ethical aspects of biotechnology

Ethical Aspectsof Biotechnology

GMOs, Biosafety and Bioethics

26th April 2015

BSc (Hons) Biotechnology

University of Mauritius

Ritesh Bhagea, Samiirah Chummun, Sabiah Heerah, Huda Nazeer , Iswarree Punchum

Contents● What are “Ethics”?

● Different aspects:

○ Legal

■ Ethical and legal introduction

■ Democracy and GMOs

■ Scientific arguments about

scientific uncertainty

■ The morality of taking risk

○ Developing countries and the poor

■ The problem of food security and

the poor

■ Developing countries and the poor

■ Implementation: Regulatory or

economic issue?

■ Different aspects in developing

countries

○ Food

■ Genetically modified food

■ Improvement of crops

■ Potential benefits of GM foods

■ Ethical aspects of GM food

■ Health risks associated with GM

food

○ Biotechnology and the Environment

○ Medicine

■ Introduction of GMOs in

medicines and researches

■ Pharmaceutical products

■ Gene therapy

■ Genetic modification of insects

■ Ethics concerning animal rights

■ Ethics of disease prevention

■ Social concerns of the use of GM

in medicines and research

■ Other ethical aspects of using

GM in medicines and research

● Conclusion

● References

Intr

oduc

tion

What are “Ethics”?

● The act of defining what is morally right or wrong.

● Also assess the reasonings behind our decisions, i.e

○ the concepts and principles that are employed to justify our moral

choices and actions.

This is specifically important in the

applications of Biotechnology as the

latter deals with many serious

issues concerning the human

nature, health, food and the

environment.

Ethical Aspects of

Biotechnology

Legal

Food

Environment

Medicine

Developing countries &

the poor

Lega

l

Ethical and legal introduction

No consensus over the risks of a product or activity

Trade dispute

(One country restricts, while the other sees as legitimate)

Right or wrong (Decided by international law)

Restrictions: 1. Implicit exception

2. Explicit exception

Ethical and legal introduction

1. Exception based on democracy

Unclear scientific position:

● Trading systems must respect views of population of states

● Wrong to impose unsafe or undesirable product

2. Exception based on science

Unproven dangers = cannot be excluded

● Lack of scientific proof

● Precautionary approach need to be present

Forms of exception: Democracy and Science

Democracy and GMOs

● Views of the populations should be respected.

● If an agreement contains a clause allowing one party to derogate

when the majority wishes to, then it barely deserves to be

discussed in terms of laws or called an agreement at all.

● Democracy alone cannot justify derogations from WTO law.

● Should be politically realistic.

● If population feel strongly that WTO is wrong, then govt should

perhaps leave or renegotiate the terms of their membership.

Scientific Arguments about Scientific Uncertainty

● Event theoretically possible but has not occurred = Whether it will

occur○ E.g: If a generation or 2 have eaten GMOs without identifiable

consequences = No harm to health (limitation of time span for health)

● Outcome of scientific debate

WE JUST DON’T KNOW

The morality of taking risk

● There should be a balance between possible gains v/s possible harms.

● E.g: Profits to be made or lives saved through greater production v/s

cost or harm of things that went wrong.

● Decisions are dependent on various benefits and harms.

● Reflect different world views on different levels.

(i) Essence of the acts involved

(ii) Differences due to emphasis

(iii) Level of variations (perceptions reflect whole political and social

philosophies and in turn religious and metaphysical views)

● Moral character on GMOs view is seen by comparison with other

dangers.

Dev

elopi

ng co

untr

ies a

nd th

e poo

r

The Problem of Food Security and the Poor

~ 600 M poor people in the world

~ 40,000 die each day due to malnutrition

50% of them are children

● Most limiting resources for

food production: land and

water.

● Solution: Increase yields on

the available land (increase

production capacity) using

biotechnology.

● The Green Revolution was not

enough to eradicate poverty.

● Solution: Need to increase

food production in developed

countries for export at a price

that the poor can afford, and

thus the purchasing power.

Developing countries and the Poor

● The least developed countries however, where poverty is

most rampant and increase in food production is most

needed, cannot afford the necessary research and extension

facilities to bring to the farmers.

● This accessibility problem is what have turned many people

against GM crops who claim that this technology rather

benefits multinational corporations than feeds the poor.

○ Of the crops of the poor that include the cassava, rice, millets,

sorghum, sweet potatoes, yams and legumes, only rice has benefited from biotechnology.

● In developing countries: concerns and fears regarding the

safety of foods produced by biotechnology further dampen

development. Are

GM

cro

ps

real

ly a

cces

sib

le t

o t

ho

se w

ho

nee

d it

mo

st?

Implementation: Regulatory or Economic Issue?

● More of a regulatory than economic issue in developing countries.

○ Importance of risk assessment prior to implementing use, generally

involves field trials.

○ Risk assessments are costly; require skilled personnels.

○ The UNEP Guidelines on Biosafety details the aspects that are to be

considered in the risk assessment.

○ Poor countries and some developing ones cannot assess impact of

GMOs and minimize any risks.

● International companies do not tend to market GM products that

have not gone through regulatory procedures.

○ Transboundary issues as country of import may not have the same

regulatory requirements as the country of export.

Different aspects in Developing Countries

Empowerment Can we increase

production of crops and feed the World?

Can the crops be rigorous enough to withstand

distribution?

Can we free women from farming?

ExploitationNo access to products of

biotechnology due to IPR.

Dumping of unwanted products.

Can the poor really be fed since the staples of the poor receive little development?

Socio-economic issuesHinder export? Case of a decrease in export of sugarcane since the High Fructose Corn

Syrup was developed.

Oil from coconut palms in Philippines has decreased in production, transgenics in the US are producing better yields.

Research & Development for

AgricultureCan positively note that

biotechnology is supported by research and extension

establishments.

However the private sector is often ignored.


Intellectual Property Rights

Biotechnology produces disease-free seeds which farmers find beneficial in

increasing yields. IPR rights elevate the costs of seeds.

However, Protection of Intellectual Property is a

means of providing finance to implement the

technology.

Crop Genetic Diversity

Loss of particular genetic varieties in favor of others. Examples: banana, wheat,

rice.

However several steps have been taken to prevent this including the creation of

gene banks.

Genetic ErosionIs the loss of genetic

diversity esp the loss of individual genes and

combinations of genes.

Caused by the substitution of a large no. of varieties for

a smaller number of new varieties. Happens when

local varieties are replaced by improved & exotic

varieties.

BiodiversityCan we collect plant materials from other countries and

then patent them? Should countries have compensation for their indigenous knowledge? Example: Turmeric; long been

used by the indigenous but patented by researchers.

LiabilityShould operators be liable

during production, culturing, storage,

handling, use, destruction, disposal and release of

genetically modified organisms?

Centres of OriginLimitations of farmers to use modified organisms that are not from their

centres of origin.

Since no problems have been posed for the case of maize, scientists endorse

the use of new varieties in centres of origin.

UniformityShouldn’t there be uniformity in the

regulations of different countries to prevent

discrimination?

A protocol that provides a baseline has been

developed for LMOs which concerns mainly their

transboundary movements.

MonitoringShould there be

international monitoring before release of GMOs particularly those that might affect diversity?

Will the monitoring not be regarded as interference rather than an effort to implement safety of the

technology?

“The view in countries where there is enough to eat, and where choice of what to eat is assumed may be significantly different from that

pertaining in other countries. Choices need to be made by those who have to live with their consequences.”


Genetically Modified Foods

● About 75% of processed food produced in the US

contain some GM ingredients.

● These foods include crackers, breakfast cereals

and cooking oils.

● The most common GM foods are soy, cotton,

canola, corn, sugar beets, Hawaiian papaya,

alfalfa and squash.

Improvement of Crops

● Advances in biotechnology now allows the production of plants

with novel traits such as longer shelf-life, increased nutrient

content and drought resistance.

● The advent of GM crops provides new opportunities for increasing

agricultural production and feeding the world.

Potential benefits of GM foods

● Genetic engineering can be used to remove genes associated with allergies e.g. the gene that produces allergenic protein in peanuts can be blocked.

● The insertion of genes into crops such as rice and wheat and enhance their nutritional value e.g. Golden rice.

● Genetic modifications can be used to produce healthier foods e.g. by eliminating trans fats or caffeine.

Potential benefits of GM foods

● Can be used to induce herbicide resistance leading to decrease use of herbicides

● Induction of insect and pest resistance → Decrease use of insecticides and pesticides

● Induction of abiotic stress resistance

Ethical Aspects of GM Food

There is a need to raise agricultural

productivity to deal with problems of poverty and food

insecurity.

Genetic engineering allows the production of

plants with desired traits speedily and at

low costs.

Ethical Aspects of GM Food

UnnaturalnessGM crops are associated with a sense of “unnaturalness”.It is wrong in itself to alter the “essence” of species or to

interfere with the natural order.

Environmental risksGenes can flow from modified plants to wild plants leading to

potential threat in biodiversity.

Health risk:Because of the possible harmful health effects of GM foods, GM

foods should be properly labelled to allow people to choose whether to consume of not to consume GM foods.

Health risks associated with GM food

● Toxins and engineered genes associated with GM foods may enter

the human circulatory system causing disruption in biological

events

● GM foods may also be linked to gluten disorders

● A research carried out in 2012 showed that GM corn was linked to

rat tumours

● GM foods may also be linked to human breast cancer cell growth,

thyroid issues and infertility

● Glyphosate present in GM foods are known to cause malformations

and birth defects at high doses

● Glyphosate is also linked to weight gain, depression and Alzheimer’s

disease

Envi

ronm

ent

Biotechnology and the Environment

● Biotechnological products/applications to the environment are

based on human activities.

● This can be regarded in 2 ways:

○ Domination

○ Harmonization

● Biotechnology has been used for various purposes in the

environment such as:

❏ Prevention of infectious-vector transmitted diseases

❏ Removal of greenhouse gases

❏ Removal/degradation of waste products

❏ Reduced impact of pesticides, insecticides, etc.


GM crops with improved

nutritional traits

GM crops with drought

and stress tolerance

GM crops with insect,

disease resistance

● Agriculture and Environment - Closely related

● Modern Agricultural practices:

● GM crops production - Beneficial to humans?

● Goals (Green Revolution):

○ Increase crop production,

○ Strengthen food security,

○ Decrease poverty and eradicate resulting infectious diseases.


● Beneficial traits to humans - But the environment?

● GM crops have been controversial since their production for many

reasons.

● Concerns expressed w.r.t GM plants are:

○ Possibility of horizontal gene transfer of transgenic DNA and

the potential to create new viruses and bacteria that cause

diseases .

○ Effect of synthesised substances on non-target organisms.

○ Unintentional generation of superweeds and superbugs by

evolution.

○ Concerns related to food safety.


● Strong belief that GM plants will cause loss of biodiversity.

○ Monocultures and inbreeding techniques- wild strains are

overlooked.

○ Drop in soil ability to contain other crops.

● International debates on the rights of farmers and breeders to

genetic resources.

Biocentric

Ethics

concerned with

an individual

organism

● Ethics with respect to the environment and biotechnology are:

● Concerns with respect to threats on environment and human

health.

● Ethical issues w.r.t the act of modifying DNA.

● Ownership of biological innovations - Can humans own life?


Ecocentric

Study of an

ecosystem with

prevailing

concerns

Anthropocentric

Ethic views

engaged on

Humans


● Preservation of fauna and flora is highly debatable when

significant and explicit input of views from spiritual/ religious

aspects and cultures are involved.

● Some approaches based on “what can the environment offer” and

so, it is protected for food supplies and future generations.

○ E.g: Maori tribes refuse any modification of native forest.

● Ecocentric approaches, view the environment not by what it can

give but with an intrinsic value.

○ E.g: Some Christian traditions see the environment as a

creation of God, with humans as custodians to it.

Med

icine

Introduction of GMOs in Medicines and Researches

• Since the 1980s, GMOs have emerged as one

of the mainstays of biomedical research.

• The use of GMOs in medicine and research

has produced a debate that is more

philosophical in nature.

• Ethical issues in introducing GMOs as medicines and research include:

Violation of natural organisms' intrinsic values

Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species

Objections to consuming animal genes in plants

Animal rights

Pharmaceutical Products

• Production of complex pharmaceuticals by

enabling the generation of safer and cheaper

vaccines and therapeutics.

• E.g: Insulin was initially derived from pigs and

cows which arose concern about:

Animal Welfare: There is serious concern that animals will suffer as a result of being genetically modified.

Religious problem: Some religions (Jews and Hindus) prohibited the use of insulin derive from animal sources.

• Today insulin is produced through GM microbes, which is less likely to

cause allergic reactions.

• Yet use of genetic engineering in the production of medicines is still an

issue though many people are benefited with none harmed.

Gene Therapy

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is becoming a treatment option for

diseases ranging from rare metabolic disorders to

cancer.

Introduction of these GM cells into the patient could

cure the disease without the need for a matched donor.

However gene therapy has been a controversial subject in the past

years.

Ethical reasons:• Cells used for the study are

often taken from human embryos.

• The techniques will not be accomplish for the intended

purpose.• Replacement tissue will never

be grow from a person’s own stem cell.

Genetic modification of insects

● Genetic modification of insects has become an important area

of research, especially to prevent parasitic diseases.

● Introduction of these GM mosquitoes into the wild may

someday help eradicate transmission of the malaria parasite

without widespread use of harmful chemicals or disruption of

the normal food chain.

Ethics concerning animal rights

Animal rights concerns:

• Concern in ethics when discussing

animals is their capacity to suffer or feel

pain. This concern is weaker for the GM

mosquitoes.

• Concern that we are manipulating life

for human purposes without

considering the interests of the animal.

•Biodiversity concerns about

endangered animals that are used for

genetic engineering.

Intrinsic concerns: Pain, sentience and

consciousness

Extrinsic values:The status given by human society on

some animals (national symbols)

Ethics of Disease Prevention

● Widely held ethical principle that human life is worth saving.

● Thus try to improve existing and develop new approaches for

preventing, diagnosing, treating, and controlling infectious

diseases that cause loss of human life.

● Methods used to achieve these goals, including the extent to which

risks to human health, damage to the environment and other

living organisms.

But is it worth it?

Social concerns of the use of GM in medicines and research

● If the blending of animal and human DNA results in chimeric

entities possessing degrees of intelligence or sentience never

before seen in animals, should these entities be given rights and

special protections?

● What, if any, social and legal controls or reviews should be placed

on such research?

● What unintended personal, social, and cultural consequences

could result?

● Who will have access to these technologies and how will scarce

resources such as medical advances and novel treatments be

allocated?

Other ethical aspects of using GM in medicines and research

Medical emergencies

The Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

agreement gives priority to medical emergencies.

Ethics of Technology Choices

Debate on whether we should

concentrate limited research

cost on developing

technologies that rectify

problems or on studies to

learn how to prevent those

problems from occurring.

Consent from Trial Participants

All research participants should

give informed consent before

receiving any intervention that

has a reasonable risk of causing

harm.

Conc

lusio

n

Conclusion

Biotechnology is a technology that operates at

molecular level. Many applications of it are meant to

solve global issues in medicine, food and

environment. However, no matter how beneficial it

seems, it does come with drawbacks. Modifications

brought to living organisms are given strong ethical

considerations, regardless of where and how the

technology is applied.

To be able to counter these, strong scientific proofs

and results must be provided on GMOs on how they

interact with the environment, humans and animals

in nature.

Refe

renc

es

References

● Darryl Macer, 2003. Ethical, legal and social issues of genetically modified disease vectors in public health. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. 03.1.

● Davies, G. (2006). Morality Clauses and Decision making in Situations of Scientific Uncertainty: The Case of GMOs. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Faculty of Law. 10-06.

● Capron, A. M., Häyry, M., Takala, T. and Herissone-Kelly, P. (2007). Ethics in Biomedical Research: International Perspectives (Vol. 186).

● Chrispeels, M. J. (2000). Biotechnology and the poor. Plant Physiology 124(1), 3–6.● De Melo-Martín, I., & Meghani, Z. (2008). Beyond risk. EMBO Reports 9(4), 302–306.● Ethical aspects of agricultural biotechnology. (1999). [Delft]; The Hague: EFB Task

Group on Public Perceptions of Biotechnology ; Cambridge Biomedical Consultants [distr.].

● International Life Sciences Institute. (2002). Safety considerations of DNA in foods: expert group report reviewed at a workshop held in June 2000. Washington; Brussels: ILSI press ; ISLI Europe.

● Marx, M. E. (2007). The benefits and ethical issues behind using genetically modified organisms in agriculture. Interdiscipl. J. Health, Ethics Policy 6, 1–5.

● Weale, A. (2010). Ethical arguments relevant to the use of GM crops. New Biotechnology 27 (5), 582–587.

Thank you for your attention!

Questions?