essential architecture a world history of western...
TRANSCRIPT
This incredibly informative pocket-size
volume promises much — and delivers.
Organized chronologically, it encompasses
the story of architecture from pre-histor-
ical examples such as Stonehenge to
present day ecological office buildings and
Blobitecture.
The history of architecture unfolds
through colorful and insightful images
and texts that trace the development of
major movements and their architects
throughout the ages and around the
world. Technological innovations, build-
ing methods, and historical references are
explained in an easy-to-understand way.
Each chapter is opened by a time-line and
an introduction pointing out the essential
developments of the time in design and
building techniques.
While the focus lies on Western architec-
ture, each chapter also includes pages
examining the Islamic, Asian and African
styles and methods.
Fullcolor photographs are enriched by
floor plans and drawings that outline every-
thing you need to know about architecture.
Great for anyone interested in the stylistic
and technical aspects of everyday living.
Sales arguments: • ca. 1000 illustrations, low price
• a survey of the greatest architects and
buildings
• creative and technical inventions and
their lasting effects
• chronologically and thematically sorted
for easy reference
• unique combination of visual and text
information
Essential Architecture A World History of Western Architecture
Essentials
general audience
from 14 years on
12 x 16 cm
512 pages
ca. 1000 illustrations
ca. 100 000 words
full color on 140 g Offset
flexicover
spring 2008
ca. 1000 illustrations, introduction and reference
published in the series
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A R C H I T E C T U R EA WORLD HISTORY
Daniel Borden, Jerzy Elżanowski,Cornelia Lawrenz, Daniel Miller, Adele Smith,
and Joni Taylor
Chartres Cathedral, page 127
Contents
5
Archi tecture: A World History
4
Contents
10 Pre- and Early History12 Timeline14 Introduction18 Prehistoric Architecture20 Ancient Egypt22 The Great Pyramids of Giza24 Middle and Late Egypt28 Mesopotamia and Persia32 Building Techniques:
Megaliths34 Minoan and Mycenaean
36 Antiquity and Early Christianity38 Timeline40 Introduction44 Building Techniques: The Classical Orders46 Greek Architecture50 The Acropolis52 The Parthenon54 Early Roman Architecture56 The Colosseum58 Roman Urban Planning60 Roman Empire64 Early Christian Architecture66 Byzantine Architecture68 Pre-Mughal Architecture70 Early Buddhist Architecture72 Early Chinese Architecture74 Mesoamerican Architecture
76 Romanesque78 Timeline80 Introduction84 Carolingian Renaissance86 Monasteries88 Ottonian Cathedrals
90 German High Romanesque92 Building Techniques: The Vault94 Clunaic Pilgrimage Churches98 England and the Normans100 Northern Italy102 Islam & Christianity in Spain106 Norwegian Stave Churches108 Secular Architecture110 East Asian Religious Architecture112 Great Mosques of Early Islam114 Ancient Pueblos
116 Gothic118 Timeline120 Introduction126 The Birth of Gothic128 Notre Dame de Paris130 High Gothic in France132 Rayonnant and Flamboyant Gothic
in France134 Building Techniques: Gothic
Cathedrals136 Early Gothic in the UK138 Westminster Abbey140 Late Gothic in the UK142 Late Gothic in Germany144 Bohemian and Polish Gothic148 Iberian Gothic150 Late Gothic in Northern Italy152 Italian Civic Architecture156 Rock Churches of Lalibela
158 Renaissance160 Timeline162 Introduction168 Filippo Brunelleschi170 Building Techniques:
The Dome of Florence Cathedral172 Leon Battista Alberti
Pisa Baptistery, Cathedral, and Campanile, page 101Stonehenge, page 18
Colosseum, page 57
Versailles, page 243
258 Bohemian Baroque260 Building Techniques:
Baroque Dynamism262 Iberian Baroque264 Sir John Vanbrugh266 Rococo Architecture270 Bartolomeo Rastrelli272 Islamic Architecture274 Ottoman Empire276 Japanese Architecture278 Baroque in Latin America
282 Neoclassicism284 Timeline286 Introduction290 Building Techniques:
Neoclassical Styles292 Sir Christopher Wren294 WIlliam Kent296 Robert Adam298 John Nash300 Sir John Soane302 Sir Robert Smirke304 Claude Nicolas Ledoux306 Carl Gotthard Langhans308 Karl Friedrich Schinkel312 Russian Neoclassicism314 Benjamin Henry Latrobe316 The US Capitol318 Thomas Jefferson
320 19th Century322 Timeline324 Introduction328 Building Techniques:
Industrial Architecture330 WilliamWilkins332 The Inwood Family334 Gottfried Semper
Contents
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Archi tecture: A World History
6
174 Ideal Urban Planning176 Donato Bramante178 Giuliano da Sangallo180 Michelangelo Buonarroti182 St. Peter’s Basilica184 Raphael186 Jacopo Sansovino188 Vincenzo Scamozzi190 Giulio Romano192 Andrea Palladio194 Michele Sanmicheli196 Baldassare Peruzzi198 French Châteaux202 Germany and Austria206 Northern Renaissance208 Renaissance in the UK210 Iberian Renaissance212 Eastern Europe214 Mughal Empire216 East Asian Architecture
218 Baroque220 Timeline222 Introduction228 Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola230 Gian Lorenzo Bernini232 Francesco Borromini234 Pietro Berrettini da Cortona236 François Mansart238 Jules Hardouin Mansart240 Louis Le Vau242 Versailles244 French Castles and Gardens246 Urban Planning in Paris248 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach250 Johann Dientzenhofer252 Jakob Prandtauer254 Johann Balthassar Neumann
Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Konzerthaus onGendarmenmarkt, page 309
Fillippo Brunelleschi: Florence Cathedral,page 170
Contents
Sir Norman Foster: Reichstag Dome,page 467
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Archi tecture: A World History
8
336 Scottish Baronial338 Egyptian Revival340 Sir Charles Barry342 Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin344 Sir George Gilbert Scott346 William Butterfield348 Eugène Viollet-le-Duc350 James Renwick Jr.352 Haussmannization of Paris354 The Louvre356 Second Empire in the USA358 Richard Morris Hunt360 Henry Hobson Richardson362 Exoticism364 Charles Garnier366 Henri Labrouste
368 20th Century 1900 to 1945370 Timeline372 Introduction378 Louis Sullivan380 Building Techniques: Steel Frames382 Frank Lloyd Wright386 Victor Horta388 Hector Guimard390 Antoni Gaudí392 Charles Rennie Mackintosh394 Otto Wagner396 Joseph Maria Olbrich398 Adolf Loos400 Peter Behrens402 Erich Mendelsohn404 Gerrit Thomas Rietveld406 Walter Gropius408 Bauhaus410 Social Housing Estates412 Le Corbusier416 Nordic Modernism
418 Art Deco in New York420 Totalitarian Architecture
424 Architecture after 1945426 Timeline428 Introduction434 Mies van der Rohe438 Seagram Building440 Louis Kahn442 Syndey Opera House444 Eero Saarinen446 Kenzo Tange448 Oscar Niemeyer450 Brutalism452 Tadao Ando454 Álvaro Siza Viera456 Urban Utopias: Theoretical Urban
Planning458 Building Techniques:
Complex Curvature460 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill464 I. M. Pei466 Sir Norman Foster470 High Tech Architecture474 Venturi & Scott-Brown476 Sir James Stirling478 Aldo Rossi480 New York Five482 Postmodern Classicism484 Peter Eisenman486 Frank Gehry490 Zaha Hadid494 Daniel Libeskind496 Rem Koolhaas498 Herzog & de Meuron500 Blobs
502 Index
Le Corbusier: Notre Dame du Haut, page 415
Charles Garnier: Paris Opéra (PalaisGarnier), page 365
Daniel Burnham:Flatiron Building(Fuller Building),page 381
1312
Europe10,000 BCE
Neolithic period; mudbricks are first used
4800 BCE
Megalithic structures inBrittany
2500 BCE
Bronze Age;Stonehenge
2000 BCE
The Minoans constructlarge royal palace com-plexes on Crete
Middle East
Pre- and Early History
3200 BCE
Sumerians rule Mesopotamia;construction of a proto-zig-gurat, the White Temple in Uruk
2100 BCE
Construction of the Zigguratat Ur
3000 BCE
Early Dynastic period;Egyptian state forms; firstuse of stone as a buildingmaterial; first pyramid, theStep Pyramid of Djoser, isbuilt
Egyptp.29
1600 BCE
The Mycenaeans rulethe Mediterranean;royal burial mounds atMycenae
1200 BCE
Mycenae falls toinvaders; start of a400-year Greek darkage, during whichbuilding halts andGreek innovations stall
p.18
1200 BCE
Assyrian period; King Sen-nacherib constructspalaces at Nineveh
612 BCE
Neo-Babylonian period;King Nebuchadnezzar II
builds the Ishtar Gate andthe Hanging Gardens ofBabylon
560 BCE
Persian Achaemenid dy-nasty; royal palaces andtombs at Persepolis
2575 BCE
Old Kingdom; the GreatPyramids of Giza
2125 BCE
First Intermediateperiod; Egypt splits in two, withcapitals in Memphis andThebes
1550 BCE
New Kingdom; construction oflarge temple complexes nearThebes and royal tombs in theValley of the Dead; reigns ofPharaohs Hatshepsut andRamses II
332 BCE
Greco-Roman period; Ptolo-maic pharaohs build templesin an early Egyptian style; cross-influences with Roman archi-tecture mean that innovationsand styles are shared betweenthe two
p.23
10,000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 500 300
p.35
Prehistor ic Archi tecture
19Ne
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Around 10,000 BCE, people began farming and creatingthe first architecture in their settled communities. InTurkey and the Middle East, early buildings and townswere constructed frommud bricks, while Neolithic Euro-peans used timber framing and made walls of wovensticks coveredwith clay. The first buildingswere primarilyfor the practical uses of shelter and storing food. How-ever, early humans also created monuments, includinggraves and other ceremonial structures. Stone circles andmenhirs, or upright rows of megalith stones, wereerected. Several of these architectural feats, such as themenhirs of Carnac, still stand. The tallest stone at Carnacstands 60 feet (18 meters) high. Though the purpose ofthese monuments is uncertain, they show humankind’searly desire to manipulate nature on a large scale and toleave behind lasting markers of their existence.
Neol
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P rehistor ic Archi tecture10,000–1500 B C E
� Single family houses, barns, and communal dwellings were built � Earlybuildings were made from natural materials such as timber, clay, andmud bricks� Massive stone slabs were used to mark graves and important sites� left: The Menhirs of Carnac, ca. 3300 BCE, Carnac, Brittany
Stonehenge, ca. 3100–2200BCE, Wiltshire, UK
Stonehenge is an example ofmegalithic construction thatbegan as a series of circular dit-ches ca. 3100 BCE. The 12-foot-(4-meter-) high stones wereerected 1,100 years later, a re-
markable engineering feat. Thestones are oriented to preciselymark the location of the sun onthe summer solstice, showing asophisticated knowledge of astro-nomy. Little is known of the build-ers, but some believe the site tohave been a place of worship.
Çatalhöyük, ca. 7500 BCE,Anatolia, Turkey
Mehrgarh, ca. 7000–3200BCE, Buluchistan, Pakistan
Skara Brae, ca. 3100–2500BCE, Orkney, UK
Other Works
Reed-Thatched Houses,reconstruction, ca. 1800–1500BCE, Roeschitz, Austria
Because only stone structureshave survived, we see Neolithicpeople as preoccupied withmonuments and death. Lessdurable dwellings, such asthese, are known only fromtheir foundations, which con-tained holes for their timberstructure. These round housesare typical of the Aunjetitz cul-ture in Germany and Austria.Dug partly into the ground,they had walls of woodmeshcovered with clay and thatchedroofs. Large rectangular build-ings, called longhouses, shel-tered whole communities. Oneend of a longhouse was usedfor grain storage, the middle forsleeping and eating, and thearea near the door for work.
Cueva de Menga Grave atAntequera, ca. 3000–2000 BCE,Spain
A dolmen is a type of Neolithictomb built from upright stonesand capped by a horizontal roofslab. Cueva de Menga is thelargest dolmen in Europe, builtusing 32megaliths, the largest
of which weighs 180 tons. Aswas typical, after the burialchamber was completed, thewhole structure was buriedunder an artificial hill. When itwas discovered and opened inthe 19th century, the skeletonsof several hundred people werefound inside.
10,000 BCE Neolithic cul-ture appears on the eastcoast of the Mediterra-nean; grains are cultivatedand mud bricks are used8000 BCE Neolithic culturespreads to Syria and Iraq7000–5500 BCE Communi-ties appear in southernand central Europe3500 BCE Neolithic culturesin the Tigris and Euphratesriver valleys develop intoBronze Age urban civiliza-tions, and the Sumeriancivilization emerges as aprominent culture1800–1500 BCE BronzeAge technologies arrive inEurope, improving con-struction techniques
Column Proportions of the Three OrdersBeginning with Palladio in the 1st century BCE,architects have studied Greek and Roman buildingsto establish the ideal proportions for the three or-ders. Columns are distinguished by the ratio be-tween their base diameter and height—for a Doriccolumn, it is about 1:6, for an Ionic column, 1:9. Theslight tapering of the columns at the top is calledentasis, and the area above the columns is known asthe entablature. Buildings created in the Doric orderhave a frieze with alternating triglyphs andmetopescreating rectangular areas of high and low depth.Triglyphs are styled after elements of earlierwooden construction and are fashioned after theends of wood beams. The triangular pedimentbelow the roof line was sometimes filled with sculp-tures, as at the Parthenon.
45An
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Classical OrdersThe Classical orders are systems for designing build-ings based on proportions between the individualparts. The ancient Greeks developed the orders intheir early wooden temples. They used a basic struc-tural system—the post-and-lintel, or vertical columnssupporting horizontal beams. The Classical ordersgave their buildings an aesthetic sophistication byensuring consistency and visual harmony betweenbuildings, regardless of size or materials used.There are three orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corin-
thian. Each has a unique set of rules defining its use.In theory, historians can use the orders like architec-tural DNA to reconstruct a temple from a singlecolumn or piece of entablature. The orders were later adopted by the Romans,who added elements such as arches and vaulting. Forgotten for centuries during
the Dark Ages, the orders were redis-covered during the Renais-sance. Since then, architectshave used them to designbuildings that have a sense oftimelessness and elegance.
Antiq
uity
Corinthian Temple of Diana, ca. 200 CE,Evora, Portugal
Each order has a unique columndesign. Doriccolumns, from theGreekmainland, are broad,with capitals composed of a round, pillowlikeechinus and a flat, square bottom slab calledan abacus. The thinner Ionic columns’ curlingvolute capitals originate from theGreekcolonies in AsiaMinor, while theCorinthian capital, a variation onthe Ionic, has carvedacanthusleaves.
Ant iqui ty and Early Christ iani ty 600 BCE–600 CE Classical Orders
Early Roman Archi tecture
55Ro
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Antiq
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Ant iqui ty and Early Christ iani ty 600 BCE–600 CE
54
Roman architects owed a large debt to the Greeks. Theydressed their buildings in the Classical orders and deco-rated them with copies of Greek statues. Many distinctlyRoman features, such as the arch, were developed by theEtruscans, who had lived in Italy centuries before. Thesetwo cultures combined to produce the Roman style. TheRoman Maison Carrée in Nîmes uses the Greek style butis based on Etruscan models. Greek temples sat close tothe ground, with steps and columns wrapped all around.This building is on a high podium. Stairs, only in the front,lead to a porch of Corinthian columns.
ca. 600–300 BCE The Etr-uscans build temples andtombs in central Italyca. 550 BCE Greek Dorictemples at Paestum, Italyca. 300 BCE The Romansabsorb Etruscan cultureand architectureca. 30 BCE Vitruvius writeshis influential The TenBooks of Architectureca. 50 BCE–100 CE Romanbuildings are built in far-flung provincial cities
Rom
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Temple of Alatri,ca. 600–300 BCE, recon-structed at the Villa Giulia,Rome
CloacaMaxima,ca. 600–200 BCE, Rome
Temple of JupiterCapitolinus, ca. 200 BCE,Rome
Temple of Augustusand Livia, ca. 25 BCE,Vienna
Other Works
Casa Sannitica,reconstruction, ca. 200 BCE,Herculaneum
Like Pompeii, Hercula-neumwas an Italian townburied in the eruption ofMt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. This
Aqueduct, ca. 100 CE,Segovia
The Romans learned hydraulicsfrom the Etruscans, who hadbuilt early sewers to drainRome’s swamps. Using the sci-ence of arch building, the Ro-mans were able to engineermonumental aqueducts. Thisexample, built of unmortaredgranite blocks, towers 92 feet(28 meters) above the streets ofSegovia and still carries water19 miles (30 km) from a spring.
Thermopolium, ca. 100 CE,Ostia Antica
Restaurants like this served hotfood aswell as spicedwine fromclay jars set in themarblecounter. The Romans pioneeredthe use of concrete to createcurved forms. Here, thewalls andarches are concrete, poured intoa brick veneer that served as aframework andmolded the con-crete to look like bricks. Themo-saics that adorn the building’sfloorswere a Greek innovation.
house, one of the oldest in thetown, was based on Etruscanmodels. The large atriumwas thecenter of the home. A loggia, dec-orated with Ionic columns,wrapped around the second floor,with bedrooms and offices
opening onto it. The atrium roofsloped inward and opened in thecenter, allowing sunlight and rain-water to enter. Richly decoratedwith stucco and frescoes, thehouse likely belonged to a pros-perous businessman.
� Early Romans embracedGreek culture � Classical orderswere used � The Ro-mans adopted Etruscan innovations like structural arches � Military victories ex-pandedRome’s influence � Temples and aqueductswere built in new territories� left: Roman Maison Carrée, 19–16 BCE, Nîmes
Early Roman Archi tectureca. 600 B C E–100 C E
Early Chinese Archi tecture
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Ant iqui ty and Early Christ iani ty
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For centuries, China’s vast areawas populated by remotetribes, somenomadic and others living in farming villagessurroundedby stamped-earthwalls. In 220 BCE, Chinawasunified, and parts of the Great Wall were constructed toprotect the country’s borders.
Under the Han dynasty, the classic style of Chinese ar-chitecture developed. Palaces and temples were laid outsymmetrically. A grid of round columns supported a large,horizontal roofwith upturned eaves. Light, nonstructuralwalls served as screens against the elements. The Indianstupa form was combined with the Chinese lou, a multi-story watchtower, to create Buddhist pagodas.
220 BCE Emperor Qin ShiHuang first unifies Chinaunder the Qin dynasty; hismausoleum complex inXian covers 1.3 squaremiles (2 square km)206 BCE–220 CE During theHan dynasty many classicChinese building stylesfirst appearca. 100–700 CE BuddhistChinese-style pagodasand temples are builtthroughout the unifiedempireAr
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Early Chinese Archi tecture220 B C E–700 C E
� Neolithic Chinese built villages and tombs � China was unified, and con-struction of the Great Wall began � Classic Chinese architectural styles deve-loped under the Han dynasty � The arrival of Buddhism inspired early temples� The pagoda form appeared � Buddhist shrines were carved into cliffs
Qin Shi HuangMausoleum,207 BCE, Xian, Shaanxi Province
Mogao Caves, begunca. 400 CE, Dunhuang, GansuProvince
Longmen Caves,begun ca. 500 CE, HenanProvince
Songyue Temple Pagoda,520 CE, Dengfeng, HenanProvince
Four Gates Pagoda, 611 CE,Licheng, Shandong Province
Other Works
Pagoda, 669 CE, at XingjiaoBuddhist Temple, ShaanxiProvince
A combination of the layeredIndian stupa tower and Chinesewatchtowers, the first Chinesepagodas were built of woodand square in plan. Later pa-godas were octagonal or round.This early brick pagodamarkingthe burial site of Xuanzang, apilgrim who brought Buddhistscriptures back from India, hasdistinctly Chinese features suchas projecting roof eaves.
Pavilion at Old DragonHead (Lao Long Tou),ca. 220–210 BCE, nearShanhaiguan
Situated at the starting point oftheGreatWall, theOldDragonHeadwas built under Em-perorQin and renovated inthe 15th century.Multilevelbuildings first appeared inChina under the earlierHandynasty, and Em-perorQin,whosemas-sive building
Great Wall of China,ca. 500 BCE–1600 CE
The world’s longest man-madestructure, the Great Wall beganas a series of rammed-earth for-tifications. Successive emperorsmarked changing borders byextending the wall using stoneand brick. The present walldates from the 15th century. In1449 CE, the Mongols in thenorth defeated the Ming dy-nasty, who had rebuilt the wallto protect their capital, Beijing.
campaigns also include the Ter-racottaWarriors, spread the up-turned eaves and steep roofedstyle throughoutChina.
Ancient PueblosRomanesque
114
The main social space for the Pueblo peoples was thekiva—a round, subterranean room that served spiritual,political, and familial purposes similar to the functions ofa chapel or parish church in Europe. The Anasazi lived inlarge communities of up to 1,000 people, divided into fa-milial units. The life of each family revolved around thekiva, so that several round kivas would be interspersedwith tight rows of rooms used for living, storage, andsometimes even burial. The entire pueblo could be com-pared in scope to the large communal European abbeysof the same era.
ca. 1000 Stone begins tobe used, along with thetraditional mediums ofwood and mud, as a con-struction materialca. 1130–80 The PuebloBonito is abandoned1276–99 The GreatDrought takes place inwhat is today the south-western United Statesca. 1300 The Anasazipeople abandon theircommunities
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Ancient Pueblosca. 1000–ca. 1300
� The Anasazi inhabited large parts of southwestern North America � Theywere the ancestors of modern-day Pueblo peoples � Many cliff dwellings andstone pueblos were discovered in the late 19th century and later excavated� left: Cliff Palace, ca. 1200–ca. 1300, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
Tuzigoot, occupied fromca. 1000, Verde River valley, Ari-zona
White House, 1066–1275,Canyon de Chelly NationalMonument, Chinle, Arizona
Montezuma Castle, ca. 1100,Verde River valley, Arizona
Aztec Ruins National Monu-ment, 1111–15 and mid-13thcentury, Aztec, New Mexico
Great Kiva at Casa Rinuanda(Corner House), ca. 1150,Chaco Canyon NationalPark, New Mexico
Other Works
Cliff Palace,ca.1200–ca. 1300, Mesa VerdeNational Park, Colorado
Around 1150 the Anasazi, who
Pueblo Bonito,ca. 920–1180, Chaco CanyonNational Park, NewMexico
Pueblo Bonito was a semicirc-ular five-story megastructuregathering a village with hun-dreds of inhabitants into onebuilding. In plan it lookedsomewhat like a cell, with amembrane, nucleus, and free-floating elements. In section itresembled a Roman theater,terracing down to a centralplaza. Its straight edge wasclosed off by a layer of rooms.
Pueblo Bonito, dwellings,ca. 920–ca. 1180, Chaco CanyonNational Park, NewMexico
The tallest structures at PuebloBonito were at the back of thestructure, along the protectivenorth-facing windowless curve.
traditionally lived in pit houseson the mesa, began to move tosheltering cliff dwellings. Theyretained the circular forms of
the pits, turning them into kivasand addingmultilevel housesthat hugged the natural con-tours of the cliffs.
As in many surrounding com-munities, dwellings facedsouth, stepping down so thatthe roof of one was the terraceof the next. At Pueblo Bonito,there were about 30 familykivas and two central commu-
nity kivas. These were backedby layers of rooms that had dif-ferent uses depending on theavailability of light. Roads lead-ing to neighboring settlementsand resource areas have beendiscovered.
Gothic
1230–1520Gothic in Centraland NorthernEuropeGerman, Austrian, Polish,and Bohemian architectsadopt French Gothicstyles, building widerstructures of brick
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1174–1517Gothic inthe UKGothic styles spread fromFrance to the UK, whereFlamboyant, or Deco-rated, and Perpendicularstyles create new forms oftracery and vaulting
1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
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1140–1500Gothic inFranceThe construction of thechoir of Saint-Denis, nearParis, creates an “archi-tecture of light” usingskeletal frames that com-partmentalize buildingsand increase the possibil-ities of height and orna-mentation
1220–1520MediterraneanGothicItalian Gothic architec-ture features polychromesurfaces and geometricforms; in Spain andPortugal, FlamboyantGothic mixes with highlyornate local styles such asthe Manueline style
Around the World:Southeast Asiaand AfricaAs European cathedralsgrew taller, cultures inSoutheast Asia werebuilding massive templecomplexes that alsoreached to the heavens,while in Ethiopia, chur-ches were hollowed outof the earth
1220–1520Rayonnant andFlamboyantGothic
In France and Englandstructural elements suchas vaulting and ribsbecome increasingly intri-cate and ornate
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Notre Dame, chevet with buttressing,1163–1230, Paris
The flying buttresses at Notre Dame were amongthe first of their kind and were modified during aconstruction phase that enlarged the clerestorywindows. Architects sacrificed exterior clarity for in-terior light, obscuring the exterior walls, andmaking them less tangible and more mysterious.
Notre Dame de Paris
Gothic 1140–1520
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Notre Dame de Paris
Notre Dame de Paris is neither the tallest nor themost extravagant of Gothic cathedrals but has a mo-numental dignity and clarity of plan that has madeit an architectural icon. Later modified, the first planof Notre Dame was strikingly compact. A long navewith a semicircular apse was embraced by a doubleambulatory that continued alongside the nave, for-ming the side aisles. The transept projected onlyslightly beyond the exterior walls, but did not inter-rupt the rhythm of the aisles. Although the simplifi-cation of form and absolute emphasis on verticalityof later churches is still muted at Notre Dame, its satisfying proportions and well-integrated ornament unify the space. The scholastic movement influenced the
strict compartmentalization of earlyGothic works, but also introduced con-trast into architecture—at Notre Dame,slender shafts fall uninterrupted downthe height of the thin nave wall, butstop abruptly, balancing on massive ca-pitals.
Notre Dame, facade,1200–50, Paris
The facade of Notre Dame isanything but vertical. It does
Notre Dame, nave, after 1178, Paris
Full of contrast, Notre Dame has thin, transparentnave walls, essential to the sublime light of Gothicbuildings, resting on monumental piers. The com-plex problem of creating an illusion of weightless-ness both inside and out is solved through the useof light—the interior is dematerialized with lightand the exterior with the complexity of shadow.
not appear to rise fluidly fromthe soil, like Reims. Instead it isan orderly and comprehensibleimage based on primary geo-
metrical figures: the square,the circle, and the triangle, ar-ranged on a grid throughoutits elevation.
GothicCathedralsMedieval masons understood that forces in a buildingcouldbeexpressedasdirectional loads, or vectors. Thestructural feats in the constructionofGothic cathedralswere a creative way of separating vertical and lateralloads by redistributing spaces.Workingwith the samedesign and construction methods used for centuries,cathedral architects introduced innovations thatwerepivotal to the development of Gothic planning. Bymodifying the system of vaulting and using flyingbuttresses, architects gained an unprecedentedfreedom in plan. This created the Gothic aesthetic as
well as the structuralsupport needed forthe new heights ofcathedrals.
Gothic Cathedrals
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Goth
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Reims Cathedral, mainnave looking west, mid-13thcentury
The nave wall of a High Gothic
cathedral is composed of thefollowing elements in ascend-ing order: the arcade linking thenave with its aisles, the trifo-
rium that takes up the blindspace of the aisle roof, and fi-nally the clerestory windowreaching up to the nave vault.
Goth
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Reims Cathedral, plan,1211–1311The four-part ribbed vault, theflying buttress, and the use ofdead weight for stability revo-lutionized medieval construc-tion. Gothic churches werebased on sets of flexible struc-tural bays instead of themonolithic barrel vault. Usingadjustable ribs, masons couldvary the proportions of eachbay without affecting itsheight. The geometry of thepointed arch produced smallerlateral loads and transferredthe vertical ones directly downto the supporting columns.Any residual lateral forces wereremoved through flying but-tresses connected to weightedpillars outside.
Legend:
1 Radiating chapels
2 Ambulatory
3 Choir
4 Crossing
5 Transept
6 Nave
7 Narthex
a Transverse rib
b Flying buttress
c Clerestory
d Triforium
e Buttress
f Main arcade
g Aisle
7
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The Khmer and Bagan kingdoms occupied large areasroughly equivalent to present-day Cambodia andMyanmar (Burma). Although the sites are now accessibleto tourists, political turmoil has made it difficult to con-duct archaeological research and comprehensive restora-tion programs. As a result, much remains to be discov-ered about the relationships between architecture andlocal religious practices. At Angkor Wat, geometry playeda major role in defining the layout of the main temple de-voted to Vishnu. According to Hindu beliefs, the squarewas the ultimate celestial form. Multiplying, dividing, su-perimposing, and layering the square was the answer toconstructing the perfect building. At Arimaddanapura,which was the capital of the kingdom of Bagan (alsoknown as Pagan), the stupa, a form of burial mound, wasreinterpreted to produce complex domed shrines toBuddha, and temples were built by the wealthy.
ca. 1090 King Kyanzitthabegins construction of nu-merous temples based onthe Shwezigon Pagoda1113–50 Reign of Surya-varman II; Angkor Watbuilt in the capital city ofthe Khmer Kingdom1177 Angkor reconqueredafter being attacked by theChams1181 King Jayavarman VIIconverts to Buddhism andbuilds Angkor Thom overthe ruins of the old capital1287 Bagan is sacked bythe Mongolsca.1430 Khmer abandonAngkor Thom after thekingdom is sacked by theThai
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Ancient City ofBagan, 12th–13thcenturies, Myanmar
Made of bricks from thedusty soil on whichthey stand, thousandsof domed structuresdot the plains of Bagan.The stupas, pagodas,and temples are built inmany different archi-tectural styles.
ShwezigonPagoda, 11th century,near Bagan, Myanmar
The Shwezigon Pagodawas the archetype forlater pagodas in the re-gion. Gilt in gold leaf,the temple is not en-tered by worshippers,but is rumored to holdrelics of the Buddha.
Angkor Wat, early 12thcentury, near Siem Reap,Cambodia
The largest of many Hindutemples built in the an-cient Khmer capital,Angkor Wat is a layeredrectangular compoundsurrounded by a widemoat. Rich with detail andhighly symbolic, it ismeant to evoke both amandala rising from theprimordial ocean andVishnu’s mountain abode.
Bapuon Temple,ca. 1060, near Angkor,Cambodia
Ananda Temple,ca. 1090–1105, Bagan,Myanmar
Mahabodhi Temple,mid-12th century,Bagan, Myanmar
Preah Khan(Lokesvara Temple),after 1180, Angkor,Cambodia
DhammayazikaPagoda, ca. 1196, nearBagan, Myanmar
GawdawpalinTemple, late 12th cen-tury, Bagan, Myanmar
Bayon Temple, early13th century, Angkor,Cambodia
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RenaissanceAround the World:India and EastAsiaIn India, architects of theMughal empire weregreatly influenced byIslamic and Persian styles.Meanwhile, in East Asia,terraced temples,palaces, and fortresseswere built with swoopingeaves
1490–1530High and LateRenaissancein Italy
Classical styles are rede-veloped and modernized;Mannerist architecturedevelops
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1420–1490EarlyRenaissancein ItalyThe rediscovery ofarchitectural styles fromantiquity transformsItalian architecture
Filippo Brunelleschip. 168Leon Battista Albertip. 172
1220–1620Renaissancein WesternEurope
Italian Renaissance stylesare adopted in varying de-grees throughout the UK,France, and northernEurope; countries appro-priate the styles to theirown building traditionsp.
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Pierre LescotCornelis Floris deVriendtRobert SmythsonLieven de Key
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1519–1598Renaissanceon the IberianPeninsula
Gothic styles remainedstrong in Spain and Por-tugal, which were greatlyinfluenced by theMoorishtradition. During the lateRenaissance the Desorna-mentado style developed
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Pedro MachucaJuan Bautista de ToledoJuan de Herrera
1500–1620Renaissance inCentral andEastern EuropeItalian architects werebrought to Germany,Austria, Poland, andBohemia by wealthy pa-trons in order to mod-ernize central and easternEuropean residences
Jacopo StradaAlberto LucheseLüder von BentheimGeorg RidingerElias Holl
Donato Bramante p. 176Michelangelo Buonar-roti p. 180Baldassare Peruzzip. 196Raphael p. 184Michele Sanmichelip. 194Jacopo Sansovino p. 186Giulio Romano p. 190Andrea Palladio p. 192Vincenzo Scamozzip. 188
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� The styles of antiquity inspired Renaissance urban planning � Earliercities were reorganized � Utopian plans for ideal states were popular yetseldom realized � Rich citizens patroned massive building campaigns thatreshaped Renaissance Europe
Piazza Ducale,1492–94, Vigevano
Vigevano was rebuilt be-tween 1492 and 1494. Thetown received its newpiazza under the order ofLudovico il Moro, a
Bernardo Rossellino: PalazzoPiccolomini, 1459, Pienza
Pope Pius II rebuilt his hometown ofPienza in 1459, including the construc-tion of Palazzo Piccolomini on thetown square. Nearby the palace he alsoerected a cathedral, an episcopalpalace, and a town hall, framing thetrapezoidal piazza. The cathedral stoodin the center, around which all buildingaxes were oriented. Rossellino mod-eled his designs for the PalazzoPiccolomini on Leon BattistaAlberti’s Palazzo Rucelaiin Florence.
Pierro della Francesca:Ideal City, ca. 1470, GalleriaNazionale delle Marche, Urbino
The technique of using linearperspective, attributed to theItalian artist and architect Fil-ippo Brunelleschi, revolution-
ized both art and architectureduring the Renaissance.Through this innovation archi-tects were able to envisageprojects in an orderly fashionand create more accurate draftsand studies. This 15th-centurypainting of the Renaissance
ideal—a city constructed inaccordance with the rules ofperspective—is harmoniousand balanced. Because Renais-sance architects looked back toantiquity as the age of reasonand order, they adopted similarstyles in their own ideals.
1450 Alberti writes De ReAedificatoria, in which hesubordinates residentialneeds to the overall plan1484–85 Leonardo daVinci plans a city equippedwith infrastructure1527 Dürer sketches plansfor a fortified ideal city1547 The German city ofJülich is codesigned by anItalian architect1554–71 Sabbioneta inParma, Italy, is built as an“ideal city”1593 Scamozzi sketchesthe fortified town of Pal-manova, one of the few“ideal cities” realized
Citieswere the central stages of power during the Renais-sance. The technical and artistic developments of the Ren-aissance were adopted in the construction and planningof new cities, as architects sought to create a betterworld.Strong building lawswere passed, whichwere upheld byarchitect guilds. Palaces constructed by the new nobleclasses took over city landscapes, replacing small work-shops and market stalls. Streets and alleyways becamecentrally organized according to rules of perspective, andcathedrals, castles, palaces, and town halls were movedinto the center of the city. The discovery of gunpowderdrove builders to fortify their new citieswith trenches andbastions in order to create more easily defendable cities.Consequently Renaissance cities often resembledmightymountains in terms of their size.
Rome’s Water Supply Infra-structure, redesigned byLeon Battista Alberti, ca. 1450
Central Plan of Florence, byGiorgio Vasari, ca. 1555
Mannheim Gridded Layout,1606, Germany
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member Sforza dynasty of Milan.Thought to have been designedby Bramante, the piazza is sur-rounded on all three sides byfacades that are all uniformly de-signed and aligned. The houses ofwealthy citizens were found here.Residential areas were
located on the upper floor, whilebusinesses were at street level.The elongated space is nearly inthe ideal proportions of 1 : 2, andthe city’s main street gives on tothe square through an arcade thatunites the entire area.
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In eastern Europe local princes and kings commissionedcastles, palace chapels, and churches. Educated andwell-travelled, they were aware of the developments of theItalian Renaissance and the architectural theories of antiq-uity and comissioned work from Italian architects. Italianarches, slender pilasters, the Classical orders, and floor-plans overtook local building traditions. Imperial connec-tions with western Europe brought further influencesfrom Germany, the Netherlands, and France.
1458–90 Hungary’s king,Matthias Corvinus, com-missions buildings in theItalian Renaissance style1518 King Sigismund Imarries Bona Sforza, whobrings Italian architectsand artists to the Polish-Bohemian court1526 The Hapsburgs in-herit the kingdoms ofBohemia and Hungary; artand architecture flourishesat all the Hapsburg courts1541 The Ottoman armyinvades eastern Europeand destroys manyRenaissance buildings,particularly in Budapest1618 The Thirty Years’ Warbegins
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Belvedere (Royal SummerPalace), 1538–63, Prague
With the building of thepleasure castle of Ferdinand I,the Belvedere was built as partof the complex, in the model ofa summer residence. The build-ing is in the center of flowergardens. Elegant rows of arch-ways open onto the gardensfrom the ground floor, in a stylesimilar to the architecture ofBrunelleschi’s Spedale degli In-nocenti hospital in Florence.
Giovanni Battista diQuadro: Poznan Town Hall,1536–60
After a fire in 1536, a new fa-cade in the Italian style waserected in front of the remainsof the Poznan Town Hall. Thecitizens of Poznan hired Gio-vanni Battista di Quadro, aPolish-Italian Renaissance archi-tect, to build the project. He ap-plied the basic form of thenorthern Italian loggia, such asthose that are found at PiazzaSt. Marco in Venice and at An-drea Palladio’s Palazzo della Ra-gione in Vincenza—a porticoedcolonnade, open only on oneside—to the Polish town hall.Three consecutive loggias, sur-rounded by archways, decoratethe monumental facade. Thetop story forms a slightly set-back, windowless half-story,renowned for its unusualheight—because of this, thetown hall is known as the“Polish attic.” This attic level ishighly ornamented with imagesof kings, a clock, and doors fromwhich twomechanical goatscome out to battle at noon.
Francesco Fiorentino: WawelRoyal Castle, 1504–48, Kraków
The five-cornered inner courtyardof the Polish royal palace marks ahigh point of European Renais-sance architecture. A multiple-story courtyard surrounded bycolumned arcades was built using
Vladislav Hall inHradschin, by BenediktRied, 1493–1502, Prague
Bakócz Chapel, begun1507, Esztergom, Hungary
Villa Hvezda, 1555–58,near Prague
Large Ball Court in RoyalGardens, by BonifaceWolmut, 1567–69, Prague
Armory, 1593–1612,Gdansk, Poland
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Italian noble castles and theRoman Vatican Palace as a model.The head architect, FrancescoFiorentino, came from Florence.At around the same time, theSigismund Chapel in the choir ofKraków’s Wawel Cathedral wasbuilt in full Italian style.
� Cultural exchange arose between the courts of Italy and eastern Europe� Slavic princes had cities built in a pure Italian style � East European Ren-aissance grew under the Jagillonian royal dynasty � Matthias Corvinus,king of Hungary in the 15th century, was an important patron of the arts
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The influence of Islamic and Persian architecture becameeven stronger in India under the sovereignty of the firstMughal rulers. The Persian-Islamic-influenced culture ofthese foreign rulers first started to combine itself with ele-ments of Indian architecture after 1526.Mosques, tombs,and palaces of the earlyMughal periodmergedHindu ar-chitectural tradition with Islamic ornamentation and in-novations. Elements of Islamic architecture, such as thepointed arch, the onion-shapeddome,minarets, andmo-saic decorations started to supersede the plentiful num-bers of intricately detailed figures of older Hindu temples.Technological advances accompanied the new style ofarchitecture, and it became possible to build even largerstructures, such as the construction of high-walleddomes, throughout India. The usage of Indian red sand-stone inlaid with white marble and semiprecious stonesimparted a distinctively Indian colorfulness to Mughalarchitecture.
1530 Humayun becomesGreat Mughal of India andinvites Persian artists to hispalace; three-sidedvaulted niches, callediwan, become character-istic elements of almost allMughal architecture1540 Under Sher Shah,local building styles be-comemore prominent1556 During Akbar’s reign,the court workshops inAgra, Delhi, and FatehpurSikri are centers of activityfor artists and architects1638 Shah Jahanmovesthe capital from Agra toDelhi1707 End of the reign ofAurangzeh, the last GreatMughal to commissionlarge-scalearchitecturalworks
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� Architecture of the Mughal period combined Hindu and Islamic buildingstyles � The tolerant mind-set of the Mughal emperor led to architecturaldiversity � Technical building innovations from Persia were adopted� Luxury and wealth were displayed through decorative splendor
Mausoleum of Sher Shah,ca. 1540, Sasaram
Themausoleum is located ontop of a two-tiered quadraticterrace in the center of an artifi-cial sea. The octagonal floor
Mausoleum of Humayun,1564–72, Delhi
Themonumentmixes Persianelements, like the double-shelled dome and layered décor,with Indian red sandstone.
Grave of Isa Khan, ca. 1548,Delhi
Red Fort, after 1565, Agra
Akbar’s Palace in Ajmer,1570–72
JamaMasjid, 1571–74,Fatehpur Sikri
Akbar’s Mausoleum, 1613,Sikandra
Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula,1628, Agra
Other WorksPanch Mahal Palace inFatehpur Sikri, 1569–74
Following the model ofIslamic urban planning,
multi-level palaces,
gardens, a marketplace, a water-works and innumerable roofedstreets, staircases, and terraceswere assembled into one complexin the city of Fatehpur Sikri. Thefive-story palace of Panch Mahal issituated directly in the middle ofthe entire ensemble. The palacebears witness to the two oppo-sing styles of architecture in Indiaduring this period—the figurativearchitecture of Hinduism and thegeometric style of Islam.
plan, the dome and its lotus-shaped tip, inner arcade, andcorner pavilions on the defensewall are all characteristic of In-dian tombs constructed in theMughal Empire.
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Bernini: Cornaro Chapel inSt. Maria della Vittoria, Rome,1647–52
Bernini’s talents as an artist en-abled him to work with sculp-ture and color in a remarkablemanner. Inside the St. Mariadella Vittoria lies Bernini's
Cornaro Chapel, with his re-markable sculpture depictingSt. Theresa of Avila in a state ofreligious ecstasy. The mood andexhalation of the work is em-phasized by different sources oflight. Bernini placed hiddenwindows with yellow glass to
reflect the gilded rays penetrat-ing the statue, so that they ap-pear to glow. The coloredmarble contrasts with the an-gelic white of the sculpture. Thechapel is set up like a stage,with figures of the Cornaro fam-ily watching from the sides.
Much of the Baroque style was about creating spec-tacle and illusion with new methods of design andconstruction. The straight, rigid lines of the Renais-sance were replaced by flowing curves, projections,and recesses. Domes and roofs were enlarged, andfrescoes used complicated trompe l’oeil techniquesto create the illusion of height and depth on flat sur-faces. Light and shadowwere used to create dramaticeffects on virtually every type of surface. Buildingswere full of dark niches, narrowenclaves, and corners.Contrastingly, well-lit protruding pilasters, high win-
dows, and hiddensources of illu-mination producedlight, shadow, andundulating sur-faces, which cre-ated the Baroqueaesthetic.
Roehampton Great House,1625, London
English architects who learnedBaroque styles and techniqueswhile in Italy on a grand tourtended to apply them less ex-travagantly once they returnedhome. The curved facades ofBorromini and Bernini are usedhere for secular architecture,creating a complex floor plan.
Borromini: St. Carlo alleQuattro Fontane, 1638–41
The innovative use of compli-cated interlinking ovals, ratherthan circles or lines, in groundplans was reflected in the un-dulating walls. Simple cruci-form layouts were also treatedanew—lengthening naves andplacing ellipses or trianglesover the crossings. This resul-ted in a combination of con-cave and convex surfaces andcreated dynamism in staticwalls. These bulges appearedboth on the interior and exte-rior facades. At St. Carlo, theplacement of columns, sta-tues, and decorations empha-sizes the movement of thecurves.
Baroque DynamismBaroque 1550–1790
Ottoman EmpireBaroque 1550–1790
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Under Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566), both theOttoman Empire and the arts and architecture flourished.Architecture was a combination of Byzantine influ-ences—such as domes and colored glass—and Europeaninfluences—the Italian Renaissance. Mosques were builtin the Islamic style and were often inside a larger com-plex, or camii, consisting of minarets, domes, and the wallfacing Mecca, the kibla. Decoration consisted of intricatetiling and limestone carvings. Mimar Sinan, the great Ot-toman architect, built over 300 buildings and helped tocreate the dramatic skyline of Istanbul with his slenderminarets and staggered domes. Sinan aimed for a unifiedinterior space and experimented with supports, vaulting,and arches. Secular buildings included bazaars and kiosks.
1512 The architect MimarSinan goes to Istanbul andlearns engineering1530s Sinan’s miltary ex-perience exposes him tothe architecture of theMiddle East, Africa, andRhodes1539 Sinan is appointedarchitect of Istanbul by thegrand vizier1588 Sinan dies1703–57 Turkey’s Tulipera, in which public spaceswere built, and the begin-ning of Baroque mosques1770 Westernized tasteschange architecture
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� During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire included Turkey,the Middle East, and parts of North Africa � Süleyman the Magnificentoversaw many new building projects � Sinan was the best-known architectof the Ottoman era � The mosque complex was an integral part of Islamic life
Mimar Sinan: SüleymaniyeMosque, 1551–58, Istanbul
Following in the grand style ofthe Fatih complex, the Süley-maniye Mosque is a large com-plex for prayer, culture, and ed-ucation. It consists ofsymmetrical groups in geo-metric shapes. Four minaretsstand in the four corners, and alarge main dome is flanked bytwo half domes. As in theByzantine Hagia Sophia, the Sü-leymaniye’s dome is separatedfrom its supports by a row ofwindows. The mosque symbol-izes the grandeur of the empireand of Istanbul.
Mimar Sinan: Selimiye Mosque, 1569–75,Edirne, Turkey
The Selimiye Mosque is considered Sinan’s mas-terpiece, because its interior is a unified space ofclear geometry. The massive dome is supportedby eight pillars, and four semidomes round offthe building’s corners. The complex was unique
Mimar Sinan: ŞehzadeMosque, interior, 1544–48,Istanbul
The Şehzade complex wasone of Sinan’s earliest worksand an architectural ingenuity.The mosque exhibits his work-manship and advanced con-struction skills. Created on asquare plan, four half domesflank the large central domedbuilding. Four tall piers roundinto arches and assist in thedome’s support. The asymmet-rical central plan is repeated inthe courtyard.
Köse Hüsrev PasaMosque, by Mimar Sinan,1536–37, Van, Turkey
Sultan SüleymanMosque, by Mimar Sinan,1563, Damascus
Sokollu Mehmed, byMimar Sinan, 1570–74,Istanbul
Laleli Mosque,1760–63, Istanbul
Zeynep SultanMosque, by Mehmet TahirAğa, 1769, Istanbul
Other Works
in that its minarets were the tallest in the Ot-toman era, and the interior has an innovativemihrab, a niche in the kibla wall, which can beobserved from everywhere in the prayer hall. Themihrab is large enough to allow for windows,which illuminate the glazed tiles on the interiorwith natural light.
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Baroque architecture was brought to Latin America bythe colonizing powers of Spain and Portugal. Francis-cans, Dominicans, and Jesuits were all to leave theirmarkon the ecclesiastical architecture and religious art of theregion. The discovery of gold and silver played a largerole in bringing European architectural styles to whatwere previously remote villages. The Brazilian school ofBaroque was heavily influenced by Portuguese styles.Antonio Francisco Lisboa, known as Aleijadinho, was aleading Brazilian architect, sculptor, and painter whobuilt many churches in the Ouro Preto region. MexicanBaroque architecture was especially influenced by theadaptation of the Spanish Churrigueresque style, whichresulted in highly decorative facades. Late Baroque spiralcolumns (salomónica) were imported from Spain, and ta-pering pilasters (estípite) werewidely used. In Puebla,
1650–60s Spiral pilastersare introduced to Perufrom Spain1657–73 Monastery of St.Francisco precedes a newwave of the Mudéjar style1664 Jesuit shrine onPlaza des Armas is the firstin the late Baroque style1698 First example of anindependent Peruvian-Bolivian mestizo in LaCompañía Church1730s Architect Aleija-dinho, or “Little Cripple,”born in Brazil1749 Metropolitan Sac-risty has tapering pilastersca. 1770 Most Baroqueprojects are completed
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� The Baroque style was brought to Latin America with European colonia-lism � In Mexico, the Spanish introduced the Churrigueresque style, whichwas adapted and used widely � Mining towns like Ouro Preto had manyBaroque churches � Style retained its popularity until Neoclassicism
Catedral Metropoli-tana, 1667, Mexico City,Mexico
The Catedral Metropoli-tana is one of the largest inthe Western Hemisphere.The lower levels of the fa-cade, with their twistedcolumns, volutes, and stat-ues, are High Baroque,while the Classical towerswere added later. The sidechapel is in Churrigue-resque style. There are fivenaves, and the churchforms a cross.
St. Domingo, 1731,Oaxaca, Mexico
The St. Domingo de Guzmánchurch consists of a complex ofbuildings and was founded inthe 1570s by the Dominicanorder. The sober Baroquefacade conceals an elaborateinterior, which is one of thebest examples of Mexican HighBaroque. The many chapels sitalongside gilded plaster orna-ments and towering columns.The ceiling decoration showsthe lineage of St. Dominic.
St. Francisco Church atAcatepec, 1730, Cholula,Mexico
In the 16th century, nearly 400churches were built to replacethe Aztec temples destroyed bythe exploratory party of HernánCortés in the town of Cholula.The St. Francisco Church was
built in nearby Acatepec inPuebla, a region famous for itslocal ceramics. Made from thelocal azulejos, or hand-paintedtiles, the talevera ceramics canbe seen onmany of the remark-able facades and domes of thebuildings in the area. St. Francis,in particular, elevates the use of
local materials to an art form.Yellow, blue, and green tilesadorn the red-brick facade ofthis Churrigueresque church.Even the large doorway is cov-ered in tiles and carvings.The interior is excessively or-nate, with gilded and plasterdecoration.
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Construction techniques forthe Eiffel Tower came from ex-pertise learned from the rail-road industry. The tower is alarge replica of a viaduct pylonand consists of a system ofgirders. It was prefabricatedand riveted together on-siteusing cranes.
Gustav Eiffel and StephenSauvestre: Eiffel Tower,1885–89, Paris
The Eiffel Tower was originallybuilt as a temporary attractionfor the World’s Fair of 1889, yetit has come to be the most rec-ognized landmark in Paris. Engi-neer Gustav Eiffel collaboratedwith the architect StephenSauvestre. The tower is a cele-bration of iron as a building tooland set a precedent in demon-strating the durability and ele-gance of the material. Thetower is 1,010 feet (308 meters)tall and weighs 7,000 tons. Theweight is evenly distributed toits four supports.
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With 19th-century advancements in coal and steamenergy, new materials such as cast iron, glass, andsteelwere beingproduced at an accelerated rate. Thissignaled the birth of industrial architecture, as archi-tects and engineers had easier access to materials.Utilitarian, public venues became more important,and needed to be durable. The popularity of World’sFairs resulted in spectacular temporary exhibitionhalls in Paris and London. Art Nouveau and Neo-Gothic styles adorned these new temples of thefuture, as cities spread outward and upward, sup-ported by new and robust materials. Architects andengineers collaborated, paving the way for modernhigh-rises and skyscrapers.
An icon of industrialization, Joseph Paxton’sCrystal Palace was constructed to house the
first Great Exhibition in London. A testa-ment to industrial materials, it wascomposed of nearly 300,000 panesof glass on wrought iron fra-ming, and was assembled on-site from prefabricated ele-ments.
The Galerie des Machines ofthe 1889 Paris World’s Fairshowcased the newmethods ofconstruction. Ferdinand Dutertand Victor Contamin built a374-foot (114-meter) hall ofmetal and glass. The tall roofhad no central supports, butwas created using a three-hinged arch structure.
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Second Empire in the USA
Alexander RamseyHouse, by MonroeSheire, 1868, St. Paul,Minnesota
New York City Court-house and Post Office,by Alfred B. Mullet,1869–75
Hotel Vendome,by William G. Preston,1871, Boston
HamiltonMansion,by J. D. Hall, 1873,Savannah
Old Post Office,
by Alfred B. Mullet,
1873–84, St. Louis,
Missouri
South Hall, by David
Farquharson, 1873,
University of California,
Berkeley
Harker Hall,
by Nathan Clifford
Ricker, 1878, University
of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign
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WilliamBoyington,JacobWeidenmann,J. T. Elletson: TerraceHill, 1866–69, DesMoines, Iowa
The large governor’s
residence is a splendidexample of AmericanSecond Empire, with itscentral tower, archedentrance, and atticdormer windows.
Gridley James FoxBryant and ArthurGilman: Old City Hall,1862–65, Boston
One of the first gov-ernment buildings tobe built in the SecondEmpire style, the Old
Town Hall has a steepmansard roof and aprojecting steppedcentral bay. The threelevels have paired col-umns, which, with theirtall windows, create animposing facade.
John McArthur Jr.:Philadelphia CityHall, begun 1871,Philadelphia
The Philadelphia CityHall is made from
granite and brick and isthe tallest occupiedmasonry building inthe United States. Thesteep tower was an in-novative architecturalfeat for its time.
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Second Empire was an architectural style that coincidedwith the reign of Napoléon III in France and was enthusi-astically applied in America. It was implemented in gov-ernment buildings, stately homes, asylums, hospitals, andprivate houses. Themost recognizable feature of the Sec-ond Empire style is themansard roof—a steeply pitched,slated roof developed by François Mansard (p. 236) andpopular in the time of Louis XIV—which had come backinto fashion in Napoléon III’s Paris. Other prominent fea-tures of the style include square towers, dormerwindows,decorative brackets, and the use of paired columns, togive the impression of height. Protruding central facadesand pavilions were also common in larger buildings.Because the style’s popularity coincidedwith the adminis-tration of General Ulysses S. Grant, it was also sometimesreferred to as the General Grant style, or simply the Man-sard style.
1855 The Great Exhibitionin Paris showcases theSecond Empire style andspreads it internationally,inspiring designs in theUnited States1857 Additions to theLouvre by Le Vau draw theattention of American ar-chitects1859 Corcoron Gallery, avery early Second Empire–style building in America,is built by J. Renwick Jr.1867 Second Great Exhibi-tion in Paris1869–77 General UlyssesS. Grant’s administration1880 Economic depres-sion brings an end to theSecond Empire style
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Second Empire in the USA1855–1880
� The Second Empire in France during the reign of Napoléon III spread Frenchstyles to the United States � Used inmansions, hospitals, government build-ings, and cottages � Themansard roof gained popularity and was adapted toAmerican tastes � The style endedwith the economic depression
Alfred B.Mullet: OldExecutive Office Building,begun 1871, Washington,DC
The Old Executive OfficeBuilding inWashington isthemasterpiece of archi-tect Alfred B. Mullet. Con-structed from cast iron,granite, and slate, it took17 years to complete.There are decorativemotifs on the dormerwindows, chimneys, andbalconies.
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Antoni Gaudí synthesized a multitude of influences intoa magnificent style that is so personal it defies categori-zation. Parallel to Art Nouveau and incorporating theorganic forms of the style, his work is part of the CatalanModernismemovement, developed in the context of hisGothic Revivalist training and love for medieval Mediter-ranean architecture. Reinterpreting earlyModernistmen-tors, like John Ruskin and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (p. 348),Gaudí studied structure as a way to convey imaginativeforms. In the endGaudí’s architecturewas a product of hisintense Catholic faith, his dedication to Catalan culture,and his obsession with nature’s structural logic.
1852 Born in Reus, nearBarcelona1873–77 Studies at thenewly opened Faculty ofArchitecture at the Univer-sity of Barcelona1877 Opens his first officein Barcelona1883 Appointed chief ar-chitect of Sagrada Família1887 Studies traditionalceramics with Domènech iMontaner1888 Contributes to theExposición Universal inBarcelona1906 Moves into theshowhouse in Park Güell1914 Declines all commis-sions, to focus on theSagrada Família1926 Dies in Barcelona
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Antoni Gaudí1852, Reus–1926, Barcelona
� Greatly influenced by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc � Interested in botany aswell as biomorphic and geomorphic forms � Built with stone, concrete,steel, and ceramics � Used symbolic sculpture as a didactic tool � Drewupon Catalan styles and Islamic architecture from the Iberian Peninsula
Casa Milà, 1906–10,Barcelona
At the Casa Milà, simpleroof vents are transformedinto groups of maskedguardians keeping watchover the hills of Barcelona.Inside, complex apart-ments with polygonalrooms resembling a hon-eycomb change from floorto floor, responding to theundulating shape of thefacade.
Finca Güell, 1883–85, Barcelona
Casa Vicens, 1883–88,Barcelona
Palau Güell, 1886–90,Barcelona
Palacio Episcopal, 1889–93,León, Spain
Casa Calvet, 1898–1900,Barcelona
Colònia Güell Chapel, crypt,1898–1915, Barcelona
Villa Bellesguard, 1900–05,Barcelona
Other Works by Gaudí
Sagrada Família, 1883–,Barcelona
At Sagrada Família Gaudí rein-terpreted the structural princi-ples of Gothic architecture. Heeliminated buttresses and sub-stituted themwith slanted col-umns that could take thelateral loads created by hisparabolic vaults. He tested thesystemwith brilliant hangingmodels made of wire, sandbags,and canvas that when invertedgave the proper distribution offorces. Gaudí projected that itwould take 200 years to buildthe Sagrada Família. No otherarchitect since theMiddle Ageshad attempted a building ofthat magnitude. Gaudí under-stood that to build a churchsurpassing the achievements ofGothic masters was to respectthemedieval process. Paradoxi-cally, as construction on thechurch continues, the institu-tion devoted to funding thismedieval undertaking postsprogress reports on their foun-dationWeb site.
Park Güell, 1900–14,Barcelona
Eager to replicate the Englishgarden style in the city of Bar-celona, Count Güell commis-sioned a large park and adevelopment of villas for theCatalan bourgeoisie. The resi-dential district was never com-pleted, but the park attests toGaudí’s romantic imagination.Mosaic dragons guard a carica-tural Doric colonnade, as via-ducts of piled stone weavethrough the landscape.
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Walter Gropius: MainStairway of the WorkshopBuilding, 1925, Dessau
In the Bauhaus, color played adidactic role in identifyingstructure, services, andmove-ment patterns. The focus onessentials aimed not to striparchitecture of aesthetic orsculptural value, but to increasethe purity of that value by expo-sing functional elements. In thestairways, light is used to high-light the structural composi-tion, and windows orient theuser within the complex.
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BauhausIn 1919 Walter Gropius (p. 406) fused the Weimar Academy of Fine Arts and theWeimar School of Arts andCrafts to establish theBauhaus inWeimar, Germany. Theschool, supported by leading artists, was a success, and a newBauhaus opened atDessau in 1925. Based on the Deutscher Werkbundconcept of reconciling craft and industry, the Bauhaustrained professionals to be equally comfortable withdesign, craft, and methods of mass production. The-ater, metalwork, woodwork, ceramics, architecture,furniture, and object design were included in the cur-riculum. The Bauhauswas closed by theNazis in 1933.
Walter Gropius: Director’sStudy, 1927, Weimar
Walter Gropius’s study wassymbolically located at the ab-solute center of the Bauhausschool in Weimar, on a bridgeoverlooking all of the elementsof the complex. The simple fur-niture, tubular metal fixtures,and painted colorful rectangleswere influenced by the designsof de Stijl.
Herbert Bayer: Font andWorkshop Building, 1927,Weimar
Graphic design, including typo-graphy, was a key element inthe publicity of the Bauhaus.The school’s books, publica-tions, and posters disseminatedideas of Constructivist or de Stijlorigin to the wider public. TheBauhaus font appears on theside of the workshop building.
Walter Gropius: WorkshopBuilding and the VocationalSchool, 1925, Dessau
The Bauhaus buildings all in-
volved new and untested inno-vations. Some experimentsfailed: the glass curtain wall wasvisually superb, but led to se-
vere heat gain and loss. A cur-tain wall means that the interiorstructure, not the wall, supportsthe building.
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Frank GehryArchi tecture af ter 1945
1929 Born in Toronto1954 Graduates fromUniversity of SouthernCalifornia School ofArchitecture1962 Opens Frank O.Gehry & Associates in LosAngeles1969–73 Develops theEasy Edges cardboardfurniture line1985–91 Collaborateswith Claes Oldenburg andCoosje van Bruggen onChiat/Day building inVenice, California1989 Awarded the PritzkerPrize2001 Exhibition of hiswork at the GuggenheimMuseum, New York
Vitra Design Museum,1987–89, Weil am Rhein
The white stucco and zinccladding of the Vitra De-sign Museum blurs distinc-tions between horizontaland vertical planes, as wellas interior and exteriorspaces. Unlike Gehry’s ear-lier work, this building isno longer an assemblageof parts, but instead a uni-fied, sculptural whole thatbends into andmoves outof itself.
Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, 1991–97,Bilbao
Clad in titanium, the Guggenheim Bilbao is aculmination of Gehry’s form-making and techno-logical pursuits. The building is both a work ofsculpture and of urbanism. It was carefully de-signed to integrate with the surrounding urbanfabric, including the neighboring bridge. Themuseum supported F. L. Wright’s concept of thefirst Guggenheim in New York, in which the ar-chitecture is as dazzling as the art within.
Nationale Neder-landen Building,1992–96, Prague
Also known as “Fredand Ginger,” a namereferencing the dance-like nature of the twoforms, this buildingadopts the regularityof its historic surround-ings to Gehry’s trade-mark curves.
Gehry House,1977–78, SantaMonica
Walt Disney ConcertHall, 1988–2003, LosAngeles
WeismanMuseum,1990–93, Minneapolis
Gehry Tower, 2001,Hanover, Germany
Other Works by Gehry
� Rejects both the restraints of Modernism and the historical reference ofPostmodernism � Drew attention to the Los Angeles architecture scene in the1980s and 90s, which also includedMorphosis and Eric OwenMoss � Firstarchitect to use digital technology to fabricate previously unrealizable forms
Frank Gehry1929, Toronto
With his innovative use of materials and expressive, rec-ognizable forms, Canadian-born Frank Gehry is the mostpopularly celebrated contemporary American architect.Gehry’s early work was inspired by the fast pace and arti-ficiality of Los Angeles, the city in which he has alwaysbeenbased. He assembled ordinarymaterials such as ply-wood, chain-link fence, and corrugated metal to createCubist-inspired buildings, includingmanyhouses that areoften associatedwith theDeconstructivistmovement. Ashe moved on to larger projects, his buildings becameincreasingly curvilinear. His later works incorporate De-constructivist elements with flowing lines. Gehry’s firmpioneered the use of software from the aerospace in-dustry for the design and fabrication of his buildings,many of which employ high-techmaterials. Although hisworks have been associatedwith a variety ofmovements,he has managed to create a distinguished personal