elder (>50) 64 42.4 Secondary (9-12) 12 8
Tertiary ( Tech.) 3 2
3.10.2. Traditional knowledge with respect to gender
According to the data obtained from the study, more male informants had indigenous
knowledge to treat human and livestock ailments than the female informants. Male
informants reported 406 uses of species whereas 117 species uses were reported by female
informants. Significantly more (p<0.05) medicinal plants were known by men than by
women (Table 12). The female informants reported less number of remedies to treat diseases
than male. This is due to mainly the traditional knowledge is transferred to the first son in the
family. Tesfu et al. (1995), Gedif and Hahn (2002) and Teklehaymanot (2009) also reported
50
male had more knowledge than the female one. It is always men who take up the art, though
many women pass the knowledge especially those dealing with childbirths (Kokwaro 1976).
3.10.3. Traditional knowledge with respect to age
With respect to age groups, the elder people had more indigenous knowledge than the young
generations. Young, adult and older informants reported 106, 189 and 228 species uses to
treat various ailments respectively (Table 12). This indicates that modernization limits the
interest of young people to learn the knowledge from the elder people. Elderly people were
the most knowledgable on traditional medicinal plants. This findings is similar with the
previous study of Giday (2001), Oljira (2015), Karunamoorthi (2012), Nega (2018), and
Karunamoorthi (2009).
This is because of loss of interest by the young generation to use traditional knowledge,
exotic culture and modernization, secrecy of indigenious knowledge by elederly people.
Similar findings were documented in different part of Ethiopia. Teferi (2003), Debela (2004)
and Tizazu (2005) reported that elderly people are more knowledgable on traditional
medicinal practices.
3.10.4. Traditional knowledge with respect to education
Regarding education of the informant, the majority were literate that is atleast they attend
basic education and had more knowledge of medicinal plants use than the illiterate people.
In the current study, educated people reported higher number of species use (256) than
illiterate people (205) (Table 12). Particularly, informants who attended elementary
school had more knowledge of medicinal plants than the informants who had basic,
secondary and tertiary education level. Thus, this indicates educated informants uses
51
higher medicinal plants to treat different ailments. This shows modern education did
not limits the knowledge on traditional medicine to some extent. Similarly, Ashagre et al.
(2016) reported being educated increases traditional wild edible plant knowledge. Regassa et
al. (2014) repored in the same way literates were more knowledgable than illiterate
informants. However, most of the previous studies indicates illiterate informants had
more knowledge than the literate. This is due to modernization influences to use
modern medicine (Giday et al. 2010), Gedif and Hahn (2003), Wester and Yongvanit
(1995).
Table 12. Comparison of plant use-reports by different informant groups.
Parameter Informant group
N Use
report (UR) Mean
p-value
Gender * Women 32 117 3.44 0.000024
Men 118 406 3.65
Age * Young (20-35) 30 106 3.53 0.039038
Adult (36-50) 56 189 3.37
Older (>50yrs) 64 228 3.56
Education level * Illiterate 63 221 3.50 0.004907
Elementary 72 256 3.55
Secondary 16 51 3.18
Tertiary 3 11 3.66
*significant difference (p<0.05) between averages of the paired categories
3.10. Jaccard's coefficient of similarity
The highest Jaccard's coefficient of similarity in the composition of medicinal plants was
found between the study area and Wondo Genet district (15.5%), whereas similarity was less
with Mana Angetu (8.96%) (Table 13). The possible reasons for similarity and differences
between the study area and other areas might be due to agroecological climatic conditions in
the region. For instance, Hawassa Zuria district and Wondo Genet district lies in the same
agroecological climate zones (1700-1850ma.s.l). That is both Hawassa Zuria district and
52
Wondo Genet district are located in Sidama Zone, Southern parts of Ethiopia. However,
Hawassa Zuria district and Mana Agnetu lies in different zones and climatic conditions. Mana
Angetu District is found in the Southwestern corner of Bale Zone, Oromia National Regional
State, Ethiopia. In general, the variation in climatic conditions, indigenous knowledge and
practice of medicinal plants, sample size, topography and type of flora may influence the
similarity.
Table 13. Comparison of species found in the study area with that of other study areas
Study areas Species
no. (a or
b)
Common
species
(c)
Jaccards
coefficient(sj)
%
similarity
References
Hawassa Zuria
district
105 - - - Study area
Amaro district 56 22 0.12 12.0 (Getu,2017)
Wondogenet district 85 35 0.15 15.5 (Sintayehu,2011)
Wonago district 155 26 0.09 9.09 (Mesfine et al.,2009)
Mana Angetu 230 33 0.08 8.96 (Luelekal et al., 2013) a is the number of species which is found in habitat A, b is the number of species found only in habitat B, and c is the
number of common species found in habitats A and B.
3.11. Threats to medicinal plants
Numerous factors are considered as a threats to medicinal plants in the study area. According
to the response from key informants, the major threats to medicinal plants were agriculture
expansion (30%) followed by firewood collection (23%) and environmental degradation
(20%) (Figure 9). According to elderly people and healers, the main cause for the loss of
medicinal plants in the study area were deforestation, agriculture and cash crop
expansion.The data obtained from figure 3 indicated that medicinal plants were used for
various purposes other than their medicinal value. Some of the uses were for house
construction material, food, fodder, firewood, charcoal, spice, cultural and spiritual value.
Over explotation of medicinal plants for these usage can lead to the loss of medicinal plants.
53
According to the informants interview responses, the main factor for threats to medicinal
plants in the study area is human factor such as the usage of medicinal plants other than their
primary purpose. For instance, agriculture expansion, firewood, house construction and
expansion of cash crops. Other research on threats to medicinal plants in Dale (Gonfa 2015),
the Benna Tsemay district (Assegid 2014), the Mana Angetu district (Lulekal 2008), Wondo
Genet (Sintayehu 2011), Amaro woreda (Mesfin 2014) and Wonago woreda (Mesfin 2009)
indicated findings similar to those here.
The other factors for the loss indiginious knowledge and medicinal plants in the study area
were secrecy of traditional knowledge by elderly people, weak transferring system of
indiginious knowledge, influence of modern education and unwillingness of young
generation. Other findings (Sintayehu 2011), (Giday 2010), (Giday 2003 and (Gedif 2002)
reported there is an aura of top secrecy in the passing of indigenous knowledge within
families.
Figure. 10 Threats to medicinal plants in the study area
30%
23% 20%
14%
10%
3% Agriculture expansion
Firewood
Environmental degradation
Deforestation
Construction
Charcoal
54
4. CONCLUSION
The results of the study revealed that there is high diversity of the medicinal plants in the
Hawassa Zuria district. One hundred and five medicinal plant species were documented to
treat 61 human and livestock ailments. Stomachache, headache, malaria, gastritis, mitch,
amoeba, goitre, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea and urine problems were frequently occurring
human ailments, whereas wounds, ticks, swelling, anthrax, evil eye, and ‘gadanesa’ were
common livestock ailments. This indicates that local people depend on indigenous knowledge
to prevent various human and livestock ailments.
In the study area, major knowledge differences were found among different social groups.
Male informants had more knowledge than females. Older informants above 50 years of age
were more knowledgeable than the young between 20 to 35 years and adult informants
between 36 to 50 years. Informants who attended elementary school had more knowledge
than those who were illiterate.
The main threats to medicinal plants in the Hawassa Zuria district were agricultural
expansion, firewood and environmental degradation. The medicinal traditional knowledge
gap between the older and young generations has also impacted the loss of indigenous
knowledge. Therefore, there should be mentoring programs for local people in the study area
to conserve their indigenous knowledge resources and prevent the extinction of their
medicinal plants.
Conservation of endangered endemic medicinal plants through in vitro and ex vitro
propagation should be developed to protect the extinction of medicinal plants. Furthermore,
the current documented information on the medicinal plants of the Sidama people can be used
as baseline data for future studies of promising pharmacologically important medicinal plants
and for phytochemical investigations.
55
5. RECOMMENDATION
Awareness to all the community on medicinal plants should be considered. Conservation of
medicinal plants such as growing of plants in their back yard should be practiced among the
local people in the study area. Botanical gardens should be installed in the study area inorder
to conserve medicinal plants. Local people should be encouraged to grow medicinal plants in
their homegardens, mixed with crops in farmlands and as a live fences.
The local people in the community should harvest the leaves parts of the plant since
harvesting root part or the whole part for remedy preparation leads to the loss of medicinal
plants. Awareness should be created among the community regarding conservation and
management of medicinal plants. Elderly people should be trained on how they transfer their
knowledge to the next generation without keeping secret. Women should be involved in using
medicinal plants to treat different ailments by themselves and should be encouraged to
cultivate medicinal plants in their homegarden.
Traditional healers should be encouraged to collaborate with modern doctors/health workers
in order to contribute their indigenous knowledge to the modern health care service.
Traditional healers association should be created or installed in Hawassa Zuria district inorder
to meet all hearlers together to share their knowledge to each others. There should be clinics
that traditional healers treat their patients like hospitals. Treating patients house to house
should be discouraged for better healthcare service. Traditional medicine dosage should be
standardized inorder to minimize the side effects, toxicity and harm.
Ethnoveterinary medicine should be practiced inorder to manage major livestock health
problems such as ectoparasite diseaseas. The use of medicinal plants in the treatment of
livestock diseases should be explored scientifically equivalent to human diseases. Repellent
and antimalarial medicinal plants should also conduct in other parts of Ethiopia inorder to
56
find out better malaria disease management. Further phytochemical investigations and
pharmaceutical studies should be considered using the promising or candidates medicinal
plant species inorder to discover new drugs and products.
Medicinal plants and traditional knowledge should be integrated in modern school curricula
to create awareness in the new generation and as a strategy of conservation. Students should
be encouraged to ask and learn from their parents and community elders about the indigenous
knowledge and the practice of traditional medicine. Small enterprises on cultivation of plants
species should be created and organized to improve the income generating capacity of the
local people. A socioeconomic study and market survey of medicinal plants should be
conducted in rural Ethiopia open markets.
57
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Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants used by Sidama people
of Hawassa Zuria district, Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia
2019 year
PhD degree
Banchiamlak Nigussie Tefera
Department of Life Science
Advisor: Kim, Young-Dong
Ethiopia is one of the species-rich countries in the world and the center of origin with regard
to the diversity of many plant species. Ethnobotanical studies are vital to investigate these
diverse biological resources for medicinal purposes. Thus, the aim of this study was to
document the indigenous knowledge of Sidama people on the use of medicinal plants to treat
human and livestock diseases in Hawassa Zuria district of Southern Ethiopia. Ethnobotanical
survey was conducted in ten kebeles of Hawassa Zuria districts. A total of 150 informants
(118 men and 32 women) were selected to collect ethnobotanical information from ten
kebeles by means of a stratified purposive sampling method. Among the informants, 30 key
informants were selected purposefully. Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-
structured interviews and group discussions and were analyzed by descriptive statistics,
informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL) and ranking methods. A total of 105
medicinal plants distributed across 52 families and 96 genera were collected. Fabaceae
(11 species) was represented by the highest number of plant species, followed by Lamiaceae
(7 species). Herbs (34%) were dominant growth habit of plants,followed by trees (33%).
Leaves (56%) were the dominant plant part used in the preparation of remedies,followed by
fruit (15%). The most common methods of remedy preparation were grinding (39%),
followed by chewing anf boiling (11% each). Oral (74%) was the major routes of
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administration, followed by dermal (20%). There was a significant knowledge difference
(p<0.05) between social groups regarding the use of traditional medicinal plants. Insects and
ectoparasites disease category (ICF = 0.95) had higher informant consensus factor value
followed by fever disease category (ICF = 0.91). Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (FL =100%),
had a higher fidelity level to treat stomach-ache, followed by Ensete ventricosum (Welw.)
Cheesman. (FL =87.27%) to treat placenta delay. Ensete ventricosum (Total score = 73) was
ranked highest as the most preferable medicinal plant for various purposes by local people,
followed by Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg (Total score = 72). The present study revealed the
existence of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants to treat human and livestock ailments.
However, agricultural expansion, firewood collection, environmental degradation, and
deforestation are the main threats to medicinal plants. Therefore, there should be mentoring
for the local people in the study area to conserve their indigenous knowledge resources and
prevent the extinction of medicinal plants.
Key words: Medicinal plants, Traditional knowledge, Sidama people, Hawassa Zuria district
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Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants used by Sidama people
in the Hawassa Zuria district, Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia
2019년
박사학위논문
반치아믈락 느구시에 테페라
생명과학과
지도교수: 김영동
에티오피아는 식물 종의 다양성이 풍부한 곳이며 많은 식물 종의 원산지이다. 의약학
분야에서 다양한 생물 자원을 조사하는 것은 민속식물학 연구의 중요한 분야이다. 이
연구의 목적은 에티오피아 남부 하와사 주리아 지역에서 시다마 사람들이 인간과 가축의
질병을 치료하는 데 사용하는 약용식물의 전통지식을 수집하는 것이다. 민속식물학
연구는 하와사 주리아 지역의 열 개 케벨 (마을)을 대상으로 수행하였다. 총 150명의
정보 제공자(남자 118명, 여자 32명)를 대상으로 반계층적 표본추출 방법을 사용하여
전통지식 정보를 수집하였다. 정보 제공자 중 30명은 특별히 선택되었다. 인터뷰와
그룹 토론을 통해 수집한 정보를 정보 합치도, 충실도 레벨 및 순위 결정 등의 통계적
방법으로 분석하였다. 총 52개 과 96개 속에 포함되는 105 종의 약용식물에
대한 정보를 수집하였다. 이 가운데 콩과 (11종)가 가장 많았고, 꿀풀과 (7종)가 그 뒤를
이었다. 초본 (34%)이 가장 많았고 교목 (33%)이 그 뒤를 이었다. 사용 부위는 잎이 56%
로 가장 많았고 열매 (15%)가 그 뒤를 이었다. 이들 약용식물의 가장 일반적인 처리
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방법은 연삭이었으며 (39%) 저작과 끓이는 것이 각각 11%로 그 뒤를 이었다. 투여
경로는 경구 (74%)가 주를 이뤘고 피부 도포(20%)가 그 뒤를 이었다. 약용식물의
전통지식에 있어서 집단 간에 유의미한 차이(p <0.05)가 존재하였다. 곤충 및 체외
기생충이 일으키는 질병 범주가 정보 합치도(0.95)가 가장 높았고 발열질환 질병 범주의
정보 합치도(0.91)가 그 뒤를 이었다. 충실도의 경우 Eucalyptus globulus가 복통을
치료하는 것과 관련하여 가장 높았고 (100%) Ensete ventricosum이 태반 지연을
치료하는 것과 관련하여 그 뒤를 이었다 (87.27%). Ensete ventricosum은 지역 주민들이
가장 선호하는 약용식물이었고(총점 73), Olea welwitschii가 그 뒤를 이었다(총점 72). 본
연구를 통하여 인간과 가축의 질병을 치료하기 위한 약용식물에 대한 전통지식의 존재가
확인되었다. 한편 농지 확장, 땔감 수집, 환경 파괴 및 삼림 벌채는 약용식물의 주된
위협이다. 따라서 지역 주민들이 전통지식 자원을 보존하고 약용식물의 멸종을 막기
위한 계도 노력이 필요하다.
키워드: 약용식물, 전통지식, 하와사 주리아 지역, 시다마족, 에티오피아
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and for most I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the Almighty God and Saint
Mary for helping me to endure the rigorous of everyday life and to cope with the challenges
of graduate studies.
Second I would like to express my appreciation to the KGSP of NIIED, for sponsorship to
pursue my PhD study at Hallym University.
I would like to thank my advisor Prof. Kim, Young-dong, for his critical comments and
suggestion during the manuscript write up.
I would like to acknowledge Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center (WGARC), Wondo
Genet College of forestry and the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University for
supporting this research work by allowing car service, accommodation and laboratory during
the field trip to Ethiopia.
I am very much grateful to all the study participants who shared their knowledge on the usage
of medicinal plants in Hawassa Zuria district. To all my field assistances and drivers for the
interview and field survey work in Hawassa Zuria district.
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Ermias Leuelkal and his stuff members, Mr. Muluken
Philipos and his stuff members, Mr.Eyob Ulcha, and Mr. Melkamu Hordofa for their sincere
and unreserved support during my stay in Ethiopia for research work.
My last but not the least acknowledgement goes to my beloved family, friends in Ethiopia as
well as in South Korea for their love, prayers, encouragement and motivation to become one
of the successful woman in the world.
Banchiamlak Nigussie Tefera
June 2019
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APPENDIX A
Semi-structured questionnaire, interview guide and other documents
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Appendix A1: Semi-structured questionnaire and interview guide
Questionnaire
Village: _________
Date:
Informant No.:__________
Participants’ Information:
Name: Age: Gender: Male/Female
Education status: Marital Status: Single/Married No. of children: _____
Years of residence: ________ Occupation: ____________________ Income: _____________
Religion: __________ Others: ______________________________________________
Interview guide:
1. What are the major medicinal plants used to treat different aliments?
2. Which part of the plant is used as remedy? (Leaf/Stem/Root/Flower/Bark/Fruit/Seed).
3. What are the methods of preparation of the medicinal plants?
(Crushed/pounded/Powdered/Concoction/Decoction/Infusion/mixed with others).
4. Forms of medicinal plants used (Fresh/Dry form).
5. How is the dosage and way of administration of medicinal plants? (Oral/Nasal/Dermal)
6. Place and distance of medicinal plants collection (Home garden/Wild forest).
7. Time of medicinal plants collection (Morning/Afternoon/Night).
8. Side effects and the antidotes while using the medicinal plants.
9. The other uses of medicinal plants (Food/Fodder/Fence/Firewood).
10. Storage and conservation of medicinal plants.
11. Source and transfer of indigenous knowledge (Father/Mother/Friends).
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Appendix B
Glimpse of photographs clicked during the entire period of study
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The author standing curious at the Hawassa Zuria district office
The author with the informants and local guide during the interview
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Partial view of the study sites for informant interview and collection of medicinal plant
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Group discussion with key informants
Left to right: colleague, informant, author and local guide
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Interviewing informants by field assistant and mini towel gift for informants
Whispering of the key informant to keep the indigenous knowledge as secretive as possible
during the interview though
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An 83 years old key informant showing his dried medicinal plants
A picture showing how the informants apply Argemone Mexicana L. for disease treatment
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Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach Euphorbia abyssinica J.F. Gmel.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.
Salvia nilotica Juss. Ex Jacq. Schinus molle L.
A glimpse of collected medicnal plants from the study area
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Plant pressing with friends at Wondo Genet College herbarium
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Sun drying of pressed plant specimens
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Bottle gourd of Lagenaria siceraria during the collection of specimens
Ethiopian vegie food all made from plants