ESC 305.01 ESC 305.01

Global Climate ChangeGlobal Climate Change

Chapter Chapter 88

Energy in the Future & Renewable EnergyEnergy in the Future & Renewable Energy

Part 2Part 2

Non-Renewable SourcesNon-Renewable Sources• Fossil-fuel sources:

• Coal• Gas • Oil

• During earlier periods of the Earth’s history, fossilization of biological material created the deposits of coal, oil and gas, of which at least 1023

Joule is presently believed to be recoverable in a form suitable for fuel uses (Sorensen, 2011).

• Nuclear energy may be released in large quantities from nuclear reactions, such as fission of heavy nuclei or fusion of light nuclei (Sorensen, 2011).

Non-Renewable SourcesNon-Renewable Sources

Source: US Energy Information AdministrationSource: US Energy Information Administration

Source: US Energy Information AdministrationSource: US Energy Information Administration

Non-Renewable SourcesNon-Renewable Sources

• Estimates of reserves, fossil or nuclear, are Estimates of reserves, fossil or nuclear, are extremely uncertain and are sure to be extremely uncertain and are sure to be greatly underestimated because of greatly underestimated because of incomplete prospecting. incomplete prospecting.

Known reserves of coal, oil and gas

Coal 39,000 EJ (2002)

Oil 18,900 EJ (2002)

Gas 15,700 EJ (2002)

Liquefied gas 2,300 EJ (2002)

Source: da Rosa, 2009.Source: da Rosa, 2009.

EJ= 1018 Joule

• An even more uncertain estimate of An even more uncertain estimate of reserves of fissile materials are given in the reserves of fissile materials are given in the Table below. This estimate of nuclear fuels Table below. This estimate of nuclear fuels do not include the reserves of the former do not include the reserves of the former Soviet Union and China.Soviet Union and China.

Known reserves of fissionable materials

235U 2,600 EJ

238U 320,000 EJ

232Th 11,000 EJ

Source: da Rosa, 2009.Source: da Rosa, 2009.

Source: US Energy Information Administration.Source: US Energy Information Administration.

CoalCoal

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCESNON-RENEWABLE SOURCESCOALCOAL

In general, the older the coal the higher the carbon In general, the older the coal the higher the carbon content and the more valuable the resource is.content and the more valuable the resource is.

The quality and usefulness of any coal depends not The quality and usefulness of any coal depends not only on the organic remains from which it solidified, only on the organic remains from which it solidified, but also on the inorganic fraction (sulphur, arsenic, but also on the inorganic fraction (sulphur, arsenic, cadmium, mercury and radioactive material).cadmium, mercury and radioactive material).

Coal is most usefully ranked according to its Coal is most usefully ranked according to its percentage carbon content (the higher the better);percentage carbon content (the higher the better);Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite....Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite....

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCESNON-RENEWABLE SOURCESCOALCOAL

The combustion of coal; Almost all coal used today The combustion of coal; Almost all coal used today in the developed world is burnt within boilers, with in the developed world is burnt within boilers, with the purpose of heating water.the purpose of heating water.

Coal boilers vary in size and design-from a few Coal boilers vary in size and design-from a few kilowatts in the home to over 600 MW in a power kilowatts in the home to over 600 MW in a power station, but all include;station, but all include;

- a combustion chambera combustion chamber- a feed system to place the coal into the chambera feed system to place the coal into the chamber- a system to supply aira system to supply air- a chimneya chimney- a collection mechanism for the asha collection mechanism for the ash

Source: www.draxgroup.plc.ukSource: www.draxgroup.plc.uk

Source: www.draxgroup.plc.ukSource: www.draxgroup.plc.uk

World coal resources; World coal resources; There is enough coal to last There is enough coal to last around 119 years at current rates of productionaround 119 years at current rates of production (www.worldcoal.org).(www.worldcoal.org).

BP Statistical Review BP Statistical Review

of World Energyof World EnergyJune 2010June 2010

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2010 www.bp.com© BP 2010

Proved coal reserves at end Proved coal reserves at end 20092009

Coal production – Coal Coal production – Coal consumptionconsumption

OilOil

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCESNON-RENEWABLE SOURCESOILOIL

The oil recovered from a well is called ‘crude oil’ and The oil recovered from a well is called ‘crude oil’ and has very little use until it is separated into its has very little use until it is separated into its constituent fractions and impurities removed by constituent fractions and impurities removed by refining.refining.

A barrel of oil is 159 litres.A barrel of oil is 159 litres.

One barrel weighs 0.136 tonnes and contains 5.694 One barrel weighs 0.136 tonnes and contains 5.694 GJ of energy.GJ of energy.

Crude oil extraction is a difficult and costly Crude oil extraction is a difficult and costly business.business.

Unlike coal, oil is used to power a wide variety of Unlike coal, oil is used to power a wide variety of combustion systems: from simple domestic boilers combustion systems: from simple domestic boilers to aircraft turbines.to aircraft turbines.

Proved oil reservesProved oil reserves

Distribution of proved oil Distribution of proved oil reservesreserves

Oil production by regionOil production by region

Oil consumption by regionOil consumption by region

Oil consumption per capitaOil consumption per capita

Oil product consumption by Oil product consumption by regionregion

Chart of crude oil prices since Chart of crude oil prices since 18611861

Chart of OECD total commercial Chart of OECD total commercial oil stocksoil stocks

Chart of refinery utilisationChart of refinery utilisation

Major oil trade movementsMajor oil trade movements

OPEC;OPEC; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (Members as of 2001; Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Countries (Members as of 2001; Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Indonesia, Venezuela, United Arab Emirates).Indonesia, Venezuela, United Arab Emirates).

OECD;OECD; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (Some Members as of 2001; Austria, Development (Some Members as of 2001; Austria, Germany, France, USA, UK, Canada, Australia, Germany, France, USA, UK, Canada, Australia, Turkey, South Korea, New Zealand, Japan, Mexico, Turkey, South Korea, New Zealand, Japan, Mexico, Spain.....)Spain.....)

Natural GasNatural Gas

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCESNON-RENEWABLE SOURCESNATURAL GASNATURAL GAS

Natural gas is a highly valued fuel. The advantages Natural gas is a highly valued fuel. The advantages are;are;

- Burns cleanlyBurns cleanly- Easy transport by pipelineEasy transport by pipeline- Use as a replacement for oil in many systems for Use as a replacement for oil in many systems for

electricity generation and domestic heatingelectricity generation and domestic heating

- Natural gas is often found above oil deposits, from Natural gas is often found above oil deposits, from which it derives, but it is also found remote from any which it derives, but it is also found remote from any oil, in which case its origin is usually lower-lying oil, in which case its origin is usually lower-lying coal deposits. coal deposits.

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCESNON-RENEWABLE SOURCESNATURAL GASNATURAL GAS

When natural gas is extracted, it is usually around 80 When natural gas is extracted, it is usually around 80 to 90 % methane (CH4) with small amounts of to 90 % methane (CH4) with small amounts of ethane, butane, propane, nitrogen, hydrogen ethane, butane, propane, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide.sulphide and carbon dioxide.

Before retail distribution, this natural composition is Before retail distribution, this natural composition is standardized to 95 % methane with small amounts of standardized to 95 % methane with small amounts of ethane, butane, propane.ethane, butane, propane.

The resultant product is distributed to customers via The resultant product is distributed to customers via pipelines, or in liquid form (liquid natural gas, LNG) pipelines, or in liquid form (liquid natural gas, LNG) via road tankers.via road tankers.

Proved natural gas reserves at Proved natural gas reserves at end 2009end 2009

Distribution of proved natural Distribution of proved natural gas reservesgas reserves

Natural gas production by Natural gas production by regionregion

Natural gas consumption by Natural gas consumption by regionregion

Natural gas consumption per Natural gas consumption per capitacapita

Major gas trade movementsMajor gas trade movements

Nuclear EnergyNuclear Energy

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an

atom.atom.

Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy must be released. It can be released first the energy must be released. It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.fission.

In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use this energy to produce electricity.plants use this energy to produce electricity.

The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission is uranium.nuclear fission is uranium.

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY

Source: US Energy Information Administration.Source: US Energy Information Administration.

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY• Nuclear fission reactors are currently used to Nuclear fission reactors are currently used to

produce energy from nuclear sources.produce energy from nuclear sources.

• Especially after the Chernobyl accident in Especially after the Chernobyl accident in 1986, nuclear energy has developed a bad 1986, nuclear energy has developed a bad reputation.reputation.

• Nuclear energy is an important source of Nuclear energy is an important source of energy in many countries.energy in many countries.

• In 2007, the US led the world in installed In 2007, the US led the world in installed capacity of 104 GW, followed by France (63 capacity of 104 GW, followed by France (63 GW) and Japan (47.6 GW).GW) and Japan (47.6 GW).

• Nuclear plants in the US contributed to 19.9 % Nuclear plants in the US contributed to 19.9 % of the total electricity production in 2008.of the total electricity production in 2008.

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY• In France, contribution was 76.1 %, while in In France, contribution was 76.1 %, while in

Japan it was 34.6 %.Japan it was 34.6 %.

• In 2000, Germany decided to phase out its 19 In 2000, Germany decided to phase out its 19 nuclear power plants.nuclear power plants.

• The cost of nuclear electricity is high, about The cost of nuclear electricity is high, about double that from fossil fuel. It was 7 double that from fossil fuel. It was 7 cents/kWh in the US in 1996, however, cents/kWh in the US in 1996, however, advanced reactor designs may bring these advanced reactor designs may bring these costs down considerably while ensuring costs down considerably while ensuring greater safety.greater safety.

• This promised reduced cost combined with the This promised reduced cost combined with the ecological advantage of no greenhouse gas ecological advantage of no greenhouse gas emission may lead to a renewed popularity.emission may lead to a renewed popularity.

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY• The major objection to fission-type reactors The major objection to fission-type reactors

is not related to the danger of operation, is not related to the danger of operation, but rather to the problem of disposing of but rather to the problem of disposing of large amounts of long-lived radioactive by-large amounts of long-lived radioactive by-products.products.

• New generation nuclear fission reactors:New generation nuclear fission reactors:• Safety of operationSafety of operation (including resistance to (including resistance to

terrorist attacks)terrorist attacks)• AffordabilityAffordability• ReliabilityReliability• Absence of weaponizable sub-productsAbsence of weaponizable sub-products• Absence of Absence of long-livedlong-lived waste products waste products• Ability to transmute long-lived radioactive Ability to transmute long-lived radioactive

waste products from old reactors into short-waste products from old reactors into short-lived radioactive products.lived radioactive products.

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY• Heavy-metal fast breeder reactor technology

may be able not only to produce waste with relatively short half-lives , but in addition may be able to use current-type waste as fuel.

• Nuclear fission reaction (with a corresponding release of energy) occurs while a fissile material interacts with neutrons.

• The only useful output of a fission reactor is heat, which has to be removed by a coolant and transferred to a turbine. Most American reactors use liquid water for this purpose, limiting the temperature to about 300°C. Even then, pressurization is required to keep the water in the liquid phase.

NUCLEAR ENERGYNUCLEAR ENERGY• The vapor pressure of water at 300°C is 85

atmospheres. Any rupture can cause loss of coolant and can lead to a meltdown.

• In current nuclear plants, U 235 is consumed until the amount left in the fuel rods becomes insufficient to sustain the chain reaction.

• It is then necessary to replace the fuel rods, the spent ones being immersed in a boric acid pool where they cool down for a number of months until the short-life radioactive materials have sufficiently decayed.

• Then, they are classified as waste.

Nuclear energy consumption by Nuclear energy consumption by regionregion

READINGREADING• Aldo Vieria da Rosa, ‘Fundamentals of

Renewable Energy Processes’, Second Edition, Elsevier, 2009.

• Bent Sorensen, ‘Renewable Energy’ Fourth Edition, Elsevier, 2011.

• David Coley, ‘Energy and Climate Change’ John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2008.

• BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2010.