ethics and journalism practice in nigeria: an appraisal

Ethics And Journalism Practice In Nigeria: An Appraisal

Ibituru I. Pepple, Ph.D,Department of Mass Communication and Digital Media,

University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.

AbstractThis paper appraised ethics and Journalism practice in Nigeria. So many factors were discovered to have impeded Journalism practice in Nigeria; some of such factors include: the brown envelope, free lunch, confidential information, and photo-manipulation. Sophistication in science and technology has changed the course of events as pictures and other Journalistic materials are manipulated to suit the situation or needs of media owners, thus, throwing ethics to the background. The reporter who is under the control of his master, dances to the drum beaten by him, rather than put ethics into consideration. Udoakah's postulation that every society has what its members regard as valuable, as well as, its own culture and tradition as a symbol of identity becomes apt for the study. The Historical Research method was adopted for this study, thus, some documents were used and interviews conducted in the course of the study. It was concluded that ethical considerations in the performance of Journalistic duties will bring about better and most acceptable way of performing the functions, irrespective of the fallibility of the journalist.

Introduction Every society strives to maintain an acceptable standard and behavioural pattern that will suit its way of life. According to Udoakah (2003) the press irrespective of ownership serves a purpose in society. Shepard (1981, p.13) posits that functionalism also assumes that most members of a society agree on what is describe to have and achieve- in order words, there is a consensus on values and interest. Udoakah (2000, p.75) argues also that, every society has what its member regard as valuable; has its own culture and traditions as symbols of identity. These symbols of identity can be referred to as its ethical codes. These codes guide their behaviours and associations. Udoakah (2000, p.77) adds further, that this presentation on communication and society rests on the notion that all institutions in society, beliefs and morals are interrelated, and their co-existence with each other, provides the bond that keeps society together. Milibaund (1967, p.198) adds that the press may be taken as the first and most obvious

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Journal of Media, Communication & Languages

example of this role. Journalism practice in Nigeria has suffered many setbacks due to the intrusion into the media business by politicians and businessmen, hence the need to input standards to the practice necessitated the ethical code of Journalism. Ethicsare rules governing the behaviour of an individual or organization. They are also moral principles that guide the actions of practitioners in a given situation. Originally, the word ethics was coined from Greek word “Ethos” meaning the customs, traditions or character that guides a group or culture. Philip (2011, p.50) defines ethics as “the application of rational thoughts by media practitioners or professionals when they are deciding between two or more competing moral choices”. In fact, a good journalist is judged by the extent of his commitment to these ideals. Those entering the journalism profession need to adhere to the tenets of Journalistic practice which is the truth. It is solely on this premise that all journalistic codes are based. They include: Truth, Objectivity, Fairness, Accuracy, Independence and Responsibility.

th st In the 20 and 21 centuries, the pragmatic view of truth as more subjective has gained dominance. In this view, neither knowledge nor reality is fixed. Instead, both are filtered through individual perception i.e. what you see (and know or think) depends on who you are. Today's post modernists, who say that all meaning is contextual, have built on this pragmatic notion of truth. Ethical issues arise in deciding which “truth” to convey and how to go about it. For the ancient Greek and other Pre-literate cultures, truth was what was memorable and therefore could be passed along orally from generation to generation. For Plato however, truth was an ideal one that could be only intellectually grasped. We cannot actually know truth in the real world, it exists only in the metaphysical world of ideal forms. In medieval Europe, truth was whatever those in powers said it was; and these were typically the Kings or Religious leaders who claimed to speak on behalf of God. In the case of Milton, he asserted that truth is a market place or ideas. He asserted further, that truth is what prevails among various competing ideas, and it is the idea that withstands all challenges. Enlightenment thinkers say truth is what can be observed, verified replicated and understood by rational human beings. Machiavelli's approach to ethics is that in which a good action is defined as one that brings personal success, regardless of the means used to attain it. In his views, “Pragmatic” means something close to subjectivity or relativism. In this

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wise, a Journalist is committed to talking the truth, but not all truths are publishable. We have publishable and un-publishable truths. Publishable truths are things that must be 'fit' to print' as it were. Okoye (2005) posits that publishable truths must be of public interest and must not undermine national security. Okoye argues that a good journalist must be patriotic enough to protect the security, unity and progress of his nation. Publishable truths must not offend good taste and public morality rather, they should be accurate without biases. Gatekeepers or editors determine in most cases the decision that need to be taken concerning a particular story, therefore, they need to be objective in their reportage functions.Obviously, it must also be added that the decision as to what satisfies the above considerations may differ from editor to editor, but ethical considerations must be applied at all time to avoid lapses. Another ethical consideration is fairness. Fairness in Journalistic parlance means, treating both parties with equal regard. Mass media are powerful tools for information dissemination and enlightenment; therefore, those who operate them must exercise utmost caution to ensure that all persons or sides are treated equally and according to the accepted standards. Okoye (2005, p.15) adds that journalists should present the news fairly and impartially, placing value on significance and relevance. Beyond fairness, which is objectivity in journalistic parlance, other forms of truth exist, these are:

(i) Transcendental Truth

(ii) Potential Truth

(iii) Selected Truth

(iv) Reported Truth

(v) Audience-Perceived Truth and

(vi) AccuracyTranscendental TruthTruth with a capital “T”, Truth that is complete and all-encompassing. Such Truth is beyond the reach of mere mortals (including Journalists). It cannot be found, and it cannot be communicated. It is extremely celestial and beyond human reach.

Potential TruthThe aspects of transcendental truth that can, potentially, be grasped through diligent and persistent effort involving perception, investigation and

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rationality. Such truth is theoretically attainable (though extremely difficult to attain in practice and serves as an ideal or goal).

Selected TruthThe part of the potential truth that the journalist actually selected from the total reality of a situation. Selected truth is captured by the reporter and makes up the raw material of a story. This is the truth that is actually attained.

Reported TruthThe part of the selected truth that goes into the journalist's report. It constitutes the Journalist's presentation of reality to the public. This is the story itself, and this level of truth is the journalist's perception of objectivity. The better (and more ethical) the journalist, the more reported truth the story will contain… Time and space permitting, of course.

Audience-Perceived TruthWhat readers or viewers understand as truth, based on the Journalist's report. This is the audience perception of the story, and Merrill (2004) says the journalist has no control over this level of truth. Merrill also emphasizes that it is journalists' desireto be ethical to discover the truth- that is important. Complete Truth with Capital 'T' is unattainable, but pursuing the desire to come as close as possible will produce ethical Journalism. Journalism's first Obligation is to the truth. People need information that is both true (corresponding to reality) and significant (important and meaningful). Journalists in today's media environment must not just recount the 'fact' but also help citizens make sense of them. Merril (2004) argues that truth is best understood as a goal –and its attainment as the result of a shared process:Truthis a complicated and contradictory phenomenon but journalists can get at it with persistence and dedication over a period of time. Journalists attempt to get at the truth in a confused world by stripping information first of any attached misinformation, disinformation or self-promoting information, and then letting the community react and the sorting-out process ensure. In this instance, the search for truth becomes a conversation. Accuracy is sometimes used as synonym for truth in journalism. But accuracy-getting the big and small facts right – is only one element of truth, which, as can be seen, is much more multi-faceted.Merril (2004) pleads that we should never add anything that was not there.If it did not happen, it does not belong in the story. This goes further than never invent or

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make things up. It also encompasses rearranging events in time or place or conflating characters or events. If you are going to engage in any narrative or storytelling techniques that vary from the most literal form of eyewitness reporting, the audience should know. (This includes altering quotes.) If it is acknowledged that what you have done would make it unpalatable to the audience, then it is self-evidently improper. A useful check is to be as transparent as possible about your reporting and motives and to be as open and honest with audiences as you can about what you know and what you don't. Reveal as much as possible about sources and methods:

· How do you know you know?

· Who are your sources?

· How direct is their knowledge?

· What biases might they have?

· Are there conflicting accounts?

· What don't we know? Transparency is the best protection against errors and deception by sources. Do not lie or mislead your sources in the process of trying to tell the truth to your audiences. Bluffing sources, failing to level with them about the real point of the story, even simply lying to sources are all techniques some journalists have applied in the name of seeking truth which are bad practices and bad habits.If you lie to your sources, you have little reason to expect them to tell you the truth in return.

· Do your own, original reporting.

· Do your own work. It's that simple.

· Be humble and keep an open mind. Be careful not to assume you understand more than you really do. You should be skeptical not only what you see and hear but also of your ability to know what it means.Recognize fallibility and the limitations of your knowledge. Acknowledge what you are unsure of --- then check it out.

Literature Review In Nigeria, part of the problems that have bedevilled Journalism practice are brown envelope or free lunch, confidential information and photo-manipulation.

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Brown Envelope or Free Lunch SyndromeOne unethical practice in journalism is the brown envelope and free lunch syndrome. Brown-envelope is now a concept in Journalism practice which is particularly referred to as bribe. It is a false gratification for a legitimate job done by a reporter in course of his assignment. Brown envelope mortgages the conscience of the reporter who favours the person or persons from whom he has received such gratification. In modern day journalism practice, brown envelope is wrongly perceived as a public relations tool, so it is often called and referred to as PR, which tends to make it more legitimate than illegitimate. Free lunch as the name implies is in the neighbourhood of brown-envelope, which is also an inducement to influence behaviour. The disadvantages of the brown envelope and free-lunch are a negation of the journalism code of ethics which is down played at that point.

Confidential Information in Journalism PracticeConfidential information is information given in trust. The truth to such confidentially is the nature of the information given. If it is of public interest, then it cannot be confidential as public interest overrides every other interest. The tenets of Public Interest Journalism rest on good journalism practice which include:

· Journalists' first obligation- which is to the truth.

· Its first loyalty is to citizens.

· Its essence is a discipline of verification

· Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they

cover.

· It must serve as an independent monitor of power.

· It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.

· It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant.

· It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.

· Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal

conscience, Agbase as cited in Omenugha (2011).If it is also against national security then it also seizes to be confidential as the codes of journalism practice does not subscribe to confidentiality when national security is at stake.

Photojournalism Udoakah (1993, p.88) says that a large number of consumers of mass media

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products such as news, features, profiles, interviews, documentaries, magazine programmes and films of sorts, regard them as the whole truth of the situation reported on, especially when such situations are presented by the audio-visual medium. It is true that that pictures are worth 1,000 words – in the newspaper business that equals about 25 inches of print. Images are one of the most powerful forms of communication, especially in journalism. One image or sound can summarize an event or person or motivate a nation; one image can upset people more than endless pages of print on the subject. Photojournalism has a long and cherished tradition of truthfulness. The impact of the visual image on a viewer comes directly from the belief that the “camera never lies.” As a machine, the camera faithfully and unemotionally records a moment in time. But a machine is only as truthful as the hands that guide it. Lesler (1991) explains that when truthfulness and visual impact are combined in a powerful picture, such an image can shock the public. But that public trust, however, can also be manipulated. The faking of photographs, either through stage direction by the photographer or through picture manipulations, also has a long tradition. Photographers and editors learned early in photography's history that economic and political gains can be made by photographic manipulations because of a naive and trusting public. Even award-winning images, photographs that have been hailed as beautiful, humanistic documents filled sorrow, hope, or joy, have been questioned because of rumours of manipulation. The media have been criticized for showing so many gruesome images that tend to sway the public has hardened toward violent injustices. There is growing concern that new technological advances allow easy and undetectable picture manipulation cause the public to be unconcerned about the truthful content of photographs as well. With the acceptance of television “docu-dramas” that show fiction within a factual framework, it is not surprising that news organizations have used Hollywood techniques to create facts. When pyramids are moved and moons are enlarged for cover pictures of well-respected photojournalism publications, the public grows cynical and mistrustful of journalism. The Hedonism philosophy is taken to its most exaggerated point when business, not telling the truth, is the prime concern. Jim and Hart (2002) eloquently sums up the dangers to Journalism with such manipulations. “Credibility and Responsibility, these words give the right to call photography a profession rather than a business. Not maintaining that credibility will diminish our journalistic impact and self-

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respect, and the importance of photography as communication.” With all the other ethical issues photojournalists should be concerned about, picture manipulation, especially through the use of computers is a topic that journalists are most concerned about. The threat to credibility is irreversible if the public starts to mistrust the integrity of the news photograph. In early days of newspaper journalism, the photojournalist's role was relatively straightforward. Back at the newsroom, he spent hours in the darkroom mixing chemicals and perfecting his arts. The photojournalist emerged with a snippet of reality, ready to show the truth to the public. The

thdevelopment of news photography in the 19 century supported claims by newspapers that they reported events as they happened, objectively. The ethics of photojournalism goes far beyond the ethics of the newspaper photo. It includes the millions of news photographs and images simply 'mirror' events is no longer plausible. Moreover, photojournalists face tough ethical decisions on what to shoot, what to use, and if and when images can be altered. In newsrooms, digital technology has all but eliminated the cumbersome process of film developing. Digital images are easily transmitted, raising the demand for images. With fresh demand comes increasing competition for the best, most dramatic photo. There is no sole arbiter of what is or is not ethical, and even if there were, the line is not always black and white. Most texts regarding ethics in photojournalism focus on the issue of what could be termed “photographic truth” – whether a particular image accurately represents the subject or whether it misleads the viewer. The National Press Photographer Association Code ofEthics states that the “primary goal” of photojournalists is the “…faithful and comprehensive depiction of the subject at hand. Additionally, photojournalistic ethics might encompass the choices an individual photographer makes while shooting. If someone asks that his or her photo should not be taken, is it ethical to photograph that person anyway? If ethics in photojournalism is about being “faithful and comprehensive,” is intentionally underexposing or poorly focusing unethical? Some of these questions sit on the line between journalistic ethics and professionalism. To draw a line, six ethical philosophies of photojournalism practice would be x-rayed.1. The Categorical Imperative: is a distilled version of Kant's

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notion that what is acceptable for a single person should be acceptable for everyone, almost like theorical “non-discrimination clause.” For example, if a newspaper editor is trying to decide whether or not to publish an image of a partially nude young woman fleeing a house fire. That editor would consider whether he would publish the image under different circumstances if the subject was male, or elderly or obese. The Categorical imperative says that what goes for one should go for everyone.

2. Utilitarianism as a philosophy attempts to weigh positives and negatives of a situation, and maximize the good for the greatest number of people. For example, if gruesome photos of a car crash offend the victims' families, but shock the community into driving safely, then by Utilitarianism the taking and publication of those photos is deemed to be ethical.

3. Hedonism represents the 'do what feels good' school of thought, and might be used to justify printing explicit photos simply because they are titillating. Publishing a provocative front-page photo simply for the sake of selling newspapers would be an example of hedonism.

4. The Golden Mean philosophy has to do with compromise. If there is a less intrusive, offensive, or disagreeable photograph that still tells the story, that would be a better option. The emphasis is on finding middle ground rather than an all-or-nothing approach.

5. The Veil of Ignorance asks the photographer or editor to consider how they would feel if they were the subject. If they would not feel good in the subject's place, it would be better to look for a different image.

6. The Golden Rule: is sometime phrased “love thy neighbor as thyself.” As an ethical philosophy it requires that a photographer or editor treat his subjects as he would treat himself. This, of course, leaves decisions subject to the photographer's, editor's, or institution's ethics.

Ethical Issues in Photojournalism1. Manipulation of digital images

Software such as Adobe Photoshop and its imitators has created a new age of photography. With the click of a mouse you can create a new 'truth' by changing, in an instant, the size, shape and colour of the image and the distance between objects. Objects can be removed from the image, or inserted into the picture. For example,

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if you are a hockey photographer, you could add a puck to the scene of a goalmouth scramble – if the real puck was obscured by a player. As a travel photographer, you can reduce the distance of the pyramids in your image so they fit the cover page of your magazine.

2. Intrusion into privacyThe development of long-range lens and the demand for attention-grabbing photos combine to make privacy a major ethical issue. When is it legitimate to take pictures of people in private moments? Should photojournalists take shots of families in grief or victims of tragedy? The public perception of the journalists and of the news media in general, has suffered from unjustified intrusions into privacy. The ethical question is, when is intrusion justified?

3. Graphic or shocking images If news outlets use graphic pictures of war, they are accused of

exploiting the pain of others. If they avoid graphic photos, they are accused of 'sanitizing' the conflict. What criteria should guide photo decisions – local or community standards? Newsworthiness?Dramatic impact?A commitment to tell the whole truth?

According to Al Tompkins from the pointer Institute in the US, when deciding whether a photograph is too graphic for the paper, newsroom should consider. “what is the journalistic value of the photographs? What do they prove and why are they news? Do they dispel or affirm information the public had prior to seeing the images? 'By looking at the photos terms of what they add to the news, editors should be able to determine whether publication is appropriate. Udoakah (1993) posits also that mass media organizations do not exist for nothing. Whether they operate in the name of public service or commercial service, their aim is to make profit. Their products are sold for cash or battered with the consumers' time. Their profit is both tangible and intangible in terms of excess of returns over production cost, and intangible in terms of succeeding in making a reasonable number of citizens to see and accept certain issues from the point of view of the ruling class. The truth is that the journalist or reporter is human and is fallible. Some personal biases and situations might cause him to act irrationally when presenting issues. As Udoakah (2014) puts it, if the public gets to know that the Journalist is not a saint after all, what will happen to him and his medium- stand high in the public eye or lose credibility? This is where ethics hold sway in his acts as a journalist. NO matter the temptation, it is

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advisable to be steadfast. Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethicsis against the distortion the content of news photos or video. Image enhancement for technical clarity is always permissible. Label montages and photo illustrations.

Code of ethics on photojournalism.

· Be accurate and comprehensive in the representation of subjects.

· Resist being manipulated by staged photo opportunities.

· Be complete and provide context when photographing or

recording subjects.

· Avoid stereotyping individuals and groups.

· Recognize and work to avoid presenting one's biases in the work.

· Treat all subjects with respect and dignity. Give special

consideration to vulnerable subjects and compassion to victim of

crime or tragedy. Intrude on private moments of grief only when

the public has overriding and justifiable need to see

· While photographing subjects, do not intentionally contribute to,

alter, or seek to alter or influence events.

· Editing should maintain the integrity of the photographic images'

content and context. Do not manipulate images or alter sound in

any way that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects.

· Respect the integrity of the photographic moment.

MethodologyThe historical Research Method formed the basis for this study. Some documents were reviewed for information on the subject matter and interviews were also conducted to boost the study. For the interview, four broadcast journalists, two print journalists and three social media influencers were interviewed for insight on the abuse of ethnics in Journalism practice. The explanation building method as suggested by Yin (2003) was used for the interviews.

Data, Results and DiscussionData from personal interviews (Survey)When asked, do Journalists adhere to the ethical dictates of the Journalism profession? Dr. Ijeoma Acholonu, a practicing Journalist with the Rivers State

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Broadcasting Corporation said NO, according to her, poverty , due to very meagre remuneration and censorships have be devilled the Journalist. Most of them even negotiate for monetary inducement before airing stories. It is so bad that some are induced with food at events with some stipends added to it. Ijeoma advised media owners and operators to pay their staff well to stop them from compromising ethics. Mr Joshua Ezedike of Info/Wazobia/ Cool Fm in Port Harcourt, said journalists no longer adhere to any known rule guiding the practice of the profession in Nigeria. They only work for their stomach, since most media owners only gives an identity card without payment of salaries. The identity card is now the passport for negotiation, hence, the unethical practices associated with such behaviors: Brown envelops, Freebies becomes the order of the day. He advised the Nigeria Union of Journalists to be up and about in clamping down on quacks to reduce incidents of abuse of the profession and to task media managers to pay staff salaries and entitlements. Sampson Fiberesima, a Journalist and General Manger of the Rivers State Broadcasting Corporation in Port Harcourt said, most Journalists do not know anything about the ethics of the profession, as they have not even read the code before and during practice. So how can they abide by its dictates? He advised the Nigerian Union of Journalists to be more proactive to ensure that Journalists are sensitized on the dos and don'ts of the profession, so that they can be mirrors of the society. Mr. Fiberesima berated Journalists for seeking gratification and throwing away ethics to the dust bins without an iota of remorse. He said, “Brown envelops” and Free foods are the bait for them, which is appalling and degrading. Tobins T. Benny, a Broadcast Journalist said, Journalists do not adhere to the dictate of the profession. According to her, most of them are not principled enough and can't resist the brown envelops and peanuts they receive from individuals, especially, Politicians. They don't adhere also to the ethics and code of conduct of the profession due to poverty, greed and corruption. She urged Journalists to be exposed more to the ethics of the profession with more sensitization, seminars and workshops given to new entrants to the profession. Also, managerial competence and journalism practice in Nigeria should be looked into seriously. Biola Awodein, a Journalist and TV Presenter said, Journalists do not abide by the ethics of the profession anymore due to poverty, top control measures by their managers and political influences and pay masters.

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Anything goes according to her. So, seminars, workshops and sensitizations should be given to them periodically to get them abreast of the ethical codes of the Journalism profession and its dictates. In an interview with a print Journalist Max- Soibi Alalibo, he said the adherence of ethical code by Journalist in this part of the world, is a far cry from reality, hunger, monetary inducement and political affiliations/ partisanship, have impacted negatively on the Journalists, thus, making him drift from the core mandate of his calling. Adherence to ethics is negotiable and based on the best bidder he said. Olalekan Ige of the Independent Monitor News Papers, Port Harcourt, took a swipe on Journalists who he said are uncut and crude, thus, neglecting ethics and pursing money and political interest. Since, the profession is open to all and sundry, no proper guidance is given, so practitioners do what pleases them and not the rules of engagement. Some others who refused to give their identities say, Journalism ethical code is non-existent in Nigeria as government, powerful individuals and politicians dictates what they want and how they want it to Journalists, who have no choice but to obey to the latter. This Agrees with the position of Onyebuchim, C. A, Pepple, Acholonu, Sebastins, and Eno, (2017) that “meeting up with the position of the fourth estate of the realm has been a herculean task for Journalists, especially, media owners who would choose between professionalism and making profits”. A total of twenty questionnaires were distributed and all the twenty were retrieved from the respondents.Responses as regards Journalists adherence to ethics.

The above table showed that there is high level of non-adherence to ethics by Journalists as 90% of respondents said Journalists do not adhere to the ethical codes of the profession and only 10% agreed to Journalists adherence to ethical issues. This presupposes that Journalists do not respect the code of ethics

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of the profession due to ignorance and lack of exposure to the relevant ethical code of conduct of the profession.

ConclusionEthical considerations in performance of Journalistic duties will bring about a better and most acceptable way of performing journalistic functions irrespective of the temptations inherent in the practice and the fallibility of the Journalist. The need to respect the codes of ethics, which is a guide to performance, will help to make for a better journalism practice in Nigeria. The challenges faced by the Nigerian Journalists above all are enormous. Apart from poor wages or salaries, government influences and other class influences, greatly impedes his ability to perform creditably. Even though it is impossible for clear editorial independence, a move towards attaining it could be possible.

RecommendationsBased on the discussions and conclusion, the following recommendations are made: Journalists and News managers should de-emphasis the commercialization of news items, which is an avenue to extort monies from people. Gifts, free lunch and other freebies should be rejected at the point of duties to prevent inducement. The NUJ should make it a policy for new entrants into the profession to be trained and retrained on the ethical codes. The code of ethics should be made a hand book for journalists to enable them digest at all times. Penalties should be instituted for any journalist that breaks the code of ethics.

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ethics and journalism practice in nigeria: an appraisal

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