essentials of biology sylvia s. mader chapter 26 lecture outline prepared by: dr. stephen ebbs...
TRANSCRIPT
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Essentials of BiologySylvia S. Mader
Chapter 26Lecture Outline
Prepared by: Dr. Stephen EbbsSouthern Illinois University Carbondale
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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26.1 Organs, Tissues, and Cells of the Immune System
• The immune system protects the body by fighting infection and cancer.
• The immune systems consists of several lymphatic organs.– Red bone marrow
– Thymus gland
– Lymph nodes
– Spleen
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26.1 Organs, Tissues, and Cells of the Immune System (cont.)
• There are also specialized lymphatic tissues.– Tonsils
– Appendix
• Specialized cells also contribute to the immune system.
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26.1 Organs, Tissues, and Cells of the Immune System (cont.)
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26.1 Organs, Tissues, and Cells of the Immune System (cont.)
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26.1 Organs, Tissues, and Cells of the Immune System (cont.)
• These various organs, tissues, and cells provide for immunity, which is the ability to react to antigens.
• Antigens are proteins that are foreign to the organism.
• Antibodies are specialized proteins produced by an organism that bind to specific antigens.
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Lymphatic Organs
• Each lymphatic organ has a specific function in immunity.
• All lymphatic organs contains one or more lymphocytes, one category of immunocells that protect the body.
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Red Bone Marrow
• The red bone marrow produces all the different types of red blood cells.
• There are several types of lymphocytes produced by the red bone marrow.– B lymphocytes, also called B cells
– T lymphocytes, also called T cells
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Thymus Gland
• Immature T cells produced by the red bone marrow migrate to the thymus where they complete their maturation.
• The thymus produces hormones that are thought to help T cells mature.
• The thymus selectively release T cells that have matured properly.
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Lymph Nodes
• The lymph nodes filter the lymphatic fluid to remove antigens and pathogens.
• Antigens and pathogens are removed by the phagocytic macrophages.
• Lymphocytes in the lymph nodes all contribute to the defense against antigens and pathogens in the lymphatic fluid.
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Spleen
• The spleen has two areas that contribute to immunity.– Red pulp– White pulp
• The red pulp filters pathogens and debris with the help of macrophages.
• The white pulp contains lymphocytes that fight pathogens and cancer.
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26.2 Nonspecific Defenses
• The body has a variety of nonspecific defenses that help protect the body from infection.– Barriers to entry– The inflammatory response– Natural killer cells
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Barriers to Entry
• There are two primary barriers that prevent entry of pathogens into the body.– The skin– The mucous membranes
• In addition to mechanically blocking pathogen entry, the skin has oil glands secrete chemicals to counter pathogens.
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Barriers to Entry (cont.)
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The Inflammatory Response
• Any damage to the body’s tissues trigger events of the inflammatory response.– Reddening– An increase in temperature– Swelling– Pain
• The inflammatory response also involves three cell types.– Mast cells– Neutrophils– Macrophages
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The Inflammatory Response (cont.)
• The mast cells release chemicals such as histamine to increase the blood flow through the capillaries.
• This increased blood flow contributes to the redness, swelling, and warmth.
• Because of the swelling, nerve receptors are triggered to create the sensation of pain.
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The Inflammatory Response (cont.)
• Neutrophils are phagocytic white blood cells that migrate to the site of injury.
• Macrophages have several roles.– These cells are phagocytic. – These cells release chemicals that trigger
white blood cell production in the red marrow.
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The Inflammatory Response (cont.)
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The Inflammatory Response (cont.)
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The Complement System
• The complement system consists of a variety of blood plasma proteins.
• When activated by the presence of pathogens, these proteins amplify the immune response.
• Complement proteins also form a membrane attack complex that contributes to the lysis of pathogens.
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The Complement System (cont.)
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Natural Killer Cells
• Natural killer cells are non-specific lymphocytes that kill virus-infected and cancerous cells.
• Natural killer cells kills cells that lack surface proteins identifying them as “self”.
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26.3 Specific Defenses
• Specific defenses are used in immunity when the nonspecific defenses fail to halt a pathogen or infection.
• One advantage of the specific defenses is that they can provide a “memory” of the infection.
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B Cells and the Antibody Response
• The B-cell receptor (BCR) on the surface of B cells allows for the recognition of and binding to specific antigens.
• The binding of the BCR to an antigen activates the B cell.
• Activated B cells undergo cell division to produce two special types of B cells.– Plasma B cells– Memory B cells
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B Cells and the Antibody Response (cont.)
• Plasma cells are responsible for the mass production of antibodies for the antigen.
• The antibodies are released into the bloodstream to help the body identify the antigen within the body.
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B Cells and the Antibody Response (cont.)
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B Cells and the Antibody Response (cont.)
• Memory B cells are retained within the body for an extended period of time.
• The memory B cells allow the body to mount an immune response more quickly if the antigen is perceived again.
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B Cells and the Antibody Response (cont.)
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The Function of Antibodies
• Recall that antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins that recognize specific antigens and forms an antibody-antigen complex.
• The formation of an antibody-antigen complex can mark an antigen for destruction by neutrophils or macrophages.
• The antibody-antigen complex may also act as complement to amplify the immune response.
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The Function of Antibodies (cont.)
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The Function of Antibodies (cont.)
• The proteins that determine blood type are also a type of antigen on the surface of red blood cells.
• Type A, B, or AB blood results from the presence of the A and/or B antigen.
• Type O blood occurs when the red blood cells lack the A or B antigen.
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The Function of Antibodies (cont.)
• The blood also contains antibodies to the red blood cell antigens that are not present.
• If incompatible types of blood are mixed, antibody-antigen complexes can form when agglutination occurs.
• This clumping of red blood cells restricts blood flow and can ultimately be fatal.
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The Function of Antibodies (cont.)
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T Cells and the Cellular Response
• The mature T cells that leave the thymus gland have unique T-cell receptors (TCR).
• These receptors only recognize an antigen when an antigen-presenting complex (APC) of a macrophage presents the antigen to the TCR.
• The presentation of the antigen by the APC activates the T cell.
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T Cells and the Cellular Response (cont.)
• An activated T cell undergoes cell division to produce two types of T cells.– Cytotoxic T cells
– Helper T cells
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T Cells and the Cellular Response (cont.)
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Types of T Cells
• Cytotoxic T cells release a protein called perforin to create a pore in the surface of infected cells.
• Cytotoxic T cells also release granzymes that then trigger the infected cell to undergo apoptosis (self-destruct).
• Cytotoxic T cells are responsible for the response to virus-infected and cancerous cells.
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Types of T Cells (cont.)
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Types of T Cells (cont.)
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Types of T Cells (cont.)
• Helper T cells contribute to immunity by secreting cytokines.
• Cytokines are chemicals that stimulate the immunocells, particularly the B cells.
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Tissue Rejection
• The immune system may also be important when an individual receives an organ transplant.
• Rejection occurs when cytotoxic T cells and antibodies respond to the transplanted tissues as if they were pathogens.
• Tissue rejection can be minimized in two ways.– Transplanting tissues with similar surface antigens to
the recipient.– Administering immunosuppressing drugs.
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26.4 Immunizations
• Vaccines and immunizations are used to protect individuals from specific diseases.
• The introduction of a vaccine promotes an active immune response and the formation of memory B cells.
• This acquired immunity prepares the body to respond quickly if the disease is perceived again.
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26.4 Immunizations (cont.)
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26.4 Immunizations (cont.)
• Temporary immunity can also be imposed through the introduction of specific prepared antibodies to the body.
• This immunity is passive immunity.
• Another example of passive immunity is the transfer of antibodies from mother to child during breast-feeding.
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26.5 Immune System Problems
• The immune system itself can malfunction and become harmful to the body.
• This can occur when the immune system fails to distinguish “self” from “nonself”.
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Allergies
• Allergies are a hypersensitive response to antigens called allergens.
• An immediate allergic response occurs within seconds of exposure to an allergen and may be life-threatening.
• The immediate allergic response involves the release of histamine from mast cells.
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Allergies (cont.)
• Delayed allergic responses occur at point after the exposure to the allergen.
• The delayed response is probably due to the cytokines secreted by immunocells.
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Allergies (cont.)
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Autoimmune Diseases
• Autoimmune diseases occur when cytotoxic T cells attack the body’s own cells.
• There are several autoimmune diseases.– Multiple sclerosis– Systemic lupus– Rheumatoid arthritis
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AIDS
• Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) occurs when the body loses the ability to fight infection.
• AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
• AIDS gradually destroys the body’s helper T cell population, leading to susceptibility to secondary infections.
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AIDS (cont.)