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Equilibres électrochimiques Equation de Nernst Piles et accumulateurs Spéciation - Diagramme de Pourbaix Transfert d’ions Echangeurs d’ions 1

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Page 1: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equilibres électrochimiques

• Equation de Nernst

• Piles et accumulateurs

• Spéciation - Diagramme de Pourbaix

• Transfert d’ions

• Echangeurs d’ions

1

Page 2: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Objectifs d’Apprentissage Applications analytiques

Potentiométrie - Titrage rédox

pH - Electrode à pH - ISE

Introduction à la spéciation Diagramme de Pourbaix

2

Page 3: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equilibre chimique

A + B C

Ke =

aCaAaB

= exp−ΔGo /RT

La constante d’équilibre ne dépend que de la température

A l’équilibre ΔG = µC − (µB + µA) = 0

3

Page 4: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Réaction Rédox

oxS + ne–M redS

Ox

Red

ne–

SolutionElectrode

Δ !G = !µred

S − ( !µoxS + n !µe−

M ) = 0

Energie de Gibbs électrochimique de la réaction

φM φS

4

Page 5: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Réaction rédox

En développant

µred

o ,S + RT lnaredS + zredFφ

S⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ − µoxo ,S + RT lnaox

S + zoxFφS⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ − n µe−

M − FφM⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ = 0

n = zox − zredNombre d’électrons échangés

5

Tension de Galvani et Energie de Gibbs chimique

nF φM −φS( ) = µoxo ,S − µred

o ,S + nµe−M⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ + RT ln aox

S

aredS

⎝⎜⎞

⎠⎟

= − ΔG o + RT ln aoxS

aredS

⎝⎜⎞

⎠⎟= − ΔG

Page 6: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Réaction rédox

Ke =

aredS

aoxS = exp−ΔG

o /RT exp−nF(φM −φS )/RT

La constante d’équilibre dépend aussi de la différence de potentiel interne entre les phases

L’électrochimiste contrôle la destinée des réactions rédox en contrôlant la tension entre les phases

6

Page 7: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equation de Nernst

• Approche empirique

• Approche thermodynamique

• Approche potentiel électrochimique

• Approche statistique de Fermi-Dirac

• Potentiel rédox absolu

7

Page 8: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Walther Hermann Nernst

Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He spent his early school years at Graudentz, and subsequently went to the Universities of Zurich, Berlin and Graz (Ludwig Boltzmann and Albert von Ettinghausen), studying physics and mathematics, before proceeding to Wurzburg (Friedrich Kohlrausch), where he graduated in 1887 with a thesis on electromotive forces produced by magnetism in heated metal plates. He joined Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig University, where van 't Hoff and Arrhenius were already established, and it was in this distinguished company of physical chemists that Nernst began his important researches.

In 1894 he received invitations to the Physics Chairs in Munich and in Berlin, as well as to the Physical Chemistry Chair in Göttingen. He accepted this latter invitation, and in Göttingen founded the Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry and became its Director. In 1905 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry, later of Physics, in the University of Berlin, becoming Director of the newly-founded "Physikalisch-Chemisches Institut" in 1924. He remained in this position until his retirement in 1933.

8

Page 9: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equation de Nernst

ESHE

Electrodede travail

Electrode de platine

H2

Acide ≈ 1M SolutionOx

Red

Pont salin

Voltmètre à haute impédance d’entrée

ESHE = Eox/red

o⎡⎣

⎤⎦SHE

+ RTnFln aox

S

aredS

⎝⎜⎜

⎠⎟⎟

9

Page 10: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Potentiel rédox formel

ESHE = Eox/red

o⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥SHE

+RTnFln aox

S

aredS

⎝⎜⎜⎜⎜

⎠⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟

Potentiel rédox standard

Eox/red

o /⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥SHE

= Eox/redo⎡

⎣⎢⎤⎦⎥SHE

+RTnFln γ ox

γ red

⎝⎜⎜⎜⎜

⎠⎟⎟⎟⎟

Potentiel rédox formel (standard apparent)

ESHE = Eox/red

o /⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥SHE

+RTnFln cox

cred

⎝⎜⎜⎜⎜

⎠⎟⎟⎟⎟

Equation de Nernst

10

Page 11: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Exercice

Ecrire l’équation de Nernst si la réaction rédox est un équilibre entre une électrode en cuivre et une solution de sulfate de cuivre

11

Page 12: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Electrode à hydrogène

12

https://www.cci.ethz.ch/mainpic.html?expnum=123&ismovie=1&picnum=-1&control=0&language=1&exchap=11+-1&exlist=-1

Page 13: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Exercice

Sachant que ECu2+ /Cu

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦SHE= 0.340 V

quelle valeur devrait-on mesurer pour une solution de 1M?

Sachant que

quelle valeur devrait-on mesurer pour une solution de 1M? EZn2+ /Zn

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦SHE= − 0.763 V

13

Page 14: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Echelle des potentiels rédox standard

Zéro relatif = Potentiel de réduction du proton aqueux

Potentiel standard negatif : Espèce réduite est un réducteur

ELi+ /Li

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦SHE = − 3.045 V

EH+ / 12H2

o⎡

⎣⎢⎢

⎦⎥⎥SHE

= 0 V

Potentiel standard positif : Espèce oxydée est un oxydant

EMnO4

− ,Mn2+o⎡

⎣⎢⎤⎦⎥SHE

= 1.51 V

14

Page 15: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equation de Nernst

• Approche empirique

• Approche thermodynamique

• Approche potentiel électrochimique

• Approche statistique de Fermi-Dirac

• Potentiel rédox absolu

15

Page 16: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Approche thermodynamique

oxS + ne–M redSElectrode de travail

Electrode de référence n2 H2 nH+ + ne–Pt

oxS + n2 H2“Réaction virtuelle” nH+ + redS

Cette réaction n’est pas à l’équilibre car le passage des électrons est interdit

ΔGr = ΔGro + RTln

aredS aH+

S( )n p o( )n/2

aoxS fH2

n/2

⎢⎢⎢⎢

⎥⎥⎥⎥

16

ESHE

Electrodede travail

Electrode de platine

H2

Acide ≈ 1M SolutionOx

Red

Pont salin

Page 17: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Approche thermodynamique

Potentiel d’électrode = – Energie de Gibbs de la réductionpar l’hydrogène / nF

ESHE = −ΔGrnF

= −ΔGr

o

nF+

RTnF

lnaox

S fH2n /2

aredS aH+

S( )n p o( )n /2

⎢⎢⎢⎢

⎥⎥⎥⎥

= Eox/redo⎡

⎣⎢⎤⎦⎥SHE

+RTnF

ln aoxS

aredS

⎝⎜⎜⎜⎜

⎠⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟

Potentiel rédox standard

Eox/red

o⎡⎣

⎤⎦SHE

= − ΔGro / nF = µox

o ,S −µredo ,S − n µ

H+o ,S + n

2µH2

o⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥/ nF

Approche thermodynamique

Eox/red

o!"

#$SHE

= % &Gro / nF = µox

o ,S % µredo ,S % n µ

H+o ,S +

n2µH2

o!

"'#

$(/ nF

Potentiel rédox standard

Potentiel d’électrode = – Energie de Gibbs de la réduction! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! par l’hydrogène / nF

ESHE = !!GrnF

= !!Gr

o

nF+

RTnF

lnaox

S fH2n /2

aredS aH+

S( )n p o( )n /2

"

#

$$$$

%

&

''''

= Eox/redo"

#$%&'SHE

+RTnF

ln aoxS

aredS

(

)****

+

,-----

17

Page 18: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Dissolution électrochimique du zinc

ESHE

Electrodede travail en

zincElectrode de platine

H2

Acide ≈ 1M Solution ZnSO4

Zn2+

Pont salin

AnodeCathode

e

(–)(+) I

Si l’on ferme le circuit, nous avons une dissolution du zinc comme si ce dernier était plongé directement dans l’acide

ΔGd = − ΔGr = 2FE = 2F Va −Vc( )Pour une solution 1M, on a ΔGd = −2 ·105 · 0.75 = −150 kJ·mol−1

18

Page 19: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Réactions en solution

O1 + R2 R1 + O2

Démontrer que l’énergie de Gibbs standard de la réaction rédox est donnée par

Ce4+ + Fe2+ Ce3+ + Fe3+

Eox/red

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦SHEFe3+ /Fe

2+

Ce4+ /C

e3+

H+ /H

2

0 0.77 1.44Volt

ΔGro / F

ΔGr

o = nF EO2 /R2o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦SHE − EO1 /R1

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦SHE( )

19

Page 20: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Photolithographie sur cuivre

Substrat polymèreCuivre

Photoresist

Dissolution au solvant

Masque

Exposition

Dissolution au FeCl3

Dissolution au solvant

Erosion du substrat auplasma oxygène

Electrodéposition d’or20

Page 21: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Photolithographie sur cuivre

Substrat polymèreCuivre

Photoresist

Dissolution au solvant

Masque

Exposition

Dissolution au FeCl3

Dissolution au solvant

Erosion du substrat auplasma oxygène

Electrodéposition d’or21

Page 22: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Plasma etching technology

Copper coated polyimide foil

Photoresist coating

Photolithography25’000 dpi laser printer

Copper etching

Plasma etching

Copper cleaning

Gold platingLamination

22

Page 23: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

ExerciceA partir des potentiels rédox standard, expliquons pourquoi FeCl3 est utilisé pour dissoudre le cuivre dans les procédés de fabrication des circuits imprimés, sachant que

De même, expliquons pourquoi FeCl3 n’attaque pas les contacts en or sachant que

EFe3+ /Fe 2+o[ ]SHE

= 0.77 V !

ECu2+ /Cuo[ ]SHE

= 0.34 V !

EAu + /Auo[ ]SHE

= 1.83 V !

23

Page 24: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equation de Nernst

• Approche empirique

• Approche thermodynamique

• Approche potentiel électrochimique Refaire la démonstration donnée aux pages 63-64

• Approche statistique de Fermi-Dirac

• Potentiel rédox absolu

24

Page 25: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equation de Nernst

• Approche empirique

• Approche thermodynamique

• Approche potentiel électrochimique

• Approche statistique de Fermi-Dirac

• Potentiel rédox absolu

25

Page 26: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Approche Fermi-Dirac

cox+ cred = ctot

Equation de conservation

coxcred

= exp FRT

ESHE− Eox/redo /⎡

⎣⎢⎤⎦⎥SHE( )⎡

⎣⎢⎢

⎦⎥⎥

Equation de Nernst à un électron

ESHE = Eox/redo /⎡

⎣⎢⎤⎦⎥SHE

+RTFln cox

cred

⎝⎜⎜⎜⎜

⎠⎟⎟⎟⎟

26

Page 27: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Concentrations vs Potentiel1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

c O/ c

tot &

c R

/ / c to

t

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

( E - Eo/ ) / V

cR cO

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

log(

c O/c t

ot)

&

log(

c R/c t

ot)

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

( E - Eo/ ) / V

log(cR/ctot)

log(cO/ctot)

Statistique de Fermi-Diracà deux états :

•soit réduit•soit oxydé

cred = ctot1

1+ eF E− Eox/red

o /⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥SHE( )/RT

⎢⎢⎢⎢

⎥⎥⎥⎥

cox = ctot1

1+ e−F E− Eox/red

o /⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥SHE( )/RT

⎢⎢⎢⎢

⎥⎥⎥⎥

Concentrations vs Potentiel1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

c O/ c

tot &

c R

/ / c to

t

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

( E - Eo/ ) / V

cR cO

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

log(

c O/c t

ot)

&

log(

c R/c t

ot)

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

( E - Eo/ ) / V

log(cR/ctot)

log(cO/ctot)

Statistique de Fermi-Diracà deux états

cred = ctot1

1+ eF E! Eox/red

o /"#

$%SHE( )/RT

"

#

&&&

$

%

'''

cox = ctot1

1+ e!F E! Eox/red

o /"#

$%SHE( )/RT

"

#

&&&

$

%

'''

27

Page 28: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Equation de Nernst

• Approche empirique

• Approche thermodynamique

• Approche potentiel électrochimique

• Approche statistique de Fermi-Dirac

• Potentiel rédox absolu

28

Page 29: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Potentiel standard rédox absolu

Etat réduitaqueux

Etat oxydé aqueux+

électron au repos dans le vide

Eox/red

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦abs,ψ S=0= αox

o ,S −αredo ,S( ) / nF

Eox/red

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦abs = −Δ !Gr

o

nF=!µox

o ,S − !µredo ,S

nF=

αoxo ,S −αred

o ,S

nF+ψ S

OxS + ne–V ! RedS

29

Page 30: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Energie d’ionisationEtat oxydé

+electron au repos dans le vide

Etat réduit

Phase gazeuse

Energie d’ionisation

30

Page 31: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Potentiel redox absolu

Etat réduitaqueux

Etat oxydé en phase gazeuse+

électron au repos dans le videEnergie

d’ionisation

Etat oxydé aqueux+

électron au repos dans le vide

Etat réduiten phase gazeuse

−ΔGhyd(R)

F EO/R[ ]abs

ΔGhyd(O)F EO/R[ ]abs = ΔGhyd(O) − ΔGhyd(R) + EI

31

Page 32: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Potentiel redox absolu

1/2 H2

gaz

H+ aqueux+

électron au repos dans le videF EO/R[ ]abs

ΔGhyd(H+)

H+ en phase gazeuse+

électron au repos dans le videEnergie

d’ionisation

1/2 H2

gaz

Demi-énergiede liaison

EH+ / 1

2H2

o⎡

⎣⎢⎢

⎦⎥⎥abs

= ΔGhydo (H+)+ EI,H + 1

2 Eliaison H2(g)( )⎡⎣⎢

⎤⎦⎥ / F

EH+ / 12H2

o⎡

⎣⎢⎢

⎦⎥⎥abs

≅ 4.44± 0.05 V

32

Page 33: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Potentiel redox absolu

Fe3+ en phase gazeuse+

électron au repos dans le videEnergie

d’ionisation

Fe2+

en phase gazeuse

−ΔGhyd(Fe2+)

Fe2+

aqueux

Fe3+ aqueux+

électron au repos dans le videF EFe3+ /Fe2+⎡⎣ ⎤⎦abs

ΔGhyd(Fe3+)

EFe3+ /Fe2+o⎡

⎣⎢⎤⎦⎥abs

=− ΔGhydo (Fe2+)−ΔGhyd

o (Fe3+)−EI,Fe2+( ) = – –1930 + 4385−2957( ) / 96.485 = 5.20V

E

Fe3+ /Fe2+o⎡

⎣⎢⎤⎦⎥abs

= 4.44 + 0.77 = 5.21V

33

Page 34: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Niveau de Fermi en solution

!µe–o ,S = − F Eox/red

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦abs,ψ S=0

Potentiel électrochimique de l’électron en solution

Electron au repos dans le vide

Niveau de Fermi

Metal

µe–M

Solution

µe–o ,S

Potentielstandardrédoxabsolu

Niveau de Fermi

Dépend du dopageBande de

valence

Semi-conducteur

Bande deconduction

µe–SC

34

Page 35: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Niveau de Fermi en solution

!µe–o ,S = − F Eox/red

o⎡⎣ ⎤⎦abs,ψ S=0

Potentiel électrochimique de l’électron en solution

Solution

µe–o ,S

35

Fe3+ aqueux + électron au repos dans le vide

Fe2+aqueux

Fluctuation du solvant

Fluctuation du solvant

EO0 EO EO

Page 36: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Energie de réorganisation du solvant

Optimalement solvaté

36

Fe3+ aqueux + électron au repos dans le vide

Fe2+aqueux Fe2+

Fe3+ Fe3+

λ

Fe3+

Fe2+

Fe3+ aqueux mal solvaté + électron au repos dans le vide

EO0

Oxydation avecsolvatation gelée

EO

Page 37: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Niveau de Fermi en solution

37

Etat réduitsolvatation optimale

Etat oxydésolvatation optimale

Niveau de Fermi en solution 2λ

EO − EO0

Fe(II) & Fe(III) solvatation optimale

Densité de probabilité d’états d’énergie

Fe2+ Fe3+

Fe3+ Fe2+

Equiconcentration Fe2+/Fe3+

0

Ecart des énergiesd’oxydation en solution

Page 38: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Réaction rédox sur électrode

38

µe–M

µe–S

métal solution

µe–M

µe–S

métal solution

µe–M

µe–S

métal solution

Oxydation Equilibre Réduction

Attention : Superposition de deux demi-graphes avec des échelles différentes

Page 39: Equilibres électrochimiques...Walther Hermann Nernst Walther Hermann Nernst was born in Briesen, West Prussia, on June 25, 1864. His father, Gustav Nernst, was a district judge. He

Potentiel rédox

39