estimation and costing of a compound wall

Decorative Tudor brick chimneys.Hampton Court Palace, UK.

Twelfth century temple brickwork.Ayutthaya, Thailand.

Dismantled wall showing brickwork.

BrickworkFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Contents1 Co-ordination of parts2 Three devices for structural stability3 Thickness4 Orientation of a brick5 Cut of a brick6 Bonds

6.1 Bonds with courses of mixed headers and stretchers6.1.1 Flemish bond6.1.2 Monk bond6.1.3 Sussex bond6.1.4 Flemish Stretcher bond6.1.5 Flemish Diagonal bond

6.2 Bonds with one stretching course per heading course6.2.1 English bond6.2.2 English Cross bond6.2.3 Dutch bond6.2.4 Double English Cross bond

6.3 Bonds with more than one stretching course perheading course

6.3.1 English Garden Wall bond6.3.2 Scottish bond6.3.3 American bond

6.4 Bonds with only stretching courses or only headingcourses

6.4.1 Stretcher bond6.4.2 Raking Stretcher bond6.4.3 Header bond

6.5 Bonds with courses of mixed stretchers and soldiers6.5.1 Single Basket Weave bond6.5.2 Double Basket Weave bond6.5.3 Herringbone bond

6.6 Bonds using rowlocks and shiners6.6.1 Rat-trap bond

6.7 Bonds using headers and shiners6.7.1 Dearne's Bond

6.8 Bonds build around square fractional-sized bricks6.8.1 Pinwheel bond6.8.2 Della Robbia bond

7 Diapering8 Damp Proof Courses9 References10 See also

Brickwork - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickwork

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The co-ordinating principle

Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks — calledcourses[1][2] — are laid one on top of another to build up a structure such as a wall. Elsewhere, brickwork mayhave a non-load-bearing function, and may exist for a purpose such as that of finishing the corners of walls withbrick quoins, or for finishing door or window openings on a building whose load-bearing structure is made ofother materials such as timber or steel. In all cases, wherever the bricks are left fully visible — as opposed tobeing covered up by plaster or stucco — they are called facing bricks.[3]

The construction industry frequently makes use of brick as a building medium, and examples of brickwork arefound right back through history as far as the Bronze Age — the fired-brick faces of the ziggurat of ancientDur-Kurigalzu in Iraq date from around 1400 BC, and the brick buildings of ancient Mohenjo-daro in Pakistanare from around 2600 BC. Much older examples of brickwork made with dried (but not fired) bricks may befound in such ancient locations as Jericho in the West Bank, Çatal Hüyük in Anatolia, and Mehrgarh inPakistan; these structures have survived from the Stone age to the present day.

Co-ordination of partsParts of brickwork include bricks,beds and perpends. The bed is themortar upon which a brick is laid.[4]

A perpend is a vertical joint betweenany two bricks, and is usually — butnot always — filled with mortar.[5]

The allocated dimensions of theseparts are in general co-ordinated sothat two bricks laid side by sideseparated only by the width of aperpend have a width identical withthe length of a single brick laidtransversely on top of them. Anexample of a dimensionally co-ordinating metric commonly used for bricks in the UK is 215mm x 102.5mm x65mm, which is intended to work with mortar beds and perpends of a uniform 10mm.[6][7][8] There are manyother brick sizes worldwide, and many of them use this same co-ordinating principle.

Three devices for structural stabilityA wall is subject to stresses acting vertically and from the side. The design and construction of the wall musttake account of the need to withstand these forces, and incorporate the means to do so. If the wall is made ofbricks, these considerations may affect — or even determine — the layout of bricks in the wall.

The first of three common strengthening devices is the simple practice of ensuring that perpends do notvertically align in any two successive courses. If this rule is observed, then the weight acting on any brick isdistributed across an area that widens with each downwardly successive course.[9]

The second device is the practice of constructing brickwork that is thicker than the width of any of its individualbricks, and of tying together some or all of these bricks into the depth of the wall. If — for example — a walldescribing an east-west line is under construction, then bricks oriented to point north-south may be built into thewidth of the wall, their length spanning two widths of brick and tying the brickwork on the transverse plane.Historically, this was the dominant method for consolidating the transverse strength of walls.


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Six positions

The third of three common strengthening devices has become almost ubiquitous in brickwork since the adventof the cavity wall during the mid nineteenth century. A cavity wall comprises two totally discrete walls — eachone of which is called a leaf.[10][11] A cavity separates the two leaves so that there is no masonry connectionbetween them at all.[12] Typically the main loads taken by the foundations are carried there by the inner leaf,and the major functions of the external leaf are to protect the whole from weather, and to provide a fittingaesthetic finish. Although the two leaves may not share the structural load, their transverse rigidity still needs tobe guaranteed, and must come from some source other than interlocking bricks. The device used to satisfy thisneed is the insertion at regular intervals of wall ties into the cavity wall’s mortar beds.[13][14]

There is a variety of arrangements for the cutting and layout of bricks utilising one or more of these methods forstabilising brickwork. These arrangements may generate anything from a wall of a single leaf with staggeredperpends, to more substantial brickwork combining the vertical staggering of perpends with a transversereinforcement through the wall. Any such arrangement is called a bond.[15][16]

ThicknessThe thickness of brickwork is usually measured in bricks. Brickwork is said to be one brick thick if it has a totalwidth equal to the length of one of its regular component bricks. Accordingly, a wall of a single leaf is a wall ofone half brick thickness; a double leaf wall is said to be one brick thick, and so on. The thickness specified for awall is determined by such factors as damp proofing considerations, whether or not the wall has a cavity,load-bearing requirements, and expense.[17][18] Wall thickness specification has proven considerably various,and while some non-load-bearing brick walls may be as little as half a brick thick, others brick walls will bemuch thicker. The Monadnock Building in Chicago — for example — is a very tall masonry building, and hasload-bearing brick walls nearly two metres thick at the base.[19] The majority of brick walls are however usuallybetween one and three bricks thick. At these more modest wall thicknesses, distinct patterns have emergedallowing for the judicious layout of bricks internal to the brickwork of each particular specified thickness ofwall.

Orientation of a brickA brick is given a classification based on how its face is oriented relativeto the face of the finished wall.

Stretcher: A brick laid with its long narrow side exposed.[20]

Header: A brick laid flat with its width at the face of the wall, orparallel to the face of the wall.[20]

Soldier: A brick laid vertically with the long narrow side of thebrick exposed.[21]

Sailor: A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brickexposed.[22]

Rowlock: A brick laid on the long narrow side with the short end of the brick exposed.[23]

Shiner: A brick laid on the long narrow side with the broad face of the brick exposed.[24]

Cut of a brickThe practice of laying uncut full sized bricks wherever possible gives brickwork its maximum possible strength.


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Double Flemish bond layout patterns

Occasionally though a brick must be cut to fit a given space, or to be the right shape for fulfilling some particularpurpose such as generating a lap by a quoin brick.[25]

Quarter bat: A brick cut to a quarter of its length.Half bat: A brick cut in half across its width.Three-quarter bat: A brick cut to three-quarters of its length.Queen closer: A brick cut in half down its length.[26]

King closer: A brick with one corner cut away, leaving one header face at half its standard width.[27]

Bonds

Bonds with courses of mixed headers and stretchers

Flemish bond Monk bond A raking Monk bond Sussex bond

Flemish Diagonalbond

Flemish bond

This bond has one stretcher between every header, with the headers centred over the stretchers in the coursebelow.[28]

Where a course begins with a quoin stretcher, thecourse will ordinarily terminate with a quoinstretcher at the other end. The next course willbegin with a quoin header; at this point the regularrun of alternate header and stretcher is broken, andthe second brick to be laid in this course is not astretcher, but is instead a queen closer. The queen


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Overhead plan for alternate courses of one brick’s thickness.Bricks visible from a street running east-west are highlighted;queen closers are shown in yellow.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of one and a half bricks’thickness. Bricks visible from a street running east-west arehighlighted; a three-quarter bat is shown in green, queenclosers are in yellow.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of three bricks’thickness. Bricks visible from a street running east-west arehighlighted; three-quarter bats are shown in green, queenclosers are in yellow.

East-west elevation for the wall of one and a half bricks’thickness.

closer acts as an offset for the third brick along —which will be a stretcher — aligning this stretcher’scentre above that of the header below, and thusgenerating the bond. This course then resumes itspaired run of stretcher and header, until the finalpair is reached, whereupon a second and final queencloser is inserted as the penultimate brick, mirroringthe arrangement at the beginning of the course, andduly closing the bond.

Some examples of Flemish bond incorporatestretchers of one colour and headers of another.This effect is commonly a product of treating theheader face of the heading bricks while the bricksare being baked as part of the manufacturingprocess. Some of the header faces are exposed towood smoke, generating a grey-blue colour, whileother simply vitrified until they reach a deeper bluecolour. Some headers have a glazed face, caused byusing salt in the firing. Sometimes Staffordshire Bluebricks are used for the heading bricks.[29][30]

Courses of one brick’s thickness

By simply placing stretchers immediately to the rearof the face stretchers, Flemish bonded brickworkwith a thickness of one brick is built.

Courses of one and half bricks’ thickness

Alternately, facing bricks and the bricks behind thefacing bricks may be laid in groups of four bricksand a half-bat. The half-bat sits at the centre of thegroup and the four bricks are placed about thehalf-bat, in a square formation. These groups arelaid next to each other for the length of a course,making brickwork one and a half bricks thick.[31][32]

To preserve the bond, it is necessary to lay a three-quarter bat instead of a header following a quoinstretcher at the corner of the wall. This fact has nobearing on the appearance of the wall; the choice ofbrick appears to the spectator like any ordinaryheader.

Courses of two bricks’ thickness

For a still more substantial wall, a header may be


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Monk bond variations

New Malden Library, London.

Former Post office, Arvika,Sweden.

Private building, Solna, Sweden.

laid directly behind the face header, a further two headers laid at 90° behind the face stretcher, and then finallya stretcher laid to the rear of these two headers. This pattern generates brickwork a full two bricks thick.

Single and Double Flemish bond

All these arrangements are forms of Double Flemish bond, so called because the brickwork appears as Flemishbond from both the front and the rear. If bricks are arranged such that those at the rear do not have this pattern,then the brickwork is said to be Single Flemish bond.[33]

Monk bond

This bond has two stretchers between every header with the headers centred over the perpend between the twostretchers in the course below in the bond’s most symmetric form.[34]

In this form, the lap of the bond may be generated by using queen closers.On a wall with a typically right angled corner, a queen closer is placed nextto a quoin stretcher. A header, is then laid as the third brick, and with this,the regular run of two stretchers and one header follows on along thecourse. On the next course up — but at 90° around the corner of the wall— a quoin stretcher is laid first, and then a grouping of a headersandwiched between two queen closers is laid next to the quoin stretcher.After the second of the two queens closers, the usual run of two stretchersand a header is laid along the course.[35]

Raking Monk bonds

Monk bond may however take any of a number of arrangements for coursestaggering. The disposal of bricks in these often highly irregular rakingpatterns can be a challenging task for the bricklayer to correctly maintainwhile constructing a wall whose courses are partially obscured by scaffold,and interrupted by door or window openings, or other bond disruptingobstacles. If the bricklayer frequently stops to check that bricks arecorrectly arranged, then masonry in a raking Monk bond can be expensiveto build.[36]

Occasionally, brickwork in such a raking Monk bond may contain minorerrors of header and stretcher alignment some of which may have beensilently corrected by incorporating a compensating irregularity into thebrickwork in a course further up the wall. In spite of these complexities andtheir associated costs, the bond has proven popular in the north of Europe.

Raking courses in Monk bond may — for instance — be staggered in sucha way as to generate the appearance of diagonal lines of stretchers. Onemethod of achieving this effect relies on the use of a repeating sequence ofcourses with back-and-forth header staggering. In this grouping, a headerappears at a given point in the group’s first course. In the next course up, aheader is offset one and a half stretcher lengths to the left of the header inthe first course below, and then in the third course, a header is offset onestretcher length to the right of the header in the middle course. This


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Pyramids highlighted.

accented swing of headers, one and a half to the left, and one to the right,generates the appearance of lines of stretchers running from the upper lefthand side of the wall down to the lower right. Such an example of a rakingMonk bond layout is shown in the New Malden Library, Kingston uponThames, Greater London.

Another pattern sets a header at a given point in a first course. A header inthe second course is staggered in the horizontal plane by a length of three-quarters of a stretcher to the right. With each ascending course, the intervalof the stagger of headers increases by a length of half a stretcher until thestagger is equal to a length of one and three-quarters of a stretcher. This

progression is then reversed so that the stagger then decreases in each ascending course by a half stretcher untilit is back down to the length of three-quarters of a stretcher of stagger. This arrangement is repeated as the wallascends, generating a subtle appearance of indented pyramid-like diagonals. Every two courses gained in heightthe indented pyramids flip around in the horizontal plane so as to form pyramids that are mirror images of thosebelow. Such a bond appears on the private building in the Solna Municipality, Sweden pictured left.

Many other particular adjustments of course alignment exist in Monk bond, generating a variety of visual effectswhich differ in detail, but often having the effect of directing a viewing eye diagonally down the wall.[37]

The great variety of Monk bond patterns allow for many possible layouts at the quoins, and this particular isvariously planned and executed. A quoin brick may be a stretcher, a three-quarter bat, or a header. Queenclosers may be used next to the quoins, but the practice is not mandatory.

Sussex bond

This bond has three stretchers between every header, with the headers centred above the midpoint of threestretchers in the course below.[38]

The bond’s horizontally extended proportion suits long stretches of masonry such as garden walls or the run ofbrickwork over a ribbon window; conversely, the bond is less suitable for a surface busy with features, such as aGeorgian façade. The relatively infrequent use of headers serves to make Sussex bond one of the less expensivebonds in which to build a wall, as it allows for the bricklayer to proceed speedily with run after run of threestretchers at a time.[39]

Flemish Stretcher bond

Flemish Stretcher bond separates courses of alternately laid stretchers and headers, with a number of courses ofstretchers alone. Brickwork in this bond may have between one and four courses of stretchers to one courseafter the Flemish manner.[40][41] The courses of stretchers are often but not always staggered in a rakingpattern.

Flemish Diagonal bond

Flemish diagonal bond comprises a complex pattern of stretcher courses alternating with courses of one or twostretchers between headers, at various offsets such that over ten courses a diamond-shaped pattern appears.

Bonds with one stretching course per heading course


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An English bond layout.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of two bricks’ thickness.

English bond 3D representation ofEnglish bond

English bond, The OldCollege, Tattershall[42]

English Cross bond

Double English Crossbond

One of the two kinds of course in this family of bonds is called a stretching course, and this typically comprisesnothing but stretchers at the face from quoin to quoin. The other kind of course is the heading course, and thisusually consists of headers, with two queen closers — one by the quoin header at either end — to generate thebond.[43]

English bond

This bond has alternating stretching and headingcourses, with the headers centred over the midpointof the stretchers, and perpends in each alternatecourse aligned. Queen closers appear as the secondbrick, and the penultimate brick in heading courses.[44][45] A muted colour scheme for alternateheaders is sometimes used in English bond to lend asubtle texture to the brickwork. Examples of suchschemes include blue-grey headers among otherwisered bricks — seen in the south of England — andlight brown headers in a dark brown wall, moreoften found in parts of the north of England.[46]

English Cross bond

English Cross bond is repeating sequence of fourcourses. Courses one and three are identical with


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The east-west wall, pedestrian’s perspective. Queen closers inyellow.

the heading courses found in the standard Englishbond. Courses two and four are stretching courses,but these courses are not identical. One of thestretching courses — say course number two — isidentical with the stretching course in the standardEnglish bond, consisting of stretchers only, fromquoin to quoin. The other course — course numberfour in this case — also consists of stretchers, butthese are staggered relative to the other course ofstretchers in the group. The stagger is achieved byplacing a header next to the two quoin stretchers ina the course.[47][48] The bond is widely found inNorthern France, Belgium and Holland.[49]

Dutch bond

This bond is exactly like English Cross bond except in the generating of the lap at the quoins. In Dutch bond, allquoins are quarter bats, and no use whatever is made of queen closers.[50]

Double English Cross bond

Comprises two layers of headers (half off-set from one another) followed by two layers of stretchers (quarteroff-set from one another). By off-setting the stretchers from each other by one-quarter, perpends in the uppercourses of stretchers are aligned with perpends in the upper courses of headers, whereas perpends in the lowercourses of stretchers are aligned with perpends in the lower courses of headers.[51]

Bonds with more than one stretching course per heading course

English Garden Wallbond

Scottish Bond Common or Americanbond, 5th Ave, Harlem,New York

English Garden Wall bond

A repeating sequence of three courses of stretchers followed by a course of headers, with a queen closer as thepenultimate brick at either end the heading course.[52] The heading course in English Garden Wall bondsometimes features bricks of a different colour to its surrounding stretchers. In English chalk districts, flint issubstituted for the stretchers, and the headers constitute a lacing course.[53]


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Scottish bond

A repeating sequence of five courses of stretchers followed by a course of headers.

American bond

This bond has courses of stretchers and courses of headers, but the ratio of stretching courses to heading coursesmay vary. Often the ratio is of one course of headers to five courses of stretchers, but can sometimes run to aratio as high as nine courses of stretchers to one course of headers.

The brick Clarke-Palmore House in Henrico County, Virginia, has a lower level built in 1819 described as beingAmerican bond of three to five stretching courses between each heading course, and an upper level built in 1855with American bond of 6 to 7 stretching courses between each heading course.[54]

Bonds with only stretching courses or only heading courses

Stretcher bond 3D representation ofcavity wall-stretcherbond

Stretcher bond,modern brickwork

Raking Stretcherbond

Header bond

Stretcher bond

Or Running bond, consists of courses of stretchers, with bricks in each successive course staggered along by alength of half a stretcher. It is the simplest repeating pattern, and will create a wall only one-half brick thick.Such a thin wall is not stable enough to stand alone, and must be tied to a supporting structure. This practice iscommon in modern buildings, where stretcher bonded brickwork may be the outer face of a cavity wall, or thefacing to a timber or steel-framed structure.[55]


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Raking Stretcher bond

Courses of stretchers where perpends either do not align at all, or where they align in some pattern other thanthat of standard stretcher bond.[56]

Header bond

Consists entirely of courses of headers, with the bricks in each new course being staggered by half a header. Athree-quarter bat serves for a quoin in alternate courses, generating the necessary offset. Header bond is oftenusing on curving walls with a small radius of curvature. In Lewes, Sussex many small buildings are constructedin this bond, using blue coloured bricks and vitrified surfaces.[57][58]

Bonds with courses of mixed stretchers and soldiers

Single Basket Weavebond

Double Basket Weavebond

90° Herringbonebond

45° Herringbonebond

45° Herringbone bond,Canterbury, UK

Single Basket Weave bond

A row of Single Basket Weave bond comprises pairs of soldiers laid side-by-side, capped with a stretcher,alternating with pairs of soldiers laid side-by-side sat atop a stretcher. Subsequent rows are identical and alignedwith those above.[59]

Double Basket Weave bond

A row of Double Basket Weave bond comprises pairs of stretchers laid atop one another, alternating with pairsof soldiers laid side-by-side. The following row is off-set so the pair of stretchers sits below the pair of soldiers in


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the row above. This results in bricks arranged in pairs in a square grid so that the join between each pair isperpendicular to the join of the four pairs around it.[56]

Herringbone bond

The Herringbone pattern is made by placing a soldier to one side of a stretcher making an ‘L’ shape, thenrepeatedly nesting further such combinations. Herringbone is sometimes used as noggins in timber framedbuildings.[56] The pattern is sometimes rotated by 45°.

Bonds using rowlocks and shiners

Rat-trap bond

Rat-trap bond

Rat-trap bond substantially observes the same pattern as Flemish bond, but consists of rowlocks and shinersinstead of headers and stretchers. This gives a wall with an internal cavity bridged by the rowlocks, hence thereference to rat-traps.[60]

Bonds using headers and shiners

Dearne's Bond

Dearne's bond substantially observes the same pattern as English bond, but uses shiners in place ofstretchers.[61]

Bonds build around square fractional-sized bricks


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Pinwheel bond Della Robbia bond

Pinwheel bond

Pinwheel bond is made of four bricks surrounding a square half-brick, repeated in a square grid.[56]

Della Robbia bond

A pattern made of four bricks surrounding a square brick, one-quarter the size of a half-brick. It is designed toresemble woven cloth.[56]

DiaperingBrickwork formed into a diamond pattern is called Diapering.

Damp Proof CoursesMoisture may ascend into a building from the foundation of a wall or gain ingress into a building from a wetpatch of ground, where it meets a solid wall. The manifest result of this process is called damp. One of manymethods of resisting such ingresses of water is to construct the wall with several low courses of denseengineering bricks such as Staffordshire blue bricks. This method of damp proofing appears as a distinctive navyblue band running around the circumference of a building. The efficacy of this means of keeping out damp ismore limited by the permeability of the mortar bedding and perpends joining the bricks, than by that of thebricks themselves.[62]

References^ Joseph Moxon. Mechanick Exercises: Or, TheDoctrine of Handy-Works. Applied to the Arts ofSmithing, Joinery, Carpentry, Turning, Bricklayery.Printed for Daniel Midwinter and Thomas Leigh.1703. London. Page 129. “Three or four or fivecourse of Bricks to be laid.”

1.

^ Nicholson: The New Practical Builder, andWorkman’s Companion. Thomas Kelly, 17Paternoster Row, London. 1823. “By a Course, inwalling, is meant the bricks contained between twoplanes parallel to the horizon, and terminated by the

2.

faces of the wall. The thickness is that of one brickwith mortar. The mass formed by bricks laid inconcentric order, for arches or vaults, is alsodenominated a Course.”^ Edward H. Knight. The Practical Dictionary ofMechanics. First edition. Cassell, Petter, Galpin& Co. London. 1874–1884. “Facing-brick.(Building.) Front or pressed brick.”

3.

^ Peter Nicholson, Practical Masonry Bricklayingand Plastering. Published by Thomas Kelly,Paternoster Row, London. 1841. Page 166.

4.


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“BED.—The under-surface of bricks when laid inany kind of work.”^ Reports of artisans selected by a committeeappointed by the council of the Society of Arts tovisit the Paris Universal exhibition, 1867. Publishedfor the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,Manufactures and Commerce. Published by Bell andDaldy, York Street, Covent Garden, London. Printedby W. Trounce, Cursitor Street, Chancery Lane,London. 1867. Part 1. Bricklaying by GeorgeHowell. Page 194. “The beauty of brickwork willvery much depend upon the ‘perpends’ beingperfectly kept, that is, the prefect regularity of theperpendicular joints right up the building.”

5.

^ R.W. Brunskill. Brick Building in Britain. VictorGollancz (Publisher) in association with PeterCrawley. An imprint of the Cassell Group.Wellington House, 125 Strand, London WC2R 0BB.1997. isbn 0575065354. Page 39. “British Standard3921 of 1969, gave dimensions of 215 by 102.5 by65 mm [...].”

6.

^ British Standards Institution. Specification forMasonry Units. Part 1: Clay Masonry Units. BSI,London, 2003, BS EN 771.

7.

^ The Compressive Strength of Modern EarthMasonry, Andrew Heath, Mike Lawrence, PeterWalker and Clyde Fourie. BRE Centre for InnovativeConstruction Materials, University of Bath, andNatural Building Technologies (NBT). Proceedingsof the 11th International Conference onNon-conventional Materials and Technologies(NOCMAT 2009). 6–9 September 2009, Bath, UK.“All earth masonry units were intended to be‘standard’ brick size (215x102.5x65mm) if they werefired, but because they did not have additionalshrinkage from firing, the average size was223x106x67mm.”

8.

^ Peter Nicholson, Practical Masonry Bricklayingand Plastering. Published by Thomas Kelly,Paternoster Row, London. 1841. Page 167. “[...] anarrangement, or combination of bricks when laidupon each other, [such] that the perpendicular jointformed by any two adjacent bricks may, at all times,be covered by the centre (or nearly so) of one laidimmediately over the joint, by which means thenearest approximation to solidity will be attained thatsuch materials are capable of producing.”

9.

^ Denzil Nield. Walls & Wall Facings. Spon,London. 1949. 5. “Cavity walls... are beingincreasingly built with hollow blocks or othermaterial in place of bricks for the internal leaf.”

10.

^ New Civil Engineer. Oct 3rd, 1991. ThomasTelford Ltd. London. Advertisement. “Single leafwall with vertical and lateral load.”

11.

^ Barry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings.12.

Second Edition. 2010. Stephen Emmitt andChristopher A. Gorse. Wiley-Blackwell, John Wiley& Sons Ltd., The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,West Sussex, PO19 8SQ. isbn 9781405188548.Page 7^ Barry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings.Second Edition. 2010. Stephen Emmitt andChristopher A. Gorse. Wiley-Blackwell, JohnWiley & Sons Ltd., The Atrium, Southern Gate,Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ. isbn9781405188548. Pages 232, 233. “Early cavity wallswere constructed with bonding bricks laid across thecavity at internals to tie the two leaves together. [...]Later, iron ties were used to tie the two leavestogether.”

13.

^ David Yeomans. Construction Since 1900:Materials. BT Batsford Ltd, 583 Fulham Road,London, SW6 5BY. 1997. isbn 0713466847.Page 60. “In 1974, a large section of the outer leaf ofa wall of a comprehensive school at Newnhamcollapsed revealing a complete absence of ties overa considerable area [and] in 1983, a much largersection of a wall at Plymouth Polytechnic collapseddue to corrosion of the cavity ties.”

14.

^ Peter Nicholson. The New Practical Builder, andWorkman’s Companion. First edition. Published byThomas Kelly, 17 Paternoster Row, London. 1823.Page 347. “BRICKS ARE LAID in a varied, butregular, form of connection, or Bond, as exhibited inPlate LXXXV.”

15.

^ Nicholson: The New Practical Builder, andWorkman’s Companion. Thomas Kelly, 17Paternoster Row, London. 1823. Page 329.“BOND.—That regular connection, in lapping thestones upon one another, when carrying up the work,which forms an inseparable mass of building.”

16.

^ Bricks and Brickwork. Cecil C. Handisyde andBarry A. Haseltine. The Brick DevelopmentAssociation. 19 Grafton Street, London, W1X 3LE.1974. Page 68. “Old buildings of solid wallconstruction were accepted as ‘waterproof’, oftenwhen brickwork was only 9 inches thick. Now it isgenerally agreed that solid walls of less than [oneand a half] brick thickness are inadequate. Code ofPractice 121 still includes unrendered one brick thickwalls as acceptable for sheltered positions but thisseems a questionable recommendation. Walling of[one and a half] brick thickness should besatisfactory for sheltered positions and may beadequate for moderate exposure.”

17.

^ Barry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings.Second Edition. 2010. Stephen Emmitt andChristopher A. Gorse. Wiley-Blackwell, JohnWiley & Sons Ltd., The Atrium, Southern Gate,Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ. isbn

18.


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9781405188548. Page 206. “In exposed positionssuch as high ground and near the coast, a wall 2Bthick may be needed to resist penetration to insidefaces [...]. In positions of very severe exposure towind-driven rain, as on high open ground facing theprevailing wind and on the coast facing open sea, it isnecessary to protect both solid and cavity walls withan external cladding.”^ Fuller, Chicago Tribune, December 7, 1958.19.^ a b John Houghton. A Collection for Improvementof Husbandry and Trade. 1693. Issue 74. Publishedby Randal Taylor near Stationers-Hall. London. “ABrick-wall of a Foot and half thick is commonlymade by Stretchers and Headers, that is, by layingon the out-side one Brick, so as to have thenarrowest side of it to be seen longways, and the nextto have only the end seen, and the Brick lying on thebroad side, and so on, a Stretcher and a Header.”

20.

^ Whitney Clark Huntington. Building Construction.Types of Construction, Materials, and CostEstimating. New York: Wiley. London: Chapman &Hall. 1929. Page 130. “Belt courses and flat archesmay be formed of brick[s] set on end with the narrowside exposed. Such bricks are called soldiers.”

21.

^ Rob W. Sovinski. Brick in the Landscape. APractical Guide to Specification and Design. JohnWiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 1999. Page 43.“Those brick positions oriented in a horizontalalignment are called stretcher, header, rowlockstretcher, and rowlock. A rowlock stretcher issometimes called a shiner. The two correspondingvertical orientations are the soldier and sailorpositions.”

22.

^ Samuel Y. Harris. Building Pathology. Wiley. NewYork. 2001. Page 212. “The short face, or the endlaid horizontally, is a header; laid vertically, arowlock.”

23.

^ Rob W. Sovinski. Brick in the Landscape. APractical Guide to Specification and Design. JohnWiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 1999. Page 43.“Those brick positions oriented in a horizontalalignment are called stretcher, header, rowlockstretcher, and rowlock. A rowlock stretcher issometimes called a shiner.”

24.

^ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1.First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 HighHolborn. 1889. Page 22.

25.

^ Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. BRICKWORK.“[...] portions of a brick [...] a half header in width,[...] are called queen closers[.]”

26.

^ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1.First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 HighHolborn. 1889. Page 18. “King Closers are bricks

27.

cut so that one end is half the width of a brick, and[are] used in positions where the greater width atback would add strength to the bond[...].”^ A. C. Smeaton. The Builder’s Pocket Manual;Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying andArchitecture; with Practical Rules and Instructions inCarpentry, Bricklaying, Masonry &c. Published byM. Taylor, Barnard’s Inn, Holborn. 1837.Page 29, 30. “The two principal methods ofbricklaying are severally called English and Flemishbond. [...] Flemish bond consists in placing a headerand a stretcher alternately throughout every course.”

28.

^ R.W. Brunskill. Brick Building in Britain. VictorGollancz (Publisher) in association with PeterCrawley. An imprint of the Cassell Group.Wellington House, 125 Strand, London WC2R 0BB.1997. isbn 0575065354. Page 57, 58.

29.

^ The Architectural Review. May 1936. TheArchitectural Press. 9 Queen Anne’s Gate,Westminster, S.W.1. London. Page 233.

30.

^ Peter Nicholson, Practical Masonry Bricklayingand Plastering. Published by Thomas Kelly,Paternoster Row, London. 1841. Page 102. “[...] thebricks are disposed alike on both sides of the wall,the tail of the headers being placed contiguous toeach other, so as to form square spaces in the core ofthe wall for half-bricks.”

31.

^ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1.First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 HighHolborn. 1889. Page 25, figures 37 & 38.

32.

^ R.W. Brunskill. Brick Building in Britain. VictorGollancz (Publisher) in association with PeterCrawley. An imprint of the Cassell Group.Wellington House, 125 Strand, London WC2R 0BB.1997. isbn 0575065354. Page 91. “SINGLEFLEMISH BOND: gives the appearance of FlemishBond on the outside face only of a wall more than 9inches thick. The same appearance on both inner andouter faces is given by DOUBLE FLEMISHBOND.”

33.

^ The Dictionary of Art. Grove. Volume Four,Biardeau TO Brüggemann. Edited by Jane Turner.Macmillan Publishers Limited. 1996. isbn1884446000. Page 769.

34.

^ R.W. Brunskill. Brick Building in Britain. VictorGollancz (Publisher) in association with PeterCrawley. An imprint of the Cassell Group.Wellington House, 125 Strand, London WC2R 0BB.1997. isbn 0575065354. Page 90.

35.

^ The Architectural Review. May 1936. TheArchitectural Press. 9 Queen Anne’s Gate,Westminster, S.W.1. London. Page 242. THEBONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton. “Anextra cost over Flemish has to be met for labour on

36.


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Monk bond and its derivatives, because the processis not so straightforward as Flemish, and thebricklayers have to stop and think more frequently.”^ The Architectural Review. May 1936. TheArchitectural Press. 9 Queen Anne’s Gate,Westminster, S.W.1. London. Page 241. THEBONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton. “Monkbond [...] is popular in the North of Europe. Twostretchers are followed by one header in everycourse, the headers being so disposed that verticalityof their axial lines is little apparent, and a strikingresult is obtained of diagonal lines of stretchers,which look like a series of corbels or cantileversembedded in the wall.”

37.

^ A History of English Brickwork. Nathaniel Lloyd.First Published in 1925. Published by The AntiqueCollectors’ Club Ltd, 2003. isbn 0907462367.Page 440. “FLEMISH GARDEN WALL or SUSSEXBOND. Three stretchers, then one header in everycourse.”

38.

^ The Architectural Review. May 1936. TheArchitectural Press. 9 Queen Anne’s Gate,Westminster, S.W.1. London. Page 241. THEBONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton.

39.

^ The Dictionary of Art. Grove. Volume Four,Biardeau TO Brüggemann. Edited by Jane Turner.Macmillan Publishers Limited. 1996. isbn1884446000. Page 769.

40.


41.

^ http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/70249742.^ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1.First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 HighHolborn. 1889. Page 23.

43.

^ A. C. Smeaton. The Builder’s Pocket Manual;Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying andArchitecture; with Practical Rules and Instructions inCarpentry, Bricklaying, Masonry &c. Published byM. Taylor, Barnard’s Inn, Holborn. 1837.Page 29, 30. “The two principal methods ofbricklaying are severally called English and Flemishbond. [...] English bond consists of alternatingcourses of headers and stretchers; thus, one course isformed with headers, that is, with bricks crossing thewall; the next with stretchers, that is, with brickshaving their length in the same direction as that of thewall[.]”

44.

^ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1.First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 HighHolborn. 1889. Page 21, figures 28 & 29.

45.


46.

^ Ching, Francis (1995). A Visual Dictionary ofArchitecture. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-28451-3.

47.

^ A History of English Brickwork. Nathaniel Lloyd.First Published in 1925. Published by The AntiqueCollectors’ Club Ltd, 2003. isbn 0907462367.Page 440. “ENGLISH CROSS BOND. Stretchersbreaking joint. The second brick of alternatestretching courses is a header.”

48.


49.

^ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1.First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 HighHolborn. 1889. Page 37.

50.

^ "Brick Pattern Math" (http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/educ/reid/geometry/brick/bricklayer.html#Brick_Patterns_Used_in_Walls) .http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/educ/reid/geometry/brick/bricklayer.html#Brick_Patterns_Used_in_Walls.

51.

^ A History of English Brickwork. Nathaniel Lloyd.First Published in 1925. Published by The AntiqueCollectors’ Club Ltd, 2003. isbn 0907462367.Page 440. “ENGLISH GARDEN WALL BOND.Three stretching courses to each heading course.”

52.


53.

^ Susan Reed Smither (January 29, 2004). "NationalRegister of Historic Places Registration: Clarke-Palmore House / Clarke Home"(http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Henrico/043-0085_Clarke-Palmore_2004_Final_Nomination.pdf) . VirginiaHistoric Landmarks Commission.http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Henrico/043-0085_Clarke-Palmore_2004_Final_Nomination.pdf. Retrieved2010-05-08. and Accompanying four photos atVirginia Historic Landmarks Commission, undated(http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Henrico/Clarke-Palmore_photo.htm)

54.

^ Campbell, James W. P; Pryce, Will (2003). Brick:A World History. London: Thames and Hudson.pp. 304–305 and 313. ISBN 978-0-500-34195-7.

55.

^ a b c d e "Brick Pattern Math"(http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/educ/reid/geometry

56.


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/brick/bricklayer.html#Brick_Patterns_Used_in_Pavements) . http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/educ/reid/geometry/brick/bricklayer.html#Brick_Patterns_Used_in_Pavements.^ A History of English Brickwork. Nathaniel Lloyd.First Published in 1925. Published by The AntiqueCollectors’ Club Ltd, 2003. isbn 0907462367.Page 440. “HEADING BOND. All headers except athree-quarters brick at quoin in alternate courses.”

57.

^ The Architectural Review. May 1936. TheArchitectural Press. 9 Queen Anne’s Gate,Westminster, S.W.1. London. Page 242, 245. THEBONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton.

58.

^ "Boral Best Block"(http://www.boralbestblock.com/product-lines/pavers/boral-clay-pavers/Boral-Clay-Pavers-Patterns) .

59.

http://www.boralbestblock.com/product-lines/pavers/boral-clay-pavers/Boral-Clay-Pavers-Patterns.^ R.W. Brunskill. Brick Building in Britain. VictorGollancz (Publisher) in association with PeterCrawley. An imprint of the Cassell Group.Wellington House, 125 Strand, London WC2R 0BB.1997. isbn 0575065354. Page 54.

60.

^ R.W. Brunskill. Brick Building in Britain. VictorGollancz (Publisher) in association with PeterCrawley. An imprint of the Cassell Group.Wellington House, 125 Strand, London WC2R 0BB.1997. isbn 0575065354. Page 54, 87.

61.

^ Barry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings.Second Edition. 2010. Stephen Emmitt andChristopher A. Gorse. Wiley-Blackwell, John Wiley& Sons Ltd., The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,West Sussex, PO19 8SQ. isbn 9781405188548.Page 154.

62.

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