essential knowledge standards - ms. flemingflemingapchem.weebly.com/.../ap_chem_ch_1_ppt.pdf · •...
TRANSCRIPT
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Essentialknowledgestandards• 1.E.1: Physical and chemical processes can
be depicted symbolically; when this is done, the illustration must conserve all atoms of all types
• 2.A.3: Solutions are homogeneous mixtures in which the physical properties are dependent on the concentration of the solute and the strengths of all interactions among the particles of the solutes and solvent.
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(Intro)FLT• I will be able to:
• Describe and practice the scientific method
• Use mathematical relationships to convert between different units
• Identify significant figures and use them in mathematical computations
• Describe the different classifications of matter
• By completing Ch. 1 Notes
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Ch.1:ChemicalFoundations
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TakingNotesinClass• Take notes on bigger ideas, not
every little detail • DO copy down all problems/
calculations • After class, go to website to review
powerpoint and add useful details to notes
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Introduction
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Chemistry-Introduction• Idea:Matteriscomposedofatoms• Canweviewatoms?
– Individualatomscanbeviewedbyusingascanningtunnelingmicroscope(STM)
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Chemistry-Introduction• Keepinmind:
– Didthescientistswhodevelopedatomictheoryactuallyseeatoms?
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Chemistry-Introduction• Propertiesofasubstancecanbedeterminedbythewayinwhichatomsareorganizedinthatsubstance
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Chemistry-IntroductionWhenanelectriccurrentispassedthroughwater,itdecomposestohydrogenandoxygen
• Bothchemicalelementsexistnaturallyasdiatomic(two-atom)molecules
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Chemistry-Introduction• Matteriscomposedofvarioustypesofatoms• Byreorganizingthewaytheatomsareattachedtoeachother,onesubstancechangestoanother
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ScientificInquiryProcess
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ScientificInquiryProcess• Framework/procedureforgainingandorganizingknowledge
• Scientificmethodàscientificinquiry• Itstartswithanobservationthatgeneratesaquestion
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TheScientificMethodFirst:Observe• Qualitative(5senses)orquantitative(measurements)
• ThisshouldgenerateaQUESTION
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TheScientificMethodSecond:Generateahypothesis• Ahypothesisisapossibleexplanationforanobservation
• Oftenwritteninaconditionalformat,suchasif____,then_____
• Beabletomakeclaims
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TheScientificMethodThird:Test!• Performexperiment(s)• Recorddataandanalyzetoaccept/rejectyourhypothesis
• Experimentsproducenewobservationsthatusuallyrequiretheprocesstoberepeated/adjusted
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TheScientificMethod• Whendoesitbecomeatheory?• Theory(model):Setoftestedhypothesesthatgivesanoverallexplanationofanaturalphenomenon(inotherwords,lotsandlotsofexperimentssupportthisidea)– Explanationofwhynaturebehavesinacertainway– Constantlyrefinedorreplacedasmoreinformationbecomesavailable
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Pair-Share-Respond1. Whatismattercomposedof?2. Identifythemainpartsofthescientific
method.3. Provideanexampleofaqualitative
observation4. Provideanexampleofaquantitative
observation5. Younoticethatyourhouseplantisdying.
Comeupwithaspecifichypothesisinthe“If___,then____”formtotestwhy. 67
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UnitsofMeasurement
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UnitsofMeasurement• Measurementsconsistofanumberandascale(unit)
• SISystem(international)isstandardsystem
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UnitsofMeasurement• Table1.2–PrefixesUsedintheSISystem
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UnitsofMeasurement• Table1.3–SomeExamplesofCommonlyUsedUnits
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UnitsofMeasurement• Volume• Derivedunit(length)
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UnitsofMeasurement• Figure1.6–CommonTypesofLaboratoryEquipmentUsedtoMeasureLiquidVolume
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UnitsofMeasurement• MassvsWeight• Mass:Measureoftheresistanceofanobjecttoachangeinitsstateofmotion– Measuredbytheforcenecessarytogiveanobjectacertainacceleration
• Weight:Forceexertedbygravityonanobject– Varieswiththestrengthofthegravitationalfield
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Uncertainty
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• Differentmeasuringdeviceshavedifferentprecisions
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• Certaindigits
– Numbersthatremainthesameregardlessofwhomeasuresthem
• Uncertaindigits– Digitsthatmustbeestimatedandthereforevary
Measurements:RecordALLcertaindigits+oneuncertaindigit
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• Readvolumesatthemeniscus– Certaindigits-20.1– Uncertaindigit-20.15
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• Significantfigures:Numbersinwhichthecertaindigitsandthefirstuncertaindigitarerecorded– Uncertaintyinthelastnumberisalwaysassumedtobe±1unlessotherwiseindicated
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Pair-Share-Respond• Inanalyzingasampleofpollutedwater,achemistmeasuredouta25.00-mLwatersamplewithapipet– Atanotherpointintheanalysis,thechemistusedagraduatedcylindertomeasure25mLofasolution
– Whatisthedifferencebetweenthemeasurements25.00mLand25mL?
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• Accuracy:Describeshowclosetothe“true”valueameasurementis
• Precision:Howreproduciblemeasurementsareinreferencetoeachother
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• TypesofErrors• Randomerror(intermediateerror)
– Measurementhasanequalprobabilityofbeingloworhigh
– Occursinestimatingthevalueofthelastdigitofameasurement
Largerandomerrors Smallrandomerrorsandalarge
systematicerror
Smallrandomerrorsandnosystematic
error
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• TypesofErrors• Systematicerror(determinateerror)
– Occursinthesamedirectioneachtime– Eitheralwayshighoralwayslow
Largerandomerrors Smallrandomerrorsandalarge
systematicerror
Smallrandomerrorsandnosystematic
error
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Pair-Share-Respond• Theglasswareshownbelowiscalledaburet.Theburetisfilledtothezeromark(atthetop)withasolution,andthesolutionistransferredtoabeaker
• Whatvolumeoftransferredsolutionshouldbereported?
a. 20mL b. 22mLc. 22.0mLd. 22.00mLe. 25mL
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UncertaintyinMeasurement
• Theboilingpointofaliquidwasmeasuredinthelab,withthefollowingresults:
– Theactualboilingpointoftheliquidis28.7°C
Trial Boilingpoint
1 22.0°C±0.12 22.1°C±0.13 21.9°C±0.1
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Pair-Share-Respond• Theresultsofthedeterminationoftheboilingpointare:a. accurateandpreciseb. precisebutinaccuratec. accuratebutimprecised. inaccurateandimprecise
– Theactualboilingpointoftheliquidis28.7°C
Trial Boilingpoint
1 22.0°C±0.12 22.1°C±0.13 21.9°C±0.1
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• _____reflectsthereproducibilityofagiventypeofmeasurementa. Accuracyb. Precisionc. Certaintyd. Systematicerrore. Randomerror
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UncertaintyinMeasurement• _____istheagreementofaparticularvaluewiththetruevaluea. Accuracyb. Precisionc. Certaintyd. Systematicerrore. Randomerror
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SigFigs
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SigFigs• Rules:1. Nonzerointegersarealwayssignificant2. Leadingzeroesarenotsignificant3. Captive/In-betweenzeroesaresignificant4. Trailingzeroesaresignificantifadecimalpointis
present
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SigFigs• Afterperformingacalculationinthelab,thedisplayonyourcalculatorreads“0.023060070”– Ifthenumberintheansweristohavefivesignificantfigures,whatresultshouldyoureport?a. 0.0230b. 0.00231c. 0.023060d. 0.2367e. 0.02306
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Pair-Share-Respond• Howmanysigfigsin…?1. 1002. 1.0x1023. 1.00x1034. 100.5. 0.00486. 0.004807. 4.80x10-38. 4.800x10-3
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SigFigs• Note:Exactnumbers
– Determinedbycountingandnotbyusingameasuringdevice
– Assumedtohaveaninfinitenumberofsignificantfigures
– Canarisefromdefinitions– Example-2in2πr – Ihave20gloves
• Thishasinfinitesigfigsbecauseitisanexactnumber,andisnotmeasured.
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SigFigs• Multiplicationordivision
– Youranswershouldhavethesamenumberofsigfigsasthenumberisyourleastprecisemeasurement
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SigFigs• Additionorsubtraction
– Youranswershouldhavethesamenumberofdecimalplacesasyourleastprecisemeasurementused.
Example:– 12.11+18.0+1.013
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SigFigs• Rounding• Unlessyourproblemisseparatedintosteps,roundoffonlywhenyougetyourFINALRESULT
• Youranswermaybeverydifferentwhenyouroundsequentially
• Yourtextbookspecificallystatesthatitroundsoffeachsteptoshowsigfigs,butthatthismakestheiranswerdifferentàbecarefulwhenlookingatsomeoftheexamples.
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SigFigs• Rounding• Whatifyouwereaskedtoroundtothehundredthsplacefor…– 2.835?– 2.845?
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SigFigs• Rulesforrounding:
– Followwhatyou’velearnedaboutrounding– Ifthelastdigitis5,roundthenumbersothatitwillbeeven
– Ex/– 2.835à2.84– 2.845à2.84
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Pair-Share-Respond• Roundthefollowingtotwodecimalplaces:1. 3.6824172. 21.8600513. 45.46734. 7.5555. 3.665• Calculateandroundifnecessary:
1. 1.05×10–3÷6.1352. 21–13.8
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SigFigs• Thebeakersbelowhavedifferentprecisions
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SigFigs• Youpourthewaterfromthesethreebeakersintoonecontainer– Whatisthevolumeinthiscontainerreportedtothecorrectnumberofsignificantfigures?a. 78.817mLb. 78.82mLc. 78.8mLd. 79mL
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DimensionalAnalysis
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DimensionalAnalysis• DimensionalAnalysis(UnitFactorMethod)• Helpsconvertagivenresultfromonesystemofunitstoanother
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DimensionalAnalysis• Convertingfromoneunittoanother• Theequivalencestatementgoesintotheunitfactor(ex/102cm=1m)
• Theunityou’restartingwithalwaysgoesonthebottom(tocancelout)
• Theunityouwanttoendupwithgoesontop
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DimensionalAnalysis• Ex/• Youwanttoorderabicyclewitha25.5-inframe,butthesizesinthecatalogaregivenonlyincentimeters– Whatsizeshouldyouorder?
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DimensionalAnalysis• Ex/Howmanycentimetersarein4.50meters?
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TryThis:• Ex/Howmanykilometersarein256centimeters?
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Temperature
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Temperature(don’tmemorize)• K=oC+273• oC=K–273
• oC=oF–321.8• oF=1.8(oC)+32
• (technically,it’s273.15forKàCorCàK,butwecanuse273)
• It’snotdegreesKelvin,justKelvin
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Temperature• Withrespecttosignificantfigures
– ForoCàKorKàoC,sincetheconversioninvolvesadditionorsubtraction,it’sallabouttheprecisionofthegiventemperature• 85oC+273=358K• 85.5oC+273=358.5K• 85.55oC+273=353.55K
– ForoCàoForoFàoC,youwillhavetoconsiderthenumberofsignificantfiguresandtheprecision• 275.6oCbecomes528.1oF• 105.6oFbecomes40.9oC
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Temperature• Ex/OneinterestingfeatureoftheCelsiusandFahrenheitscalesisthat–40°Cand–40°Frepresentthesametemperature– Verifythatthisistrue(oF=1.8(oC)+32)
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Density
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Density• Density• Propertyofmatterthatisusedasanidentificationtagforsubstances
• Densityofaliquidcanbedeterminedeasilybyweighinganaccuratelyknownvolumeofliquid
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Density• Ex/Achemist,tryingtoidentifyanunknownliquid,findsthat25.00cm3ofthesubstancehasamassof19.625gat20°C
• Whichcompoundismostthemostlikelyidentifyoftheunknown?
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Density• Table1.5-DensitiesofVariousCommonSubstances*at20°C
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Density• Ex/A25gcylinderofiron(d=7.87g/mL)anda1.0grampelletofcopper(d=8.96g/mL)areplacedin500mLofwater(d=0.9982g/mL)– Predictwhethereachwillfloatorsinkinwater
a. Ironwillfloat,andcopperwillsinkb. Ironwillsink,andcopperwillfloatc. Ironandcopperwillsinkd. Ironandcopperwillfloate. Moreinformationisneeded
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ClassificationofMatter
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ClassificationofMatter• Matter=Anythingthatoccupiesspaceandhasmass• Hasmanylevelsoforganizationandiscomplex• Existsinthreemainstates
– Solid– Liquid– Gas
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ClassificationofMatter• Solids
– Rigid– Fixedvolumeandshape– Slightlycompressible
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ClassificationofMatter• Liquids
– Definitevolume– Nospecificshape
• Assumestheshapeofitscontainer
– Slightlycompressible
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ClassificationofMatter• Gases• Nofixedvolumeorshape
– Takesontheshapeandvolumeofitscontainer
• Highlycompressible– Relativelyeasytodecreasethevolumeofagas
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SeparatingMixturesIntoPureSubstances
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SeparatingMixtures• Mixtures-havevariablecomposition• Classification
– Homogeneousmixture:Hasvisiblyindistinguishablepartsandisoftencalledasolution
– Heterogeneousmixture:Hasvisiblydistinguishableparts
• Canbeseparatedintopuresubstances,whichhaveconstantcompositions,byphysicalmethods
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SeparatingMixtures• PhysicalChange• Changeintheformofasubstance
– Nochangeinthechemicalcompositionofthesubstance
• Example– Boilingorfreezingofwater
• Usedtoseparateamixtureintopurecompounds– Willnotbreakcompoundsintoelements
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SeparatingMixtures
MethodsforSeparatingComponentsinaMixture
Distillation Filtration
Chromatography
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SeparatingMixtures• Distillation• Dependsonthedifferencesinthevolatilityofthecomponents
• Worksbestwhenoneofthesubstancesisvolatile,andtheotherisnot,asthemostvolatilecomponentvaporizesatthelowesttemperature
• Ex/distillationofseawater
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ClassificationofMatter• Filtration• Usedwhenamixtureconsistsofasolidandaliquid• Mixtureispouredontoamesh,suchasfilterpaper,whichpassestheliquidandleavesthesolidbehind
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ClassificationofMatter• Chromatography• Generalnameappliedtoaseriesofmethodsthatuseasystemwithtwostates(phases)ofmatter– Mobilephase-Liquidorgas– Stationaryphase-Solid
• Separationoccursbecausethecomponentsofthemixturehavedifferentaffinitiesforthetwophases– Theymovethroughthesystematdifferentrates
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ClassificationofMatter• Chromatography
– Componentwithahighaffinityforthemobilephasewillquicklygothroughthechromatographicsystemascomparedtoonewithahighaffinityforthesolidphase
• Paperchromatography:Usesastripofporouspaperforthestationaryphase
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ClassificationofMatter• PureSubstances• Eithercompoundsorfreeelements
– Compound:Substancewithaconstantcompositionthatcanbebrokendownintoitselementsviachemicalprocesses
• Givensubstancebecomesanewsubstanceorsubstanceswithdifferentpropertiesanddifferentcomposition
– Element:Substancethatcannotbebrokendownintosimplersubstancesbyphysicalorchemicalmeans
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ClassificationofMatter
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ClassificationofMatter• Asolutionisalsoa:
a. heterogeneousmixtureb. homogeneousmixturec. compoundd. distilledmixturee. puremixture
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ClassificationofMatter• Whichofthefollowingstatementsisfalse?
a. Solutionsarealwayshomogeneousmixturesb. Atomsthatmakeupasolidaremostlyopenspacec. Elementscanexistasatomsormoleculesd. Compoundscanexistaselementsormolecules