ergonomics australiaergonomics.uq.edu.au/eaol/sep06.pdf · 2006-10-20 · human factors and...

ERGONOMICS AUSTRALIA

September/October 2006

The Official Journal of the Human Factors & Ergonomics Society of Australia Inc

C o n t e n t sEditorial 2

From the Internet 3

President’s Column 4

IEA Column 5

Talking Point 7Public Transport Timetables: Design for PassengersT Paul Hutchinson

Forum 12Continuing discussion re Standards AustraliaNeil Adams

Standards Australia HFESA Delegates’ Column 13Report on 3 Standards CommitteesAustin Adams

Student Section 151. The development of a health facility for 16

remote communities within Australia.GeorgeAlim, Armineh Apoyen et al

2. A report on recommended developments 26to improve rural health.Benjamin West, Shirley Tsang et al

Ergonomics Crossword 34

Noticeboard 36

Conference Calendar 37

Information for Contributors 38

Information for Advertisers 39

Ergonomics Australia On-Line (EAOL) 39

Caveats 39

The Official Journal of the HFESAHuman Factors and Ergonomics Society of Australia

Volume 21, Number 3 (September/October 2006), ISSN 1033-875

EditorDr Shirleyann M Gibbs Email: [email protected]

National Secretariat The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society of Australia Inc.PO Box 7848 Balkham Hills BC NSW 2153 Tel: +612 9680 9026 Fax: +612 9680 9027Email: [email protected]

HFESA Website: http://ergonomics.org.auOffice Hours: 9.00am - 4.30 pm, Tues, Wed and Thursday

Design and Layout Acute Concepts Pty Ltd Tel: 03 9381 9696

PrinterImpact Printing

HFESA Mission Statement Promoting systems, space and designs for People

This edition has a number of new features that it ishoped will prove interesting to a wide variety of HF/Epractitioners. David Caple offers an update on eventswithin the International Ergonomics Associationfollowing his recent election as President and invitespeople to respond to him with ideas and any concerns.This is a further appeal to encourage a two-way strandof communication between office-bearers and thegeneral membership. Paul Hutchinson puts forwardsome lateral thinking about the design of timetablesand community transport options in Talking Point. Theeditor would be delighted to receive some thoughtfulresponses and other papers of original thinking thatcould be published in future Talking Point columns.

Included in this edition is the final President’s Columnfrom Max Hely. His three year term of office haspassed quickly and members will have an opportunityat the forthcoming AGM to thank him, along withRebecca Mitchell and Louise Whitby, our FederalSecretary and Treasurer respectively, for their efforts on behalf of the Society. They have spent considerabletime and effort in streamlining the bureaucracyassociated with running this voluntary organization.Moving the office from Canberra to Sydney was not an easy task.

In recent months there has been considerable mediaand political notoriety about conditions in manyremote Australian communities. Housing, education,employment and health services generally have beenshown to be highly dysfunctional whether viewedseparately or as inter-linked social problems. In spiteof genuine concern and altruism on the part of manyofficials and ordinary citizens it has taken a long timeto make these problems a focus of Australia-wideattention. What can ergonomists contribute to futurecommunity rehabilitation?

In the last edition of Ergonomics Australia it wasstated that the best of the written reports by firstsemester students enrolled in EngineeringCommunication at University of Technology Sydney(UTS) would be evaluated for publication. There wasalso a call for any ergonomist who has worked, or isworking in a remote area, to offer a paper for review inthis edition. Only the student papers have been offeredso far. Two of these papers have been selected as theyhave highlighted significant macro and micro concernsthat deserve attention by ergonomists. They alsodemonstrate the way two groups of five students havetackled the same research task—a précis of which isincluded at the start of this new Student Section.Consideration of these papers will hopefully encouragefurther members’ papers / correspondence on this topic.It is also hoped to entice other academics to submitstudent material.

There are two further items relating to HFESAdelegates to Standards Australia in this edition. This section should be of particular interest to anydeveloping philosophy of HF/E professionalism inregard to community roles and responsibilities. Whilethese standards are mostly advisory unless written intospecific legislation (rare) they are nevertheless the basisof any likely assumptions about informed professionalknowledge in the event of misadventure in relation toany occupational, domestic, leisure, health or safetyactivities.

An ergonomics crossword will be a regular feature of Ergonomics Australia in future. This is a welcomedevelopment following a specific request to one of ourmembers. Look for the contribution by Wedgetail inthis edition. The solution to the current puzzle willappear in Vol 21, Number 4, December 2006. With any luck it will be possible to get that edition back to the intended publication schedule!

Last but not least is a reminder that 42nd AnnualConference and Annual General Meeting of the HFESAwill be held in NSW at the University of Technology,Sydney 20–22 November 2006—New Technology:Putting Macro and Micro in Context. The CHISIGConference will then proceed back-to-back with thisevent.

Shann GibbsEditor

Editorial

Vol 21, Number 3, September/October 20062


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From the Internet

Top 45 oxymorons45. Act naturally 22. Childproof

44. Found missing 21. "Now, then…"

43. Resident alien 20. Synthetic natural gas

42. Advanced BASIC 19. Passive aggression

41. Genuine imitation 18. Taped live

40. Airline Food 17. Clearly misunderstood

39. Good grief 16. Peace force

38. Same difference 15. Extinct Life

37. Almost exactly 14. Temporary tax increase

36. Government organization 13. Computer jock

35. Sanitary landfill 12. Plastic glasses

34. Alone together 11. Terribly pleased

33. Legally drunk 10. Computer security

32. Silent scream 9. Political science

31. Living dead 8. Tight slacks

30. Small crowd 7. Definite maybe

29. Business ethics 6. Pretty ugly

28. Soft rock 5. Twelve-ounce pound cake

27. Butt Head 4. Diet ice cream

26. Military Intelligence 3. Working vacation

25. Software documentation 2. Exact estimate

24. New classic 1. Microsoft Works

23. Sweet sorrow

Murphy's Lesser- Known DictumsLight travels faster than sound. This is why somepeople appear bright until you hear them speak.

He who laughs last, thinks slowest.

Those who live by the sword get shot by those who don't.

Nothing is foolproof to a sufficiently talented fool.

The 50-50-90 rule: Anytime you have a 50-50 chanceof getting something right, there's a 90% probabilityyou'll get it wrong.

The things that come to those who wait will be thethings left by those who got there first.

Give a man a fish and he will eat for a day. Teach aman to fish and he will sit in a boat all day drinkingbeer.

The shin bone is a device for finding furniture in a dark room.

A fine is a tax for doing wrong. A tax is a fine fordoing well.

When you go into court, you are putting yourself Inthe hands of 12 people who weren't smart enough toavoid jury duty.


Membership Database …All members should be aware that the website now includes an on-line directory for members. This is the Society’s only database of members, and the only way the secretariat and your Branch can keep youinformed of events and membership benefits e.g. professional development, Ergonomics Australia.

The directory also allows your profile to be available to other members – as well as your contact details you can include a photo, a company brochure and weblink.

To access the site you need your membership number and password – if you have lost these, please contact Pauline Pertel at the national office on 02 9680 9026 or by email on [email protected]

Remember … please keep your details current

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At the time of writing this, we are in the throes ofpreparing for the forthcoming HFESA Conference inSydney (20th – 22nd November) and its attendantAnnual General Meeting. Much of the review of ourrecent activities will be included in the Annual GeneralReport, so I won’t reiterate it here. It is, however,appropriate to briefly reflect on the challenges presentedto our profession in recent times, particularly in lightof the ongoing discussions about professionalism andour role in society.

While there is still much to be achieved, the necessityfor industry to accommodate human factors andergonomics principles has been increasingly specifiedin legislation and guidance documentation in recenttimes. This requirement has long been encapsulated in plant design standards and guidance, in stateregulations and the guidance documents to which theyrefer, and in national guidance materials. The recentAustralian Safety and Compensation Council (ASCC)Draft Guideline on the Principles of Safe Design(February 2006) places ergonomics principles as aprominent component of safe design, as do a numberof other state and corporate documents on safe design.

There is, of course, a natural tendency for us to wantmore, for our professional names—human factorsspecialists and ergonomists—to be mentioned whereverthe word “design” is mentioned and, somewhatidealistically, that an HF/E specialist be directlyinvolved in every design. However, some realisticrestraint on our evangelism may also be necessary. In apragmatic world, reaching for the sky might just leaveus with fistfuls of fresh air. It would be impractical andunnecessarily expensive to insist that no design shouldbe undertaken without the direct involvement of an HFspecialist or ergonomist. In this, we need only look at the role of some other professions in industry.The direct involvement of medical practitioners orhygienists in every workplace is not required in order

to implement sound health practices, yet the disciplinesof the health and medical sciences have informedmany of the guidelines by which these are now widelyimplemented. Similarly, setting up effective systems for interpersonal communications or fair consultativemechanisms does not require the direct involvement of a psychologist in every setting. Yet, again,psychological input was certainly incorporated when guidance for these was developed.

Human factors and ergonomics principles andprocesses are powerful design tools. By providing thesetools – in the form of design guidance and constraints– to those who will, and must, be given responsibilityfor designs (the architects, engineers, industrialdesigners, software developers, and so on) is likely to be the most effective route to ensuring widespreadincorporation of HF/E principles and may have a far-reaching effect well out of proportion to our numbers.

Just as for those other professions, there will always be situations where the users of systems encounterdifficulties or where unusual circumstances cannot be addressed via standard guidance. Documentedguidance, by its very nature, is always limited andincomplete in its coverage. Hence there will always be a role for professionals to become directly involvedwhen that level of expertise is warranted. But by farthe greatest impact on the overall “design” of industrycan be effected by collaborating in the efforts to adviseand “train up” the professionals who will always bedirectly involved – the design professions andmanagement.

The International Ergonomics Association’s EQUID(Ergonomics Quality In Design) project has thepotential to be extremely influential in this regard.While its mechanisms are still “under construction”, the aim is to develop criteria for assessing the inclusionof ergonomics into design processes – in effect, to

President’s Column


Draft Privacy Statement …As HFESA collects and stores information on all members, the Board has undertaken to comply with therequirements of the Privacy Act, 1988 and the National Privacy Principles included in the Privacy Act(Private Sector) Amendment Act 2000.

To outline the proposed position, the Board has released a draft privacy policy statement. This draft islocated in the members section of the website.

The Board seeks your comments by Friday, 10 November 2006, prior to finalising the policy at the nextBoard meeting. You will be able to forward your comments directly from the website, or alternatively please send them by email to the secretariat on [email protected]

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develop an “Ergonomics Tick” for systems, equipmentand products that have been designed in accordancewith HF/E principles and processes.

As we work towards better establishing our owninternal information and communication systems,together with an effective web-based facility forarchiving and readily retrieving our informationsources such as the various documented guidance,policy and position statements, research, articles, case studies, etc., we will be better placed to make theimportant and timely contributions needed implementinitiatives such as EQUID. Concrete, specific, wellestablished, evidence-based information that caninform our input and responses to government andindustry will do more to effectively promote ourdiscipline and its role in safe design than any amountof vague, general assertions about our worth.

An important objective for the HFESA over the nextfew years should be ensuring the availability ofspecific, evidence-based information resources aboutHF/E to industry, government, the community and thedesign professions that will clearly demonstrate theimportant – indeed, essential – role we have to play in a safely designed society.

To complete what will be my final EA column asPresident, I would also like to say thank you to all – tomy Executive colleagues (Louise Whitby and RebeccaMitchell), to the Board, to our Newsletter and JournalEditors (Christine Zupanc and Shann Gibbs) and to allof the other Society members – who have contributed,however formally or informally, to the variousinitiatives, communications and other efforts on behalfof the HFESA over the last two years. It has been achallenging but ultimately satisfying experience for me and I look forward to being able to continue tocontribute to the HFESA in the coming years.

Very best regards to all,

Max HelyPresident, HFESASeptember 2006

The new IEA Executive Committee comprises:

• President – David Caple

• Secretary General – Pascale Carayon (USA)

• Treasurer – Min Chung (Sth Korea)

• Science Technology & Practice – Peter Buckle (UK)

• EQUID – Lina Bonapace (Italy)

• International Development – Halimahtun Kahlid(Malaysia)

• Ergonomics Development – Jan Dul (TheNetherlands)

• Awards – Pierre Falzon (France)

• Ex Officio IEA 2009 – Kan Zhang (China)

Its first meeting will be held in conjunction with theHFES conference, San Francisco, USA in October.

In relation to the IEA Congress in Maastricht, there waswonderful participation from Australian delegates, withover 30 Australians amongst the 1300 attendees. Over20% of attendees were students and the IEA Congresscommittee sponsored 48 attendees from developingcountries.

There was a range of excellent presentations at theCongress but with up to 10 parallel sessions, it madechoosing sessions difficult.

The next Congress will be in Beijing, China in July2009.

IEA President’s ReportIn Maastricht, The Netherlands in July 2006 I waselected the 16th President of the IEA. Apart frombeing a major event for myself, particularly as therewas only one vote difference with the other maincandidate from the USA, it also is significant in that I am the first Australian to be elected to a leadershiprole in the 48 years of this association, and also thefirst who has had a career as an ErgonomicsPractitioner.

The previous IEA Presidents have all been eminentresearchers and professors from universities around the world.

Background

The International Ergonomics Association wasconceived in Leyden, The Netherlands, by a group ofeminent researchers in 1957 who then held their firstEuropean meeting in 1959. It was originally formed as a result of a European Government initiative toconsider a range of working condition issues after the Second World War

IEA Column


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The major technical areas of research at the timeincluded design of machinery and equipment, impactof fatigue on work performance, and a range ofworking conditions such as the effect of heat, noiseand vibration.

The original formation of the IEA predominantlyinvolved individuals who were researching andeducating in this area. However, it subsequentlymoved to a structure of membership based onFederated Societies. This involved each geographicalcountry having a single membership to the IEA onbehalf of the ergonomists in their respective countries.There are now 42 countries who are members of theIEA. This includes around 20,000 individual members.

The countries with the largest membership of the IEA include:

• USA

• UK

• Japan

• Korea

The fastest growing membership is in China which hasdoubled its members in the last 2 years. The next IEACongress (which is held every 3 years) will be hosted in Beijing in July 2009. This will be when I finish myterm as the IEA President and hand on to the 17thPresident.

The three positions that are elected by the 42 FederatedSocieties that now constitute the IEA Council are:

• President – myself

• Secretary General – Pascale Carayon. She is aFrench Professor who has an appointment at theUniversity of Wisconsin in the USA.

• Treasurer – Min Chung. He is a Professor from aUniversity in Seoul, South Korea.

It is then the prerogative of the President to appointchairpersons of the committees that oversee the rangeof activities undertaken by the IEA. I was previouslythe chair of the committee known as InternationalDevelopment. This committee was responsible forliaising with programs being conducted byinternational agencies such as the World HealthOrganisation (WHO), and the International LabourOrganisation (ILO).

I propose to continue with this coordinating role owingto the emerging number of projects which have beendeveloped and to maintain the relationship at the top level with these agencies. The new Chair of thiscommittee is from Malaysia. She will have a range of other projects to complete.

The other committee chairs are involved in:

(a) Overseeing the activities of 18 separate technicalcommittees. These committees are whereergonomists working in specialist areas can gettogether and share their research outcomes. Tosome extent, these 18 areas profile the diversity of ergonomics. It is a bit like medicine where thereis a range of specialist domains where doctors canpursue particular aspects of medicine.

(b) Bridging the gap between business needs andergonomics. This committee will also be looking at the future growth areas of ergonomics.

(c) Introducing a program to certify “ergonomicdesign” of products and systems.

Over the next three years I will be expected to travel to a range of meetings, and conferences around theworld. At this stage, the program is just emerging but it appears that it will include:

• August – Indonesia

• September – New Zealand

• October – USA.

The reason as to why I was elected will possiblydepend on whom you ask, but I suspect my majoraspects of the presentation related to a desire topresent a more open and outward looking approachtowards the IEA. This involves greater communicationwith the Federated Societies and their members, andalso a greater emphasis in extending the outlook of the IEA to promote ergonomics across a much broaderagenda.

My recent appointment as an Adjunct Professor atLaTrobe University also assisted in bridging some ofthe perceived gaps between practitioners and researchacademics.

In three years time others will judge whether theirconfidence in me was appropriate!!!

Regards,

Prof. David C Caple28th July 2006



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Ed: This is a new section which provides anopportunity to open a discussion about perceived new areas for investigation by ergonomists. It is notintended to be a fully developed research article ratherit is intended to provide an informed background fordiscussion of an idea. Contributions in response to thisarticle will be welcome for publishing in the FORUMcolumn of this journal. Similar original concept paperswould be welcome for Talking Point in future editions.

Public Transport Timetables: Design forPassengers

T. P. Hutchinson

AbstractA passenger on public transport usually wants to getfrom a specific origin to a specific destination, not to travel along a particular route. It is argued in thispaper that for popular combinations of origin anddestination (such as suburb to city centre), a timetableshould be provided that includes all relevant routes, as many suburban residents are in walking distance of several.

IntroductionAn important aspect of the quality of public transportis how easily information about the services can befound and used. According to Horne et al (1986/7, p3)

Fitness for purpose is nowhere more important thanin publicising and selling the operator’s product—bus and rail services—and in making these appeareasy to use. Carefully designed and widelydisseminated basic service information may be an unglamorous requirement, but is an essentialelement of marketing and other promotionalstrategies.

The timetable is a major tool of marketing for publictransport companies. But is it optimally designed from the customer’s (passenger’s) viewpoint? In part,this refers to physical issues including legibility,comprehensibility, and correctness. This cannot be said to be a thoroughly-researched area, but at leastsensible practice can be shared via checklists,guidelines, and codes. (Some references will be givenlater.) But in part it also refers to a match between thetask faced by the passenger and the solution providedby the public transport company, and a need for aconsistent effort to imagine the passenger’s viewpoint,and a strategy for meeting their requirements. This isnot so amenable to documentation. In the words ofVilkman-Vartia et al (2003),

Information provision should be rid of thetraditional way of producing timetable and routeinformation that, although simple for the provider,is cumbersome for the user. The direction should betowards user-friendly travel chain guidance.

The purpose of this paper is to argue that while it isnatural for the bus or train company to think in termsof routes, it is natural for the prospective passenger toask how to get from A to B. Information is typicallyavailable in the first form, as a set of route timetables.It is unusual to find information in the more usefulform. To get to a given destination, passengers shouldbe able to consult a single timetable, not severaldifferent route timetables. Ideally, a timetable would be tailored to a particular household. At present, theexpense of this probably exceeds its value. But atimetable referring to trips from a given suburb to thecity centre seems to me to be practicable. (Transportcompanies often do provide information on how to getfrom A to B, by a telephone enquiry service answeredby a human, or by a web-based service in which acomputer responds. However, even if either of thesewere reliable and accurate, they would not share theadvantages that ink on paper has.)

Conventional timetables are indispensable. People whoproduce timetables and market public transport shouldnot be defensive or resistant if something additional is suggested, as it will be below. Cronin and Hightower(2004, p31) expressed the opinion that the marketingfunction within public transport organizations (in the U.S.A.) is understaffed, underfunded, andunderemphasized, and I find that plausible. I estimatethat even a dollar or two per resident would besufficient for the design, preparation, printing, anddistribution of a suburb timetable (and less when thetimetable is revised, rather than created anew).

The suburb timetableIf we are imagining ourselves in the passenger’s place,we need a clear vision of the setting.

• The scenario is that of a sizeable city, with suburbsand commuters. There are lots of different publictransport routes. Virtually everyone lives within 0.5km of a bus route, and many live within 0.5 km ofmore than one route. (City centre services, ruralservices, and inter-urban services are different.)

• It is intended to design a timetable for services to the city centre that will be distributed to an area of afew thousand residents. (Timetables for a larger area,or for display at a single bus stop, are different.)

Talking Point


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Table 1 shows an excerpt from a possible layout. Fivebus route timetables have contributed to it. In practice,such a timetable would probably be accompanied byother information, in particular, a map or a verbaldescription of where the routes go. The timetable needsto be targeted to a specific geographical area, forexample, a suburb. Thus the departure locations arechosen so as to provide a complete coverage of thatarea. Residents of the area may walk to access publictransport outside the area, so routes passing within areasonable walking distance of the edge of the suburbwill need to be included. And of course, where thereare train or tram services, these would be includedalso. Other design strategies are possible, such asalphabetical listing of departure location; Table 1reflects the geography, and is intended to be easier for residents who are within walking distance of morethan one bus stop. The purpose of Table 1 is to makeclear the idea of a suburb timetable; there is nointention to express an opinion about matters ofphysical design (such as whether places are listedvertically or horizontally, the format of presentation of times, selection of typeface, and so on).

Some public transport information attempts to satisfyseveral needs. Table 1 does not. Rather, specificassumptions lie behind it.

• The focus is on making public transport moreattractive and easier to use … promoting cycling,promoting walking, and reducing car usage aredifferent tasks from this.

• The customer has a reasonable degree of familiaritywith the local geography and public transport,including where his or her house is relative to busstops … education is a different task.

Table 1Example of how a timetable for asuburb to city centre journey could be laid out.

Locations within the suburb are the first six places named.

Route T500 229 228F 225F 205F

Ayfield Road — — 12.11 — —

Para Hills North 12.03 12.09 — 12.17 12.20

K. R. S. C. — 12.15 — 12.21 —

Bridge Road x — — — 12.22s

Research Road — — 12.15 12.25 —

The Paddocks 12.06 12.18 — — 12.24

City Centre 12.33 1.01g 12.42 1.01 12.55

Notes:g Change at Gepps Cross to Route 225F.s This route services all stops on Bridge Road.X Limited stop route: does not stop except where shown.

• The customer does not have special needs, such as in handling, seeing, and understanding a timetable …special needs require special responses.

• It is worth having a timetable, as the times can berelied upon to within a couple of minutes … whenpublic transport is very unreliable, that is a differentproblem.

• More generally, the public transport is reasonablygood quality --- if it is slow, expensive, andunpleasant, marketing it is more difficult! Forimproved marketing to succeed, the product itself has to be marketable. (Horne et al, 1986/7, p11)

Specifying the context for a suburb timetable, anddistinguishing its task from other tasks, is importantbecause of the variety of information requirements.MacKenzie-Taylor (1999, p192) puts it as follows:

There is no one strategy for searching or accessingthat suits all users and tasks. …Information needsto be presented in different ways to different people,because different people have different needs.

Among all the public transport systems in the world, it is likely that somewhere suburb timetables arecommonplace, but I do not know where. It certainly is possible to find, both for bus and rail services,examples of A to B by different routings being shownon the same timetable, and timetables for corridors thatseveral routes have in common. (The term compositetimetable may refer to either.) But there commonlyseems to be no consistent and comprehensive effort to be passenger-oriented in respect of information. Itmight be objected that there are too manycombinations of origin and destination for it ever to bepracticable to write down a timetable in this form. Yes,it certainly seems impossible to cover all combinationsof A and B; tailored answers—for example by


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telephone—have an important part to play. But somecombinations are common: many trips involve a singleB, the city centre, and surely it would be possible tosupplement the route timetables by creating a timetablefor all trips from each given suburb to the city centre.The same goes for other major destinations.

DiscussionThe blog by Parker (2005) argues strongly for theusefulness of composite timetables for routes along amain road, and papers by Verhoef (1993) and Morrison(1996) are similar in spirit to the present paper. Verhoefargued that destination boards (train indicators) onplatforms should be redesigned so that the entry pointis an alphabetical list of destinations, besides which aredisplayed the platform and time of the next train. (Theconventional arrangement was by trains, orderedaccording to departure time.) In the following text,Verhoef (p269) comes close to advocating a similararrangement for timetables:

A further argument that can be levelled against analphabetical indicator is that it is not consistentwith other information systems such as railwaytimetable books and timetable posters… One shouldnot reject a ‘good’ system because it is inconsistentwith existing ‘bad’ systems. One should, of course,redesign the bad systems.

Morrison (1996, pp255–259) also was very concernedwith organising information in terms of getting from Ato B, albeit in the context of maps of public transport.For how timetable-leaflets cope with an inter-urban Ato B task, journeys by rail in the UK, see Hutchinson(1981).

More information is not always better. Morrison (1996,p255) gives what I believe to be wise advice,advocating careful exercise of judgment in decidingwhat information to present, as too much and too littleare both likely to be useless to the passenger:

There are some weak points in the traditionalinformation system which arise because the networkmap is often too complicated, while the diagrams ofindividual bus lines are too simplified to answer thetype of spatial query which the traveller is likely tohave.

The report by Manners (2000) is a good overview ofpublic transport information. Concerning codes of goodpractice, particularly as regards the more physicalaspects of presentation, examples of advice worthconsidering are in Tufte (1990, especially pp104 – 105),Texas Transportation Institute and NuStatsInternational (1999), Denmark (2000), and ATCO(2002). See Bartram (1984) for a summary of some

psychological research. Examples of innovative designsof timetable are in Ellson and Tebb (1978, 1981), Joshi(1996), and MacKenzie-Taylor (1999).

Rietveld (2005) discusses the contrast between supply-oriented and demand-oriented measures of the qualityof public transport services (but not including publictransport information). Adding to Rietveld’s point, Iwould argue that if a transport company uses supply-oriented statistics (the numbers of route timetablesdistributed, locations at which they are available, thebus stops where they are displayed, and the downloadsfrom a website), and then claims such statisticsdemonstrate success of information delivery, all this isincomplete if the passenger is deterred from using thetimetables by the need to refer to several. It is unlikelythat supply-oriented statistics will measure whether the passenger actually receives correct information: forexample, misreading may occur (Disney, 1998), perhapsdue to poor design. An index of transport informationquality that is passenger centred is not impossiblydifficult: using mystery shoppers is a familiar ideanowadays (Miller, 1995; Disney, 1998). In Hutchinson(1992), I was fairly optimistic: I had in mind definingdifferent aspects of quality, creating a sampling frame(such as locations) for each, surveying a randomsample from each frame, deciding upon weights for the different aspects, and using these to arrive at anoverall figure.

Finally, just as present-day provision of information is of interest to those concerned with how publictransport will develop in future, so the timetables andadvertising leaflets of the past are of interest to thehistorian:

To establish exactly how well or poorly anyparticular service was promoted reference to itsindividual publicity is essential. It is the index by which one can judge how British Railways sold its business. (Forsythe, 2000)

AcknowledgementsThe Centre for Automotive Safety, University ofAdelaide, receives core funding from the MotorAccident Commission (South Australia) and theDepartment for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure(South Australia). The views expressed in this paper are those of the author, not necessarily of theUniversity of Adelaide or the sponsoring organisations.


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ReferencesATCO (2002). Printed public transport information. A code of good practice. Information and TicketingSub-Committee, Association of Transport Co-ordinatingOfficers.http://www.atco.org.uk/publications/pubs5.html

Bartram, D. (1984). The presentation of informationabout bus services. In R. Easterby & H. Zwaga (Editors),Information Design. The Design and Evaluation ofSigns and Printed Material, pp299–319. Wiley.Chichester, U.K.:

Cronin, J.J., & Hightower, R. (2004). An evaluation of the role of marketing in public transit organizations.Journal of Public Transportation, 7(2), 17–36.

Denmark, D. (2000). Best practice manual for thepublication and display of public transport information.Ageing and Disability Department, Government of NewSouth Wales, Sydney.

Disney, J. (1998). Competing through quality intransport services. Managing Service Quality, 8,112–118.

Ellson, P.B., & Tebb, R.G.P. (1978). Costs and benefits of a bus-service information leaflet. Laboratory Report825, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,Crowthorne, U.K.

Ellson, P.B., and Tebb, R.G.P. (1981). Leaflets givinginformation about existing urban public transportservices: Requirements, design and comprehensibility.Laboratory Report 990, Transport and Road ResearchLaboratory, Crowthorne, U.K.

Forsythe, R. (2000). Is collecting railway ephemera an archaeological task? Working Paper, Institute ofRailway Studies, University of York.http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/irs/irshome/papers/ephemera.htm

Horne, M., Roberts, J., & Rose, D. (1986/7). Gettingthere: An assessment of London Transport’s endeavourto improve bus passenger information literature forcentral London, 1979–1985. Information DesignJournal, 5, 3-27 and 87–110.

Hutchinson, T.P. (1981). An assessment of theinformation given in railway timetable-leaflets.Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics, 5,239–246.

Hutchinson, T.P. (1992). Providing information to thetraveller by public transport. Paper presented at the14th Conference of Australian Institutes of TransportResearch, held at the Institute of Transport Studies,University of Sydney.

Joshi, Y. (1996). Graphic representation of railwaytimetables: A case-study. Information Design Journal,8, 189–191.

MacKenzie-Taylor, M. (1999). Developing designthrough dialogue: Transport tables and graphs. InH.J.A. Zwaga, T. Boersema, & H.C.M. Hoonhout(Editors), Visual Information for Everyday Use, pp.177–193. London: Taylor and Francis.

Manners, E. (2000). Public transport stop information:A marketing action plan. Report from QueenslandConservation Council and Smogbusters, Brisbane.

Miller, M. (1995). Competing through quality intransport services. Managing Service Quality, 5, 26–29.

Morrison, A. (1996). Alternative informationtechnologies for the provision of spatial information to public transport passengers in France, Germany and Spain. Transport Reviews, 16, 243–271.

Parker, P. (2005). Composite timetables. Entries for 7 May 05, 19 Jun 05, and 8 Jan 06 athttp://melbourneintransit.blogspot.com andhttp://melbourneontransit.blogspot.com.

Rietveld, P. (2005). Six reasons why supply-orientedindicators overestimate service quality in publictransport. Transport Reviews, 25, 319–328.

Texas Transportation Institute & NuStats International(1999). Passenger information services: A guidebook for transit systems. Report 45, Transit CooperativeResearch Program, Transportation Research Board.

Tufte, E.R. (1990). Envisioning Information. Cheshire,Connecticut: Graphics Press.

Verhoef, L.W.M. (1993). A new conceptual structure fortravel information. Applied Ergonomics, 24, 263–269.

Vilkman-Vartia, A., Wallinn, T., & Granberg, M. (2003).Guide for improving the user-friendliness ofinformation services of public transport. Report B11/2003, Ministry of Transport and Communications,Helsinki.

About the author:T. Paul HutchinsonE: [email protected] for Automotive Safety Research University of Adelaide South Australia 5005 AUSTRALIA


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Dear Editor,

I suspect that I missed the March/April item on theProductivity Commission of Inquiry into StandardsAustralia and NATA, but I did read your comment in the June/July issue. I am prompted to put in my two penn’th, based on about ten years of somewhatdesultory service on several Standards committees and sub committees. What I have to say reflects myvery personal views and opinions and I have trieddeliberately to avoid identifying specific committees,members or chairpersons, because I do have some quitecritical comments to make.

In fact, my experience on the committees on which I did serve leads me to feel very doubtful aboutaccepting the authority of any Australian Standard. If the process and procedures for developing allStandards are at all similar to those that I experienced,then I suspect that what appears in a Standard reflectsthe lowest common denominator condensed from theopinions and knowledge of the contributors, ratherthan the best possible amalgamation of—andcompromise between—the various expert views thatone would hope would form the basis for a Standard.There is a growing feeling of, not exactly resentmentbut certainly disquiet, about committee membershaving to pay their own fare and accommodation coststo attended Standards meetings beyond their own state.Quite definitely, when Standards Australia becamemore commercially oriented (I don’t recall exactlywhen) I became more disinclined to be available formeetings outside Sydney.

But to return to my main theme—my doubt about the effectiveness of the present committee system toproduce really valid guidelines and even requirements—often legally endorsed by those too ignorant torecognise their deficiencies. On one committee, whichwas chaired for years by the same person, it seemed tome and to some other members with whom I conferred,that the committee was fatally flawed in two respects:

1. The chairperson, who was undeniably well qualifiedand undoubtedly an expert in the field, persisted inimposing a personal interpretation on thecommittee, going so far as to reverse a consensusdecision made at one committee meeting byoverriding arguments and relying on the absence of certain personnel at the following meeting. Thatparticular person delayed decision making by thecommittee, and/or otherwise influenced thecommittee’s deliberations, by holding forth at vastlyexcessive length to establish the points that thechair wanted to see included in (or excluded from)the Standard that we were developing or revising.

I’d hasten to add that on other committees I’vebeen impressed by the open and democratic style ofthe chair, who has obviously been trying to achievea scientifically justifiable consensus about a specificvariable, condition or dimension to include in the Standard being formulated.

2. The second major flaw that I felt interferedseriously with a Standards committee’s aim of producing a disinterested but scientifically (and culturally?) justifiable set of guidelines,requirements and specifications was the presenceon committees of persons with a very strong vestedinterest. I would acknowledge that it may bedifficult to establish the initial invitation list for the formation of a committee. The presumedintention is to select persons to represent anorganization/society (not themselves or theiremployer) who will be suitably qualified in terms of knowledge and experience, which can be thoughtof as representing the relevant interested parties(stakeholders), and who can be trusted to avoid biasdespite their employment in what might be seen as a vested interest. And therein lies the rub: on atleast one committee, not just the arguments but thedecisions seemed to reflect the overriding interestsof a particular industry—an industry that wasrepresented by several members whoseorganisations each purveyed some different product that would be very closely affected by the requirements of the Standard that was beingproduced or revised. Scientific objectivity anddisinterest took a very poor third place.

Before the gentle reader reaches the conclusion that I am so totally disillusioned with the StandardsAustralia’s committee system and the way committeesare used that my prejudice outweighs my ownobjectivity, I must hasten to point out that,notwithstanding the flaws outlined above, I generallyhave been very favourably impressed by the depth and extent of knowledge of most committee members,including chairs; and by the enthusiasm of mostmembers for the field in which the particular Standardof interest was being prepared. I’m also impressed bythe patience and apparent dedication of each of theStandards Australia staff members who has taken onthe secretarial and/or management duties for eachcommittee on which I’ve served. I sometimes wonder if the flaws I’ve described above might not be bestovercome by having a paid chairperson (I assume that,like the rest of us, the chairs have been unpaid) whomay not necessarily be an expert in the relevant field,but is an expert at chairing a meeting and cancoordinate, mediate and develop best outcomecompromises even with a group tainted by the kinds of flaw described in my second category above.

Well, dear editor, I don’t know if the thoughts andreflections above add anything to the Forum onStandards, but them’s my thoughts.

Regards, Neil [email protected]

Forum


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Standards Australia Committees:MS-003 Public Information Symbols SF-005 Industrial Warning Signs CS-093 Water Safety Signs and Symbols

Is there anyone with a research bent who might beinterested in joining these committees, and perhaps the equivalent International ones? If so, please read onas there’s much more to the process of standardisingsymbol signs than meets the eye.

Symbols, I hear you say? What’s the fuss? Just makesure people can understand them and them put them in the standard. End of story. But with debates aboutmethodology, spiced with not a little politics, life hasn’tturned out to be so easy, as the following tale will tell.

These committees originated from 1952 (IndustrialWarning Signs) and 1980 (the other two). In the middle1970s an Australian, the late Ron Easterby, who was at the time a psychology lecturer at Aston Universityin the UK, together with Harm Zwaga of UtrechtUniversity in The Netherlands, set about convincingstandards bodies that they should not promulgatesymbols and symbol signs unless the symbols weretested and shown to be understood in the same way as the equivalent worded sign. Peter Cairney and DavidSless (Cairney and Sless, 1982), then of FlindersUniversity, joined in. Yours truly became involved inthe mid 1970s when Easterby sent a circular to Headsof Psychology departments in Australia seekingAustralian input to his international symbol testingeffort.

The symbols initially tested for ISO were some symbolsthat were already in fairly common use, such as the NoSmoking, Taxi, Ticket Purchase, Lift and other publicinformation symbols. Easterby’s efforts were aimed not so much at testing the symbols as at developing a testing method that could be used in the future forsuch testing.

Testing methodsThe initial testing method used in Ron Easterby’sresearch involved showing each person a page full ofsymbols and asking them to pick from that page thesymbol that represented a named function or referent(eg Taxi – where to find a taxi). It was an inefficientmethod in that each subject only gave one data pointby choosing one symbol for one referent.

Other methods were then developed, leading to whatmost consider to be the obvious method, namely thatof showing the subject a series of symbols and askingthem to say, or write down, what they think eachmeans. This method is embodied in AS 2342: 1992. Thecriterion required is successful comprehension by 85%of the viewers, with no more than 5% ‘opposite’responses.

AS 2342 involves several sections. It defines symboltypes, giving their colours and shapes, and gives somedesign advice as well as advice for symbol siting andmaintenance. It gives three test methods for theadequacy of proposed symbols. The first is perhapscontentious in that it simply asks subjects to say whatproportion of the population they think wouldunderstand the symbol. This method is an attempt toprovide an efficient test that, on the one hand, resultsin the quick approval of symbols that are clearly easilyunderstood, and on the other hand prevents the needfor costly testing of symbols that don’t stand a chance.

The second test method is the comprehension testoutlined earlier. Viewers are told where they might seethe symbol and are asked to indicate what they thinkeach symbol means and also to say what they woulddo if faced with that symbol. The judges of the answersthen have to decide if the symbol is appropriatelycomprehended. A problem faced by judges is thatsometimes a simple statement of meaning gives littleidea of how well the symbol as a ‘symbol sign’ hasbeen comprehended. For example, if someone is askedwhat the symbol shown in Figure 1 means and theysay, ‘big waves’ it’s not clear whether they understandthe precise meaning. If they add, I’d get my surf boardwe know they’ve missed the point. The symbol shows a white symbol on a green square (signifying a safecondition) and is intended to indicate that a nearbybuilding is safe in the event of a tsunami. The symbolis being promoted by Japan for use in coastal areaswhere their calculations indicate that a tsunami isalmost certain within a 10-year period. We are atpresent testing a series of water-safety related symbolsand this is one of them. Please don’t participate in thattesting if you are asked after reading this document!

Figure 1. Proposed tsunami “safe building” symbol

Standards AustraliaHFESA DelegatesColumn


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The third testing method is a recall test, first referred to by Cairney and Sless (1982). When it has not beenpossible to produce a symbol that is readilycomprehended without prompting, perhaps because theconcept is an abstract one, how do we decide which ofa number of alternative symbols is the best? In thissituation it can be argued that the symbol that is mosteasily remembered is the best one. A recall test for thisproperty is given in detail in AS 2342.

Other concerns that have proven contentious in thetesting of public information symbols have related tothe nature of the sample of respondents to be used, the way respondents are told of the possible context inwhich they might see the symbol, the details of theway the responses are scored by (usually three) judges,and whether it’s necessary to present the symbol as a complete sign or only as the raw symbol. A morecomplex problem relates to the summing of judgedresponses. If the judge decides that a response is‘almost correct’ should that be included in theacceptable responses? Perhaps only half of the ‘almostcorrect’ responses should be included. The ISO methodinvolves a complex summation of the various judgedpercentages.

From symbols to signsInitially, the International Standards Organisationcarried out testing of the symbolic element of the signonly, without any background colour or surroundshape, using the argument that if the symbol in thisraw form is comprehended then it can be used in avariety of contexts. The same symbol, for example,could be black within a red annulus-and-slash as aprohibition sign. It could also be a white symbol on a blue circle as a mandatory action sign (like the youmust wear hard hats here sign) or a black symbol on a yellow diamond as a warning sign. However, sincethen we have moved to testing only complete signs.

As an ergonomist with a background in psychology my own interest has centred on the testing methods,but other details of concern to the standardisationcommittees have related to the symbolisation coloursand shapes. One contentious matter internationally,and also within Australia, has been whether to use adiamond or a triangle for warning signs. In Australia,warning signs on roads and in public-informationcontexts use a black symbol on a yellow diamond with a black border. However, in the Industrial Safetycontext, even in Australia, we use the triangle. It wasargued by that committee that the diamond is reservedin the industrial safety context for a range of specificwarnings and thus should not be used for generalpurpose yellow-background warnings.

The futurePresent work at the ISO level involves work on atesting method almost identical to the AustralianStandard one but omitting the recall test, and on a test for the image content of a symbol. There is alsoextensive work on water safety signage. Work inAustralia has largely centred on water safety signagebut there is a feeling that we should re-visit AS2342regarding testing methodology, perhaps with the aim of simplifying the methods presented there. It’s alsohigh time the Industrial Safety signage standard wasrevisited.

Standards Australia Technical CommitteeMembershipStandards Australia committees are made up of a paid secretary supplied by Standards Australia. Thecommittee chair and members are unpaid professionalswho have been nominated by an interested body.Details of the processes involved are at:http://www.standards.org.au. Meetings—seldom morethan one per year—are usually in Sydney andcommittee members have to be able to get themselvesthere, possibly with support from their nominatingbody. Otherwise, being on a Standards Australiacommittee can involve one in some personal expenses(usually tax deductible!), and often in time associatedwith developing a standard.

ReferencesCairney, P. Sless, D., 1982, Communicationeffectiveness of symbolic safety signs with differentuser groups, Applied Ergonomics, 13, 91-97.

AS 1319—1994 Safety Signs for the OccupationalEnvironment.

AS 2342—1992, Development, Testing andImplementation of Information and Safety Symbolsand Symbolic Signs.

AS 2416—2002, Design and Application of WaterSafety Signs.

Austin Adams

Austin is chair of the three standards Australiacommittees mentioned, but is looking forward tomoving on in the not too distant future. If there’sanyone out there with a general interest in the mattersdiscussed here and who considers it possible that theymight like a career-long involvement, please contactAustin at: [email protected]


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Ed: The two student papers included in this sectionresulted from the 2006 autumn semester’s researchproject undertaken by students at University ofTechnology, Sydney, who were enrolled in thecompulsory core subject, Engineering Communication.The topic involved consideration of infrastructurerequirements for developing a remote area healthfacility in Australia.

Three papers, presented at the 4th InternationalCyberspace Conference on Ergonomics, 15 September –15 October 2005, were made available on the UTSEngineering Communication website to provide anoverview of some of the difficulties encountered byisolated communities in several countries: Vietnam,Sarawak, and Kenya. The authors and the ConferenceConvenor graciously gave their permission for thesepapers to be used for this purpose:

• Kogi K, Kawakami T, Ujita Y, Khai TT, Roles offarmer trainers for participatory ergonomics inagriculture.

• Yeo AW, Songan P, Hamid KA, Gnaniah J,Developing and implementing a remote online community to bridge the digital divide: the eBarioexperience.

• O’Neill DH, Ergonomics in the improvement of rural transport in sub-Saharan Africa.

The project engaged small groups in each tutorial classto work together on aspects of communication beingdiscussed throughout the semester such as:

• research methods … various levels of documentcredibility;

• critical analysis for data selection;

• referencing (Harvard-style) in-text and in lists;

• document planning … notes, mind maps, synthesis of ideas, logical sequence, formatting;

• individual and group writing and oral/visualpresentations;

• group dynamics and co-operative task allocation;

• methods of successful conflict resolution;

• avoidance of group think; and finally

• simulation of real life work experiences.

The hypothetical community for this research projectinvolved a variety of races and cultures and was notrestricted to an indigenous population although thatmight constitute the largest group to be serviced. Thepossible impact of tourists was also discussed intutorials.

Readers of these papers should appreciate that many of the writers did not have English as a first languageand yet their language and oral presentation skillsimproved considerably during this exercise, onlyneeding some careful editing assistance for publication… in some instances they worked harder to improvethese skills than the native English speakers in thegeneral intake!

Shirleyann Gibbs PhDCasual AcademicEngineering Communication UTS

Student Section


Annual General Meeting…HFESA advises that the Annual General Meeting will be held in Sydney at 4pm on Tuesday, 21 November 2006.

Agenda, minutes, the annual report, and proxy forms are located in the members section of the websitewww.ergonomics.org.au

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Development of a Health Facilityfor Remote Communities withinAustraliaGeorge Alim, Armineh Apoyan, Van Cao Xuan, LukeDi Palma and Matthew Hermann

Executive SummaryThis report discusses the planning, construction andimplementation of a health facility for remotecommunities within Australia, located at places such asNorth Queensland’s Charleville district and the Pilbararegion in Western Australia, where there is a largeindigenous population. Its objective is to providedesign and construction concepts for a healthcareservice incorporating key aspects that will ensure an efficient and accessible system for the communityin need. This may seem a simple project but theimplementation of the project is quite complex.

This proposal offers recommendations on the type of materials, resources and funding essential for thedevelopment of the medical facility. This will includepower supply, telemedicine technology, coolingstrategies, mechanical systems and further developmentof new age transport options such as the current RoyalFlying Doctors Service (RFDS). Additionally, thebuilding of new roads and runways are all crucialaspects when constructing such a health facility andtherefore the necessary building regulations andstandards must be monitored in order for thisinfrastructure to support the requirements of thecommunity being serviced.

IntroductionAccess to health services in rural Australia has been a prominent issue since the beginning of the 21stcentury, and the necessity to improve these services isevermore imperative. Certain factors which emphasizethe need for an improved healthcare system include:

• limited paramedics, doctors and nursing staff at remote locations;

• restricted transportation and access schemes tomedical treatment facilities;

• deficiency of formal communication andinformation systems; and

• lack of infrastructure in remote areas, because of insufficient funding and climatic conditions.

In meeting these complications, various engineeringdisciplines will need to be involved in order to achievea successful solution that will enhance the effectivenessof a health facility operation. Issues such as thesustainability of resources, consideration of the meansto generate renewable energy supplies, along with theneed for ongoing support through communityawareness education programs, involvement ofstakeholders and the collaboration of professionals areall crucial when it comes to seeking financial supportfor a particular proposal.

The map below displays the remote and rural locationswithin Australia.


Fig 1. Australian remote and rural areas(Courtesy GISCA Adelaide)

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Communication and Information TechnologyThe effective management of a remote area healthfacility is closely linked with the development ofinformation and communication network systems. InFrance, Schlumberger Ltd (Rhodes 1996, pg80) initiateda program called Med-Track which systematicallycompiled information such as past medical reviews,pre-employment history and duty re-assessment. Thissetup also includes a health passport which providescrucial details such as blood type, allergies andimmunisation history of workers.

Similarly, within the Far West Area Health Service(FWHS) district in NSW, the development of HCN’sMedical Director electronic patient record system wasimplemented. This technology provides the best meansfor the RFDS to access information it requires from theFWHS in management of their clinical services offeredto remote communities, rather than having to collectthe data manually.

Telemedicine

Telemedicine is an emerging and very promisingtechnology, which uses telecommunications to providemedical services to rural communities. However thereare some obstacles that are holding this back andpreventing it from achieving its potential namely easeof use, availability, and data transport conduits. Pauland co-authors (1999, p. 281) state that technologicalbarriers are often the most significantly noted barriersto the complete implementation and use oftelemedicine. They also see that these are significantin the less than expected adoption rates and use oftelemedicine. Kofos and co-authors also see this as amajor issue. Despite telemedicine’s rapid evolution andgrowing use, many physicians still are unfamiliar withthe technology available and its potential (Perednia ascited by Kofos et al, 1998, p1). This ‘unfamiliarity’ hasmeant that telemedicine’s true potential has not yetbeen utilized, as healthcare professionals are unable orunwilling to use it. By this they mean that the healthprofessionals are not trained correctly in using theequipment and therefore feel uneasy and not confidentin relying on the technology. So they do not use it.

Electronic records & data mining

The areas of software and telecommunications providevarious solutions to the problems that face remotecommunities. Electronic medical records, or e-records,allow for far easier access to medical records ofpatients from anywhere in the country. Most of thehealthcare related problems faced by communities such as Wadeye are caused by their sheer isolation and distance from other communities and cities. Thebenefits of e-records to remote communities are clear:

it becomes possible to successfully treat patients overvast distances (although e-records on their own don’tachieve this). Another problem that e-records can helpto solve is mistakes in prescribing medicine for patients.Reinecke (1999 cited in Doble 1999) believes that e-records cut down mistakes in prescribing, and mistakesin communication between clinicians and pharmacists.

But to get the full use out of e-records, there has to bea way to efficiently search and sort this information.Hansen (1999 cited in Doble 1999) believes that healthdepartments are already struggling with the amount of data they have accumulated, so it is essential thatextremely efficient and effective methods to extractinformation from this data are employed. Thesemethods often are known as data-mining. One of themain advantages of data-mining electronic medicalrecords is that it can uncover valuable trends andclinical insights (Adams, 2005), or more specifically, itcan uncover trends related to illnesses and diseases incertain areas (such as a remote community), which inturn can help to identify where to concentrate publichealth education programs (Morgan, 2005 cited inAdams 2005). For rural communities, in whicheffective and timely medical treatment can be aproblem, educating people in order to prevent certainillnesses and diseases which may be common in thatcommunity (as opposed to simply treating them) would be a huge benefit.

Network cabling system

Maintaining the efficiency of such communication andinformation systems involves the engineering ofsupportive equipment, for example, network cablingstructures involving the remote fiber test system(RFTS), which includes a feature known as the opticaltime domain reflectometer (OTDR). This tracer injects a short, intense laser pulse into the fiber and monitorsreflections caused by breaks, microcracks, anddiscontinuities. Discontinuities appear as a spike on the OTDR display and this is then diagnosed by ageographical information system (GIS) documentationprogram (Mellot 2003) to isolate the fault withinseconds.


Fig 2. A typical portable OTDR(courtesy www.mjs-electronics.se)

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Renewable energy, lighting and cooling systems

Power Generation

A power source that is able to operate efficiently andeffectively in rural conditions is required to providepower within the facility to all necessary equipmentand services. Hybrid power such as wind/diesel systemswill be discussed in detail as well as the utilization ofcompact fluorescent lighting to save electricity.

Hybrid power generators consist of wind turbines and a diesel backup system. Over the years, the efficiencyof wind power generators has been vastly improved.Technologists have implemented linear programmingtechniques to seek the best combination of wind-dieselgeneration plants in a certain region. In addition, gearspurs called flywheels are used to improve the powertransmission (called wind penetration) from the turbineto the power grid from 20–70% to 60–100%. Anexample of this technology is the Denham wind farmand energy storage system. Denham was chosenbecause of its practicality due to the abundance ofwind draughts. This project is one of the mostadvanced and successful of its type in the world.During Stage 1, Denham had a single 230kWENERCON E30 variable speed wind turbine (50m). Thiswas providing 15% of the total load demand. Stage 2upgrades included 3 turbines showing a sum of 690kWand providing 40% of Denham’s average electricityrequirements. The Environmental saving includes areduction of half a million litres of diesel and 1700tonnes of CO2 released into the environment.(Piccinini, Ebert, p2-3)

In recent research, MATLAB/SIMULINK was used to model and calculate outcomes of the Hybridwind/diesel power generation system. The advantage of using MATLAB/SIMULINK is that it allows the mainproblem to be decomposed into smaller components.The key method employed is the Diesel Wind EnergyConversion System (DWECS) which utilizes theconvolution integral to convolve production cost withload demand to determine the size of the batterystorage. By estimating the region’s wind speeds, fuelcosts, load demand, battery type and economicdispatch, the software can determine the number ofturbine/diesel hybrid systems required. The results arethen plotted to determine the needed load demands.Lastly, the economic dispatch was used to determinethe cheapest solution which provides the most energyto feed into a remote area grid. (Tay, Keerthipala andBorle, p1-6)


Fig 3. A graphical illustration of this typeof calculation

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Lighting Sources

Whilst, lighting is usually considered as a decorativeissue, incorrect lighting methods can waste massiveelectrical loads. The solution would be to fit CompactFluorescent Lighting (CFL) throughout the medicalfacility. CFLs are cheap, produce a warm and brightglow and the best part is that they have longer life and are very low wattage. The outcomes of a Kuwaitresearch include a $US97 million dollar saving, half abillion tones of CO2 cut down, a saving of 482MW and145MW during on/off peak time respectively. The studyhas assumed that only 50% of all lights are replaced byCFL. The study incorporates a replacement rate ofabout 64 lamps/850m2. The 100W bulbs are replacedby 25W CFLs which in Kuwait will nationally reducethe material cost by $US42 million. Electric Powersaving is about $US192 million/year. Althoughpercentage wise this is only a saving of 1.6% of thetotal load demand of 9189MW, but this money couldbe used to utilize other projects for the remote medicalfacility. (Al-Nakib and Al-Ragom, p1–10)

Cooling Systems

A crucial responsibility of mechanical engineers when developing a remote health facility includes thesustainability of resources, particularly in the setup and maintenance of various cooling systems. Coolingis a significant factor in the maintenance of systems

equipment as well as personnel comfort in any healthfacility. Development of an efficient cooling system inremote areas, such as in North Queensland, requiresspecial attention to the hot, humid climate. Three majormethods of mechanical cooling are ventilation fans,evaporative coolers and air conditioners.

Living Space Area 850 m2 (9,149 ft2)Lighting Power Density 15 W/m2 (1.4W/ft2)Incandescent Lamps Rating 100 WCFL Rating 25 WLamps Utilization 6 hours/dayCost of Incandescent Lamp 0.1 KD (USD0.3)Cost of CFL Lamp 2.2 KD (USD6.6)Percentage of Lights on at Peak Hour (3 p.m.) 30%National Installed Capacity (as of 2002) 9189 MW [10]Discount Rate 3.75% [2]CO2 power plant emissions 0.52 kg/kWh [3]

Fig 4. Study assumptions(as shown in Al-Nakib & Al-Ragom)

Evaporative (or passive) coolers are significantly lesseffective in climates with high humidity, as the air hasminimal potential to absorb water vapour. Althoughfans are the cheapest to run and have the leastgreenhouse impact, the most efficient and effectivemethod is the hybrid refrigerated cooling system.Unlike duct and split systems, the hybrid systememploys a variety of cooling options, including air-conditioning and the efficient use of passive andmechanical cooling systems during extreme periods.Additional cooling systems should be considered, suchas wall and ceiling insulation and the use of thermalmass, both of which help to save energy within thebuilding. Examples include insulated concrete forms,used in walls, windows that limit solar heat gain,highly efficient structural insulating panels (SIPs),which form the roof, and also the use of low thermalmass brick veneer acting as weatherboards.

Construction & Environmental Impact

Environmental Conditions

The proposed health facility structure should bereceptive to the rural environment, so that the buildingcan tolerate the remote conditions, for example strongwinds, dust storm and harsh climate. This indicatesthat the design specifications of the building will needto include storm shutters (to exclude debris),emergency generators (in case of power shortage),strong outer walls that consist of “double layer ofcorrugated iron to form a series of air channels thatremove excess heat” (R, Nicholls, 2004) and a mediumto long design life approximately of 50 to 75 years.When selecting an appropriate site for the healthfacility infrastructure the area should be free ofenvironmental impacts such as floods and be easilyaccessible and accepted by the members of thecommunity and staff. (Works Branch: 2004, p15).

Construction Regulations

General design specifications need to be met during theconstruction project. These would include provisionfor ambulatory care, alarms, control rooms, securityrooms and large windows that provide natural lightingand contact with the outside world. Large consultationrooms and accident assessment rooms are anotheraspect of the design decisions that will need to be made.

When construction is in process there is a range ofstandards that need to be followed. Some of the keyregulations include:

• Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995 (which has been updated to the Occupational Health andSafety Regulation of 2001 which incorporates newlegislation such as improved conditions for bothemployees and employers).


21


• Disability Discrimination Act 1992.

• The Building Act 2000.

• Building Code of Australia 1990 (which wasupdated to the Building Code of Australia 2006 and came into effect on 1 July 2006.)

There is a wide range of rating schemes and assessmenttools which measure different aspects of buildingsustainability. The Australian Building GreenhouseRating (ABGR) scheme is appropriate in largercommercial buildings. It awards from one to five stars,based on the building’s 12-month energy data andoperational performance (Reardon et al, nd). The logosfor the more commonly used energy rating systems areshown below.

Fig 5. Energy rating logo(Courtesy www.abgr.com.au)

The Community

Medical Treatment Programs

When introducing a health facility to any remote area, guidelines should not only be developed for theequipment necessary for a health service system, butalso for medical services, working staff andprofessionals, transportation and accessibility systems.(Rhodes 2002, p 77).

In addition to doctor-patient services provided to the remote community, there is a need for medicalequipment that will be used by a remote areapopulation such as in Charleville, Queensland. Oneexample of such equipment need is the provision of a 24-hour facility based haemodialysis unit.Haemodialysis is the process used to treat kidneyfailure with a machine that is connected to a patient’sbloodstream, removing excess substances from theblood. (Miller et al, nd) On several occasions, homebased self-care haemodialysis machines had beeninstalled in patient homes for easy access to treatment.However there were complications owing to the lack ofsupport available from local networks. For this reasona facility based system would be the most effectivesolution.

The figure below displays the necessity ofhaemodialysis treatment for both indigenous and non-indigenous patients in remote locations.

Fig 6. An example of indigenous haemodialysis healthstatistics from NSW


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As presented in the Flying Doctor magazine (Nov 2005,pg. 8) the readily available RFDS medical chests areanother example of crucial medical devices for use inAustralian remote areas. These chests contain over 90items, which provide remote communities withimmediate access to medical treatment items. The RFDShas supplied over 1,300 medical chests in Queenslandalone.

Accessibility

Accessibility is a central issue that links to the ultimatesuccess of a remote health facility. Given the extent of the limited infrastructure provided for these remoteareas there is a crucial need to design and implementthe construction of new roads and the creation ofvariable transport. One such example would be theconstruction of new runways and helipads whereaeroplanes and helicopters can land when transportingvital equipment and patients.

Mechatronics can be used to allow easier access anduse of equipment and also allow for innovations insurgical robotics that will prove to be much smaller insize, easier to use, and will be able to be set up in lesstime.

Telemedicine will enable quality health care to bedelivered more easily to remote areas. It will alsoallow some cost reductions in service provision sincesome of these patients will not require transport toother locations. They will be cared for onsite, and thiswill help to ensure equity of healthcare access amongremote communities.

Telecommunication technology improvements mean that face-to-face meetings with doctors are no longercompletely necessary. Video and audio data frommonitoring devices can be transmitted betweenmultiple locations, allowing a healthcare professionalin a distant location to fulfill their role regardless ofwhere the patient is bring treated.

TransportLack of transport is a key consideration as it decreasesthe effectiveness of healthcare in rural areas. This is a twofold issue when:

1) hospital patients and guests do not have access topublic transport to travel to and from the hospital;and

2) timely and efficient transportation of vital medicalsupplies and equipment is lacking because ofinadequate roads and infrastructure.

Dealing with the transport issue involves thecoordination of Mechatronics and the Royal FlyingDoctor Service. Since the RFDS is already a well-established system, it should be coordinated with anyfuture use of telemedicine. This would increase thestandard of care, improve efficiency and help to reducecosts and time… especially for patients who may ormay not need aerial transport. Telemedicalcommunications can be used to assess a patient, treatthem where appropriate, get further assistance ororganize RFDS transport. The well established RFDSradio communications would also void the need for anew system to be created and further reduce essentialsetup and operational costs.

An indication of the areas where the RFDS is alreadyestablished is shown below.

Fig 7. RFDS Base Locations (Courtesy RFDS)


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Cost Analysis & Stakeholders

Financial Aspects

A major concern in the development of a healthcarefacility is the cost of energy generation and the supplyof medical equipment. For instance, the maintenance ofa Haemodialysis Unit, involves the purchase a separatewater treatment plant for each machine at $70,000.00.However, as the Charleville service did not have thenecessary funds available, it installed a water coolingunit instead at a cost of $20,000.00.

In the field of communications and informationnetwork management, the installation of a remote fibretest system (RFTS) including computers and software, is also costly— reaching a total of $120,000.00 as itrequires continuously funded training. Yet thesetechnologies are critical if remote communities are tobenefit from the electronic data systems available incity hospitals.

Stakeholders

Mahon (2002) states that Cooperation is the key tosuccess amongst contributing groups such as healthagencies, community groups, governments andeducation awareness programs, as for example theRFDS On the Road—Pilbara Partnership Project (BHPBilliton, 2005). This project promotes healthcareactivities to isolated communities of Western Australia,including assistance in basic first aid and life supporttraining (CPR) and emergency evacuation procedures.(BHP Billiton, Oct 2005).

Fig 8. The RFDS aeromedical emergency service in operation (Courtesy www.flyingdoctor.net)

It is vital that both the community and government are involved in all aspects of the design andimplementation of a remote health facility if they hopeto achieve the intended goal of an efficient remotehealth service. When designing a remote facility thereare many things to be considered. Most importantlythe design needs to meet the needs of the communityand incorporate indigenous culture so that keyelements of the culture of the community should beidentified such as history, languages, social and familystructure, gender issues and spirituality. (WorksBranch, 2004, p19)

RecommendationsIt is strongly recommended that the health facilityworks with two organizations that provide crucialtransportation of medical equipment, patients andtrained professionals:

1. The Royal Flying Doctors Service (RFDS).

2. Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS).

Alternative transportation methods could includeschool buses. These buses are an important resourcefor rural communities and they could be put tocommunity use when not required by EducationDepartments (Senate, 1991). Another option is to useold road-trains and minibuses that will transport largeamounts of equipment from regional areas to remoteareas.

The community—with government aid—will need toidentify the problems associated with its current healthand medical care and advise the engineers what isrequired not only to sustain, but improve their currentsituation. As there are many problems faced by ruralcommunities such as accessibility and transport tohealth facilities, engineers need to take theselimitations into consideration when making their plans.

Additionally, HealthConnect is a uniform nationalsystem of electronic health records that beganimplementation in 2004. Implementation has notbegun in all states and territories, but it has begun inthe Northern Territory. Under this system, all health-related information is collected in a standard format,making it relatively easy to search, sort and use. Itwould be ideal for a healthcare facility in a communitysuch as Wadeye, in Western Australia, to help providetimely, safe and quality treatment.


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ConclusionThrough careful analysis of the stated objectives, andresearch into the most appropriate solutions for powergeneration, air conditioning systems, telemedicine,mechatronics engineering, data mining, accessibilityand transport, the team has produced severalrecommendations for the construction and running of a remote health facility. As the community will playa vital role in the construction process it must beconsulted and informed about any design decisions.The associated local government will be expected toexamine the decision making process to ensure that aproposed building will be self sustaining. A successfulconstruction outcome will be dependent on effectivecollaboration by all parties—stakeholders, the ruralcommunity government organizations, designers andengineers.

ReferencesAdams, D., 2005. Health networks build medicalmuscle, Solve, no 2, pp 8-9.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare: AustralianGovernment.www.aihw.gov.au/indigenous/health/access.cfm(accessed 2/4/06).

Al Nakib, D., Al-Ragom, F., 2006. “Retrofittingdomestically used incandescent lamps with compactfluorescent program”. CLEP Building and EnergyTechnologies Department: Kuwait Institute of ScientificResearch.

www.rightlight6.org/.../Session_9/SocioEconomic_Factors_Influencing_Domestic_Utilization/f044al-ragom.doc(accessed 14/5/06).

Alston, M., Allan, J., et al, 2006. Brutal neglect:Australian rural women’s access to health services.http://rrh.deakin.edu.au (accessed 30/3/06).

BHP Billiton, 2005. BHP Billiton CommunityPrograms—Contributing To Sustainable Development:YesterdayTodayTomorrow. October 2005, p 20.Melbourne, Australia.http://www.bhpbilliton.com/bbContentRepository/Reports/ytt_community_report_05.pdf

Bisby, A., 1998. Health care market goes the distance,Computer Dealer News, vol 14, no 29, p 39.

Borle, L.J., Keerthipala, W.W.L., Tay, L.H., 2002.“Performance Analysis of a wind/diesel/battery hybridpower system”,http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~aupec/aupec01/129_TAY_AUPEC01paper%20revised.pdf (accessed 4/4/06).

Doble, C., 1999. A health-e start, MIS, vol 14, no 7, pp 39–43.

Ebert P., Piccinini A., 2002., “Getting plant in theground – what it takes to build a successful windenergy business. Sustainable Energy Branch; WesternPower.www.daws.com.au/PDF/Paper_general_on_WPC_wind_2002.pdf (accessed 4/04/06).

Kofos, D., Pitetti, R., Orr, R., Thompson, A., 1998.Telemedicine in Pediatric Transport: A FeasibilityStudy. American Academy of Pediatrics, vol 102, no 58,pp 1–2.

Harvey, D. J., Williams, R., Hill, K., 2006. A flying start to health promotion in remote north Queensland,Australia: the development of Royal Flying DoctorService field days. Rural and Remote Health 6 (online),pg 485. from: http://rrh.deakin.edu.au (accessed5/4/06).

HealthConnect—DoctorConnect,http://www.health.gov.au/internet/hconnect/publishing.nsf/Content/home. (accessed 16/5/06).

Mahon, C.M., 2002. Planning an electronic patientrecord for a small remote NSW health service, Far WestArea Health Service, Broken Hill. ISBN 0 9585370 9 7

Miller, G. A., et al. WordNet Cognitive ScienceLaboratory; Princeton University. Princeton;NJ,URL:http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=haemodialysis

Nissen, L., 2004. Technology: E-ssential for ruralhealth? Australian Pharmacist, vol 23, no 3, pp 200-202, 204.

Northern Territory Government, NTPFES - POLICE -Wadeye (Port Keats) Police Station, Northern TerritoryGovernment, Leanyer NT, Australia.http://www.nt.gov.au/pfes/police/aboutus/stations/profiles/wadeye.html (accessed 27/3/06)

Paul, D.L., Pearlson, K.E., McDaniel, R.R., 1999.Assessing Technological Barriers to Telemedicine:Technology-Management Implications, IEEETransactions on Engineering Management, Vol 46, No 3, pp 279–287.

Reardon, C., et al., 2004. © Commonwealth of Australia.http://greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/fs30.htm(accessed 3/4/06).

RFDS, 2005. Flying Doctor, The official RFDSQueensland magazine, Nov 2005, Qld, Australia.http://www.flyingdoctor.org.au/Content/Attachment/rfds%20flyingdoc%20NOV.pdf


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Rhodes, A., 1996. Oil Companies Focus On Health CareFor Remote Operations. Oil & Gas Journal—Technology,August 19,1996, (pp 76–80). New Orleans, USA.

Robotics Trends, 2006. Lower Cost, Portable SurgicalRobots Could be Smooth Operators. Massachusetts,USA.http://www.roboticstrends.com/displayarticle770.html(accessed 26/3/06).

Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia, 2006. RoyalFlying Doctor Service of Australia, Royal Flying DoctorService of Australia, http://www.flyingdoctor.net/(accessed 27/3/06).

Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia, 2005. RoyalFlying Doctor Service of Australia Annual Report2005, 2005 Report, Royal Flying Doctor Service ofAustralia.

Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Educationand Training, 1991. Come in Cinderella: the emergenceof adult and community education.http://www.csu.edu.au/research/crsr/ruralsoc/v4n1p15.htm

Queensland Health, The Capital Works Branch, 2004.Guidelines for the planning, design and building ofprimary health care facilities in indigenouscommunities.http://www.health.qld.gov.au/cwamb/indig_guide/1%20guidelines.pdf (accessed 28/3/06).

US Department of Labour: Occupational Safety andHealth Administration (OSHA), 2003. Guidelines fornursing homes: Ergonomics for the prevention ofmusculoskeletal disorders, Occupational Safety andHealth administration,http://www.osha.gov/ergonomics/guidelines/nursinghome/final_nh_guidelines.pdf (accessed 26/03/06).


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A Report on RecommendedDevelopments to Improve Rural Health.

Benjamin West, Shirley Tsang, Loku Premanada, KhawjaMurshed and Haresh Patel

Executive SummaryThe purpose of this report is to present a number ofideas that would assist in the design of an appropriateremote health centre. The authors include conceptsfrom the disciplines of civil, mechanical, mechatronicsand telecommunications engineering. As those fieldsare extremely broad the team has limited discussion to specific issues in each section.

In the mechanical engineering discipline, the need foran efficient air conditioning system in a remote healthcentre is being discussed with particular attention tothe use of computer software to aid in the designprocess. This section also briefly discusses the advancesin portable water purification technology.

The issues and recommendations regarding theprocesses of planning, design and construction arebeing discussed in the civil engineering section. Thecultural, social, environmental and economical issuesof indigenous communities in Australia have beenconsidered and have been incorporated into the designand construction processes. The civil engineeringsection also notes the importance of waste watertreatment in a health facility and recommends a costeffective solution that uses Australian plant species totreat the sewage effluent.

In this report mechatronics focuses on two types oftransportation that could be accessible in a rural area,whereby the whole community would be able to get tothe local medical facility. It also looks at some of themanual handling tasks necessary within such a centre.

Where telecommunications engineering is concerned,the importance of incorporating telemedicine into therural healthcare delivery system is promoted. Moderntelemedicine technology advances have beeninvestigated in order to make specific recommendationsthat could be used to improve remote healthcaresystems in Australia.

IntroductionThe task of making recommendations for a remotehealth facility was looked at from four engineeringperspectives, these being civil, mechanical, mechatronicand telecommunications. A number of ideas weredeveloped and researched within these fields that havethe potential to contribute greatly to the desired goal.A number of limitations placed on the length of thispaper have restricted the research to only a few items.The research and discussion has therefore concentratedupon:

• providing an efficient air-conditioning and freshwater supply;

• planning in accordance with environmental, cultural and safety issues;

• designing in accordance with indigenous culturaland social values;

• using environmentally friendly constructionprocesses;

• generating a recyclable and cost effective wastewater treatment system;

• giving consideration to transportation issues;

• addressing some of the manual handling tasks withinthe facility.

• appreciating the benefits of telemedicine in remoteareas; and

• recommending technologies that enhance the usetelemedicine.

The team believes that the implementation of theseideas can offer a major contribution towards the design of a remote health centre though it must beremembered that these are not the only meansavailable. These recommendations must be consideredas part of a systems wide approach to improving rural health.

Recommended Developments

Mechanical Engineering

The Concepts

Considering the approach adopted by the NorthernTerritory Government within their publication BuildingHealthier Communities, the most significant andbeneficial contribution towards improving rural healthis to provide comprehensive primary heath careservices (Northern Territory Government, 2001). Toachieve an overall higher standard of rural healthservices may be unrealistic in the short term. Thenecessarily high financial outlay may be beyond theshort term spending capabilities of current and future


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governments. However technological advances withinthe mechanical engineering discipline have thepotential to synthesize a variety of improvements tocurrent rural health services. This report briefly outlinesthose technologies in respect of air conditioning designand fresh water supply. In addition it also attempts tohighlight their significance in the design of a remotehealth centre.

The Analysis

Air Conditioning System Design

Efficient air conditioning is a vital aspect in the designof a remote health centre. Air conditioning systemswere originally designed to improve comfort butinefficient air conditioning systems are known toreduce patient health and increase power consumption,neither of which would be desirable outcomes for aremote health centre. (Ritter, 1998)

Computational Fluid Dynamics software (CFD) can be used to optimize the design of an air conditioningsystem and therefore save time and money while at the same time reducing electricity consumption. Postsprocessing of CFD simulations allow engineers tocompare and contrast different designs to ensure thecorrect air conditioning system will be implemented in a particular environment.

A remote health centre places considerable limitationson the design of an air conditioning system. Its veryremoteness affects the serviceability of any airconditioning system. Thus the life expectancy of thesystem components is of great significance.Furthermore if the health centre happens to be isolatedfrom a mains power grid, the amount of electricityconsumed by the health centre must be constantlymonitored. CFD software is more than capable ofaccurately measuring life expectancy of airconditioning fans, refrigerants, ducting as well asmany other components.

Fresh Water Supply

A supply of fresh water is also of vital importance to a rural health centre. Its absence has the potential tocripple a health centre. This highlights the need to havea constant and consistent supply of fresh water.Expeditionary Unit Water Purification (EUWP) is anevolution of existing water purification techniques,which aims to deliver a constant supply of purifiedwater in a range of undesirable environments (Stocks2006). The system works by using reverse osmosis tofilter water and can deliver a maximum of more than350,000 litres of freshwater when converted fromseawater.

Primarily used in natural disaster zones, thistechnology is suitable for a remote health centrebecause it would alleviate the centre’s dependence on the communal water supply as well as offering amore continuous supply of water. In addition, thesustainability of this technology—with its lack ofserviceability need—make it an ideal choice forimplementation in some remote areas.

Civil Engineering

The Concepts

There are many challenges that must be addressed by civil engineers—to resolve local government andprivate organization requirements—during theestablishment of primary healthcare facilities whichvalue the cultural, social and economic values ofindigenous communities in Australia. Major challengesare encountered in the processes of planning, designingand building a healthcare centre in a remote area.There is also the need for development of services suchas waste water treatment and waste management asthese issues have posed major health issues within theindigenous communities in Australia (QueenslandHealth, 2004, p.13). Therefore it is essential that civilengineers incorporate their wide skills and knowledgein the process of developing an effective healthcareservice system in the Northern Territory of Australia.

The Analysis

Planning Process

The planning and design process of a rural healthcarefacility is dominated by cultural, environmental, legaland safety issues (Queensland Health, 2004, p.19).Health issues in indigenous communities are closelylinked with their respective cultures. Thereforecommunity respect for any health facility is essentialand could be gained by the incorporation of culturalelements such as history, language and spirituality inthe design process (Queensland Health, 2004, p.19).

The location of the facility is very important as it will decide the effectiveness of the healthcare centre.The protection from environmental hazards and theaccessibility for workers and community are keyelements that need to be considered during theselection of the construction site. Proper accessibilityfor the disabled will be provided as required by theDisability Discrimination Act 1992 (Queensland Health,2004, p 24). In the design of a remote health facility,it is important to consider the climate zone of thebuilding area, as different climate zones in theNorthern Territory have their own shading patterns.The shading patterns of the building area are vital


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during the selection of the floor material as it affectsthe thermal comfort of the facility. Concrete floors are very good to store heat in the winter and could be incorporated during the design of the floor area(Environmental Health Standards, 2001, p34).

Structural Design

Research shows that concrete aggregates sourced from the Northern Territory have resulted in reducingthe strength of the concrete (Environmental HealthStandards, 2001, p27). Therefore it is important to usegood crushed rocks as concrete aggregates for concretefootings, beams, columns and slabs as it willstrengthen the floors and walls of the facility.

The corrosion of steel framing is also a key issue thatneeds to be considered during the design process. Thehigh contents of coastal salt and moisture have becomethe primary sources of causing corrosion in theNorthern Territory (Environmental Health Standards,2001, p39). It is important to prevent the corrosion ofsteel frames as it reduces the strength and design lifeof the facility. The Northern Territory Department ofHealth indicates that the thickening of steel will reducethe rate of corrosion in steel frames. It also indicatesthat a greater steel thickness in corrosive environmentscan be economically achieved by resizing thin walledsections to smaller and thicker sections. The use ofreinforced concrete will also enable the steel to beprotected from corrosion (Environmental HealthStandards, June 2001, p8).

In choice of using glasses, normal glass is notappropriate for an indigenous community as it breakseasily. Installation of laminated or toughened glass willensure the security and safety of the health facility. Thesmoke alarm system as well as the ventilation systemshould meet the Australian government regulations.The standard rule is to fit the alarm system with abackup battery or connect it to the main power system.Where ventilation is considered it is important providepermanent ventilation for bathrooms, laundries andtoilet areas (Environmental Health Standards, June2001, p31).

Construction Process

The construction process is the most noticeable aspectof the three processes of planning, designing andbuilding a primary health care facility as it has a direct impact on the environment as well as the localcommunity. From the beginning of the constructionprocess health and safety standards should beestablished to ensure the wellbeing of the contractors,community and staff (Queensland Health, 2004, p29).

The Capital Works Branch of Queensland Healthindicates that the environmental impacts of theconstruction process should be minimised at all times as environmental pollution could cause theimplementation of major health issues within the localcommunity. It is important that trees and shrubs on theconstruction site are not being damaged—except thoseidentified and agreed to in the design process(Queensland Health.2004, p32).

Compliance with the Indigenous Employment Policywill enable the construction process to gain maximumuse of local materials, skills and labour. It will also bea great opportunity to help solve employment problemsin the Northern Territory where more than 75% of thecommunity is unemployed (Department ofHealth–Northern Territory, 2001, p10). The IndigenousEmployment Policy indicates that more than 20% ofon-site construction labour should be hired from thelocal community (Queensland Health.2004, p33).Provision of formal training (apprenticeship ortraineeship) for the local community labour force will enable these indigenous communities to gainemployment in the construction industry after theconstruction of the healthcare facility is completed.

Waste Water Treatment

Waste water from a health care establishment is similarto urban waste water but it also contains high contentsof microbiological pathogens and chemicals. Exposureto poorly treated waste water can cause major healthissues such as outbreaks of diarrhoea and cholerawithin the community (Department of Health-NorthernTerritory, 2001, p20). Therefore it is important that thehealthcare centre contains an effective sewerage andwaste water treatment facility that will reduce thechemical and pathogen content of the effluent.

The waste water effluent in the Northern Territorycontains high nutrient loadings and could only betreated with advanced waste water treatmenttechnologies (Ash & Armstrong, 2004, p1). It is obviousthat the incorporation of advanced technologies forwaste water treatment would not be suitable for aremote healthcare facility as they are unlikely to offeran economic benefit to the community. After manyyears of research, engineers in the Esk Shire council in South Eastern Queensland developed anenvironmentally friendly recyclable waste watertreatment technology that uses Vetiver grass. Vetivergrass—compared to other plant species in Australia—hasa high capacity of absorbing nitrogen and phosphorusloads and could be tolerant to elevated levels ofchemicals and heavy metals as shown in Figures 1 &2 below.


29


Under the Vetiver grass Wetlands System the effluenttreatment is being carried out by Vetiver grasspontoons that float on the sewage ponds, as well as by a Vetiver grass wetland. When the roots of Vetivergrass come in contact with the waste water, theyremove the nutrient and chemical loadings of theeffluent (Ash & Armstrong, 2004, p8). The benefits thatcould be gained by the installation of the Vetiver grasswaste water system will be less costly, and provideminimum environmental pollution as well as allowingthe treated effluent to be used as material for organicfarming (Ash & Armstrong, 2004, p.10).

Mechatronic Engineering

The Concepts

Transportation plays a major part in improving thechallenges that exist in any rural area. Withouttransport people cannot access critical services, sobetter travel provision will improve access to healthservices, and will encourage a better quality of healthcare.

Fig 1. The Phosphorus Uptake by Vetivergrass compared to other plant species.(Ash & Armstrong, 2004, p3).

Fig 2. The Nitrogen Uptake by Vetivergrass compared to other plant species.(Ash & Armstrong, 2004, p3)

The Analysis

Transit System

The article American Indian Transportation: Issues and Successful Models, (RTAP, no date) explains howpeople seeking medical services are relying on theirneighbours or relatives when they cannot travel thedistance without help. The article also reports thesuccessful development of a transportation system inArizona, New Mexico. This Navajo Transit system(NTS) includes an office and a maintenance facility for 12 vehicles used in operating a fixed-route system.Communities in remote Australian rural areas couldalso implement this system to allow neighbourhoodaccess to the nearest medical services. This would also enhance a sense of community and build socialconnections. Since the NTS System covers 26,000square miles and contains about 170,000 members; asmaller transit system could be implemented accordingto the size of the area and the number of people in thecommunity.

Aeromedical Transport

Another article, Safety of helicopter aeromedicaltransport in Australia: a retrospective study,demonstrates that this resource can play a primarytransport role for trauma patients (Holland andCooksley, 2005, pages 12-13). The article shows that it gives trauma patients in rural areas the benefit ofgetting to hospital without the need for a difficult


Phosphorus Uptake

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Nitrogen Uptake

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overland journey to get medical help. The downside to this system is the limited number of helicopters thatare available and each helicopter can only carry onepatient at a time. This would inconvenience familymembers who want to travel to the hospital with thepatient. Also, where a patient’s condition may preventtheir access to a helicopter, it may be possible toarrange for the patient to be placed on a stretcher on a commercial airline. Furthermore, there are highmaintenance costs in running this type of system inrural areas. A combination of the two transportservices—transit and aeromedical—could offer the rural areas a better medical service which is morecomparable to urban areas.

Manual Handing

The process of caring for patients in a healthcarefacility will inevitably involve various manualhandling tasks. Manual handing is used to describe a number of movements such as lifting, pushing andpulling, and these activities require some degree offorce. The team found an article which states thatnursing personnel are listed as one of the top tenoccupations for work-related injuries, with 8.8% ofincidents occurring in hospitals and 13.5% in nursinghomes (Baptiste 2004).

Engineered patient handling equipment and devicessuch as ceiling mounted lifts have decreased the risk of injury to caregivers. Ceiling mounted lifts provide asuspended sling which is attached to an overhead trackand this allows the patient to perform activities withinthe coverage of the track, as shown below. Ceiling liftsreduce caregivers’ injuries as they require less time totransfer the patients and also generate less stress onthe lower back.

Fig 3. A ceiling mounted patient lifting sling(Courtesy Liko Overhead Lifts with Carewww.liko.com/int/overheadlifts.asp)

Telecommunications Engineering

The Concepts

Access to healthcare services in the Northern Territoryis affected by a number of factors including theproximity of the service, availability of transport,affordability and availability of culturally appropriateservices, and the involvement of indigenouscommunities in the delivery of healthcare services.Currently most of these primary healthcare services arebeing delivered by members of a local communityassociated with the Aboriginal Health Workers (AHW)and the Remote Area Nurses (RAN) networks. Researchshows that the most noticeable health aspect in theseremote areas is the lack of resident doctors. Thismeans that these communities lack the opportunity fortreatment by a professionally qualified medicalpractitioner. As a result, in order to deliver efficienthealthcare services, it will be vital to incorporatetelemedicine as a means of healthcare delivery.

The Analysis

Telemedicine & Data Transmission

Telemedicine is a system of health care delivery inwhich physicians examine distant patients through theuse of telecommunications technology. As shown inthe chart in Figure 4 below, various medical documentsare converted into digital formats with the help ofscanners and transmitted to the earth station with thehelp of a modem. A sattelite stationed in outer spacealso helps the earth station to receive messages fromthe transmitters in remote areas. From the earth stationthe data is sent to the computer network of otherhospitals through a modem and a digital microwavetransmission (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005).

The flying doctor represents a medical service operatedby the Aerial Medical Services and the Royal FlyingDoctor Service to provide emergency medical servicessuch as the either-way transportation of patients,doctors and medical equipment and supplies. Eventhough these aerial services provide the means oftransport for rural patients they do not contain anyfacility to identify the patients condition before he iscollected for transmission to a hospital. For example a patient suffering from a chest pain might be movedurgently to a hospital because of a suspected heartattack … and on arrival be found to be suffering onlyfrom severe acidity. When considering these facts,TeleMedic Systems, a company established in theUnited Kingdom, developed a cost effective and apractical telemedicine solution for rural healthcare. Ithas named this innovative technology VitalLink 1200.A design that could also be used by non-medicallytrained personnel, VitalLink 1200 allows measurements


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of the patient's vital signs that can help to identify the patient’s condition. This information can then be transmitted to a doctor stationed in one of theInternational SOS's worldwide 25 alarm centres (Jessel & Kessel, 2002).

Fig 4. Telemedicine and Data Transmission Components(Courtesy of TeleMedicSystems Ltd)

Developments in Australia

A number of initiatives in the Australian health sectorthat involve combinations of telemedicine andinformation technology have been identified. The ruralcommunities in the Northern Territory are given theopportunity to access the qualified cardiology medicalofficials of the National Heart Foundation in Adelaidevia satellite mobile phones. At present, rural Victoriannurses can make house calls with the help of laptopcomputers that can be connected to databases atheadquarters via a mobile phone.

There are some additional challenges imposed on thedelivery of telemedicine services in Australia (NorthernTerritory Government, 2001). Some of these concernsrelate to:

• privacy of health data;

• inter-connectivity between different technologies;

• need for technical standards; and

• low level knowledge about information technologiesin indigenous communities.

RecommendationsOn the basis of its research, the team recommends thatthe following environmental and safety issues must beconsidered when planning a remote rural area healthfacility:

• concrete flooring to give maximum thermal comfortand a strong foundation;

• steel framing wherever necessary to combat thecorrosion factor;

• maximum use of local resources during construction;

• Vetiver grass for waste water treatment;

• use of VitalLink 1200 for telemedicine purposes;

• use of an aeromedical helicopter and transit system;

• use of appropriate manual handling equipment;

• use of Computational Fluid Dynamics software toassist in the design of an energy efficient airconditioning system; and

• use of the Expeditionary Unit Water Purification(EUWP) technique to deliver a constant supply ofpurified water to the facility.


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Conclusion

The team of students from civil, mechanical,telecommunication and mechatronics engineeringdisciplines have analysed different aspects of a remotearea healthcare facility and offered guidelines that willrespect the social, economic and cultural values of anindigenous community. Consultation with the localcommunity during the healthcare establishment is vitalin order to construct a socially acceptable healthcarefacility in a well designed and culturally appropriatemanner. Innovative ideas in sustainable developmentand energy consumption have become key elements indesigning and implementing an efficient healthcaresystem. The team has identified that as well as givingattention to community involvement there also must be a working collaboration between all engineeringdisciplines. Given this cooperation it should be possibleto establish primary healthcare facilities that willsupport the effective and efficient delivery of healthservices to indigenous Australian communities.

References

Adams, D. 2005, Health Networks Build MedicalMuscle, Health Magazine, February 14, p52.

Akay, M., Marsh A. 2001, Telemedicine and Telesurgeryin Information Technologies in Medicine Rehabilitationand Treatment, Volume II, Wiley.

Ash, P. & Armstrong, P. 2004, The use of vetiver grasssystems for sewerage treatment in rural Australia, EskShire Council, Brisbane.http//www.vetiver.com/ICV3Proceedings/AUS_sewage.pdf (Accessed 30/03/06).

Australian Government, National Health and MedicalResearch Council, 1996, Promoting the Health ofIndigenous Australians, Australian GovernmentPublishing Service, Canberra, Publication Approvalnumber 2091 (RESCINDED).

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Mitchell, J. 2000, The cost effectiveness of telemedicineenhanced by embracing e-health, John Mitchell &Associates, Sydney, Australia.

Morris, L., Barer G L. & Stoddart, 1999, ImprovingAccess to Needed Medical Services In Rural and RemoteCanadian Communities: Recruitment and RetentionRevisited, Centre for Health Services and PolicyResearch, The University of British Columbia, Canada.

Nelson, A., N. & Baptiste, A.S. 2004, Evidence-Basedpractices for safe patient handling and movement,Online Journal of Issues Nursing, September 30, 2004.

Nicholls, R. 2004, Gaviotas—‘Reinventing the World’ inColombia, Urban Ecology, Adelaide, Australiahttp://www.urbanecology.org.au/articles/gaviotas.html(Accessed 29/03/06).

Northern Territory Government, 2001 EnvironmentalHealth Standards, Department of Health andCommunity Services, Brisbane, Australia.http://www.nt.gov.au/health/publications.shtml(Accessed 29/03/06).

Northern Territory Government, 2001, BuildingHealthier Communities Department of Health andCommunity Services, Brisbane, Australiahttp://www.nt.gov.au/health/publications.shtml(Accessed 29/03/06)

Northern Territory Government, Department of Healthand Community Services, Building HealthierCommunities, June 2001.


33


Ritter, T. 1998, Radiant Heat: A Market Just Waiting tobe Milked, Air Conditioning Heating & RefrigerationNews, 00022276, 08/31/98, Vol. 204, Issue 18.

RTAP National Transit Resource Centre TechnicalAssistance Brief Number 14 Shawn K., no date,American Indian Transportation: Issues and SuccessfulModels, CTAA, Washington DC, USA.

Stocks, A. 2006 Expeditionary Unit Water Program,Marine Corps Gazette, January 2006, Volume 90, Issue 1.

Taft, B. Keilmeyer, 2002, Ergonomics Best Practices for Public Employers.https://www.ohiobwc.com/downloads/brochureware/publications/ExtCareSafeGrant.pdf (Accessed 01/04/06).

The Works Branch-Queensland Health, 2004 Guidelinesfor the Planning, Design and Building of PrimaryHealthcare Facilities in Indigenous Communities,Queensland Government, Brisbanehttp://www.health.qld.gov.au/cwamb/indig_guide/1%20Guidelines.pdf (Accessed 01/04/06).


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Ergonomics Crossword

Wedgetail


1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8

9 10 11 12 13

14 15

16

17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24

25 26 27

28 29 30

31 32

33

34 35 36 37

38 39 40

41 42 43 44 45 46

47 48

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Clues Across1 What we all work for - used to be 28-down (8)5 Burn a candle? Too many of these per square meter causes too much 3-down on 16-across (7)9 Reverse this and you’ll find it in 16-across (3)10 Properly acclimatised Bob, at first, was certified by it (1,1,1)13 I want a good one for my money (3)14 Drove one of these and died in the war (3)15 Sounds like footwear for the Viking plod helps assess psychosocial hazards (6)16 See… it sounds like assent (3)17 If 35-cross gets too high this is what happens to your hearing (4)20 Modus operandi is also a member of 46-down (1,1)21 Californian soap loves dirt (1,1)25, 2-down. A London street, a Greek letter and an Indian dish ‘wrote the book’ on physical work (7, 6)27 Sounds like taking down the notice but it’s the stage where we all want input (6)29 Crazy Andy and the little microphones studied 36-down, 4-down etc (8)31 The fish at Liberty makes very useful tables (5)32 Almost ends the prayer, half of what 27-across is about (3)33 Sounds like something for the bowler, helps avoid 24-down when making conclusions (5)35 ‘Reliable - coercion - a type of pegging’ abbreviate the similes; an example of 23-down (1,1,1)37 Slight change helps me see (6)38 This boss can be fatal (1,1)39 Photographic soap? (3)41 Quincy (1,1)42, 22-down. Peter Pan’s cobber at the Scottish restaurant does ergonomics down South (5, 9)45 Sounds like a little bird wrote it but it helps 1-across (1,1,1)47 Uncouple open train; the older you get the further it is ! (4, 5)48 The Sri-Lankan rebel got confused and studied work in the US (5)

Clues Down1 Masticate ‘crook chewis’ that impede 1-across and increase 3-down (11)2 See 25-across3 First south and a plait of girl’s hair; can cause premature baldness?! (6)4 Jedi coercion ? (5)5 London lane from NY currently in Oz (5)7 A jog? 1st name of a US colleague (4)8 An Macintosh mixed with a dark Freudian drive? ‘If ergonomics is not this it is nothing!’ (7)11 …if ! (2)12 Captain Picard’s nemesis tells him how hard he’s working (4)18 …or over seas, at first they sometimes called it ‘kangaroo paw’ (1,1,1)20 UK football club on a temporary shelter, give or take an electron, safely moved the French patient ? (11)22 see 42-across23 Ed went back and published a tract that brought the logarithmic scale into disrepute ! (7)24 Bowlers can’t do without it, researchers hate it (4)26 Nervous mannerism and a special breakfast cereal for women? Correct !28 Sounds like a bit of this is nice when you’re peckish, although some believe it was a pity that DEWR

gobbled it all up! (1,1,1,1,1)30 Haven’t seen this before, let’s print it! (5)34 Sounds like the blokes in the dunny, comes from 37-across (5)36 Probationery debtor ? He went off and it went dark (5)40 Mixed up girl says this is what you do with a good tool ! (3)43 Gas lost direction joined some tories and invaded Iraq (3)44 I’ve a hankering for some XXXX (3)45 Just say in the beginning that 7-down worked on its development (1,1,1)46 Aussie physicians found hiding in the Middle Eastern terrorist group ! (1,1,1)

Ed: This is a new item that is intended to become a regular feature in forthcoming editions, thanks to one of our colleagues … Wedgetgail.

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1. WEAR Conference in Adelaide 6 February 2007

Dear Colleagues

Please find attached Advance Notice for the WEARConference to be held in Adelaide on 6 Feb 2007.

The WEAR Conference will be held in conjunction with a meeting of the WEAR group in Adelaide andwill give you access to the most significant group ofinternational anthropometrists in the world.

WEAR stands for “World Engineering AnthropometryResource”. WEAR is a non-profit organisation basedin France that is committed to the development of acollaboration of anthropometric databases. It iscurrently being considered as a Technical Committee of the IEA. Anthropometric data, the measure of humanbody size and shape, are collected and used by alltypes of organisations for many types of applications.These include universities, hospitals, health statisticsdepartments, militaries, apparel companies, furnituremanufacturers, automobile manufacturers, safetyequipment companies, aerospace companies, and manymore. Collecting such data can be expensive yetsharing of data is generally done sparingly, informally,and haphazardly. WEAR is an effort to develop aresource for sharing anthropometric data effectively in order to make needed information readily available,quickly, and accurately, while at the same timeminimizing cost. The resource can only be realized asa joint international effort. Forming a consortium ofgovernment and industry allows the different groups to have a voice in the planning. It also permits a largerscoped project by enabling the sharing of both costsand benefits. In this manner the widest variety ofapplications for the resource will be served. Individualcompanies can get a large amount of information for a small amount of investment by leveraging theinvestment of the government and the other companiesinvolved.

The WEAR Conference is your opportunity to meet theinternational members of WEAR (about 10 are expectedto be present), hear what WEAR is, what it does andwhat it can offer, learn how to become a partnerand/or contributor to WEAR. International WEARmembers will speak about the work they are doing andthere will be hands-on workshops that will give youthe opportunity to experience the databases and toolsthat are currently available.

People who use anthropometric databases, or need to use analyses of such databases, or who developdatabases in their work are most likely to be keen to attend this conference. (for example: ergonomists,designers and manufacturers of apparel, motorvehicles, defence systems and equipment, buildings andspaces, furniture etc... Including, industrial designers,automotive engineers, architects, interior designers,furniture designers and manufacturers...)

Attendees will be limited to enable participants to have good access to the presenters.

If you are interested, please register your interest with the Conference Organiser: Rob Bulfield<[email protected]>. This way you will be kept up to date with the development of the conference andyou will be sent the registration form when it firstbecomes available.

RegardsVerna Blewett

Noticeboard


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200620–22 November 2006 — 42nd Annual Conference of the HFSEAUniversity of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia.

New Technology: Putting Macro and Micro in Context

Contact: Judy Potter/Robyn BroughtonHFESA 2006 Conference SecretariatEmail: [email protected] Box 5009 Nowra DC NSW 2541Tel: +612 4422 2214 Fax: +612 4422 3878http://www.ergonomics.org.au

20–24 November 2006 — OZCHI 2006University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Design: activities, artefacts and environments.

Contact: Robyn BroughtonOZCHI Secretariat PO Box 5009 NOWRA DC NSW 2541T: 02 4422 2212 F: 02 4422 3878 E: [email protected]

2–6 December 2006 — AIOH 24th AnnualConferenceAustralian Institute of Occupational Hygienists Inc.Surfers Paradise Marriott Resort, Gold Coast,Queensland

Waves of Change

For more information please visit the conferencewebsite at:http://www.aioh.org.au/conference/2006/default.htm orcontact the institute directly at the following address:AIOH AdministrationPO Box 1202 Tullamarine Victoria Australia 3043T: +612 9335 2577F: +613 9335 3454E: [email protected]

200731st January – 3rd February, 20078th Motor Control And Human Skill ConferenceEsplanade Hotel, Fremantle, Western Australia

This next conference is being held in association withthe 7th International Developmental CoordinationDisorder (DCD) Conference which is to be held in theweek after the Motor Control Conference, from the 6thto the 9th February in Melbourne: The website for theDCD conference is:

http://www.courses.as.rmit.edu.au/psychology/dcd/welcome.htm

For further information please contact: [email protected]

Professor Jan Piek Dr Natalie Gasson Conference Convener Conference Co-Convener +618 9266 7990 +618 9266 4308

6 February 2007 — WEAR ConferenceAdelaide, South AustraliaConference Organiser: Rob Bulfield <[email protected]>

21–24 May 2007 — WWCS2007Work With Computing Systems (WWCS)Stockholm, Sweden

Main theme: Computing systems for human benefits.

The conference will deal with human aspects ofhardware and software, with work organization and the labour market. The conference is open both forresearchers and practitioners. The conference isendorsed by IEA. www.wwcs2007.se

Contact:Christina JonssonPresident of the Ergonomics Society of Sweden (ESS)Stockholm, SwedenInternet: www.wwcs2007.se

11–14 November 2007— IGS 2007 ConferenceMelbourne, Australia

Australia will be hosting the InternationalGraphonomics Society Conference devoted to thescientific acquisition and analysis of handwriting.Handwriting emerges from fine motor control, and itaffords insights into clinical status (e.g. Mini MentalStatus Examination), and has legal status (e.g.signatures), and is finding its way into newer computerinterfaces.

Contact:Dr. Jim PhillipsOrganiser, IGS2007 [email protected] further details seehttp://www.neuroscript.net/igs2007/

Conference Calendar


38


Articles published in Ergonomics Australiaare subject to peer review.

EditorDr Shirleyann M GibbsGibbs + Associates Pty Ltd25 Melaleuca Drive St Ives NSW 2075 AustraliaTel: +612 9983 9855 Fax: +612 9402 5295E-mail: [email protected]

The deadline for issues in 2006/7:March edition February 1June edition May 1September edition August 1December edition November 1

ContributionsAny inquiries about contributions should be directed in the first instance to the Editor.

InquiriesAll advertising inquiries should be directed to theNational Secretariat of the Society.

ContactThe Human Factors and Ergonomics Society ofAustralia IncPO Box 7848 Balkham Hills BC NSW 2153Tel: +612 9680 9026 Fax: +612 9680 9027Email: secretariat@ ergonomics.org.au

SizeThe finished page size of the Newsletter is A4 (210mm x 297mm)

Printed column sizes are 165mm x 225mm (double) or 80mm x 225mm (single)

Advertising CopyMust be camera ready and must arrive at the HFESAFederal Office by the Copy Deadline Submission Datefor the Edition in question.

A professional advertising service is available forproducing camera ready copy if required. For furtherinquiries regarding this service contact:

Mr Goro Jankulovski, Acute Concepts Pty LtdTel: 03 9381 9696Mobile: 0414 605 414 E-mail: [email protected]

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Enclosures should be pre-folded to fit inside thefinished Journal.

Information for Contributors

Information for Advertisers


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Rates for enclosuresEnclosure not requiring folding $ 412.50Enclosure requiring folding $ 462.00

These rates may increase if the enclosure weighs morethan the equivalent of 2 standard weight A4 pages.These rates are inclusive of GST

640 copies should be sent to arrive at the ESA FederalOffice by the Copy Deadline Submission Date for theEdition in question.

Address for mailing Advertising copy and/or enclosuresNational Secretariat The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society of Australia Inc.PO Box 7848 Balkham Hills BC NSW 2153

Advertising copy and enclosure submission deadlinesfor 2006/7 are the same as for Contributions — 1st ofmonth prior to publication

Edition Submission Deadline

March February 1June May 1September August 1December November 1

CirculationThe Journal is published four times a year and isreceived by approximately 620 professional’s Australiawide working in the areas of ergonomics, occupationalhealth and safety, and design.

Ergonomics Australia On-Line (EAOL)Advertising and sponsorship opportunities also exist inthe electronic version of this journal (EAOL) which ismanaged by Dr Robin Burgess-Limerick at Departmentof Human Movement at Queensland University. It isdownloaded by more than 100 Australian andInternational readers each week.

To view EAOL: http://www.uq.edu.au or enter via the HFESA website.


CaveatsThe views expressed in the Journal are those of theindividual authors and contributors and are notnecessarily those of the Society.

The HFESA Inc reserves the right to refuse anyadvertising inconsistent with the Aims and Objectivesof the Society and Journal Editorial Policy.

The appearance of an advertisement in the Journaldoes not imply endorsement by the Society of theproduct and or service advertised.

The Society takes no responsibility for products orservices advertised therein.

EditorShirleyann M Gibbs PhDE-mail: [email protected]

40



Notes

ergonomics australiaergonomics.uq.edu.au/eaol/sep06.pdf · 2006-10-20 · human factors and...

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