equal opportunities for women and men...equal opportunities for women and men in europe?...

Equal opportunities for women and menin Europe?

Eurobarometer 44.3 - Results of an opinion survey

Equality between women and men

European CommissionDirectorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations

and Social AffairsUnit V/D.5

Manuscript completed in December 1996

This report was financed by and prepared for the use of the European Commission,Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs. It does not necessarilyrepresent the Commission's official position.Report compiled by N. Malpas, NM Consultants

Cover picture: © SIMON GraphismeLayout: TangramRewriting: P. Brau

A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet.It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1998

ISBN 92-828-5236-9

© European Communities, 1998Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Printed in Belgium

PRINTED ON WHITE CHLORINE-FREE PAPER

EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN AND MEN IN EUROPE ?

Equal opportunitiesfor women and menin Europe?

Introduction 5

Chapter I. THE EUROPEAN POPULATION INTERVIEWED 7

1. MARITAL SITUATION 8

2. SOCIAL AND FAMILY SITUATIONS 9

3. FINANCIAL MEANS AND HOUSING 11

4. DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLD TASKS 13

5. SATISFIED WITH LIFE? 15

Chapter II. INEQUALITY AT WORK ! 19

1. THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN IN WORK IS INCREASING 20

2. THE EMPLOYMENT OF MEN AND WOMEN IN EUROPE 23

3. VIEWS ABOUT EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT 26

4. INEQUALITY ... AT WORK 30

5. PROBLEMS SPECIFICALLY AFFECTING WOMEN 33

6. IS THERE A THREAT TO THE WELLBEING OF THE FAMILY ? 39

4


Chapter III. WORKING LIFE / AND FAMILY LIFE 41

1. CHILDREN AND/OR A JOB ? 42

2. HOW TO RESOLVE THE WORK/FAMILY DILEMMA 44

3. SABBATICAL LEAVE 46

Chapter IV. WOMEN AND DECISION-MAKING 49

1. WHERE THERE'S A WILL 50

2. POLITICS, A MAN'S WORLD ? 51

3. THE SPIRIT OF ENTERPRISE 53

4. THE BURDEN OF FAMILY RESPONSIBILITIES 55

Chapter V. TOWARDS FULL EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY 59

1. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES: A PRIORITY FOR THE EUROPEAN UNION 60

2. A LACK OF AWARENESS OF MEASURES TO PROMOTE EQUALITY 61

3. HOW CAN INEQUALITIES BE ELIMINATED ? 64

4. PRIORITIES IN THE FIGHT AGAINST INEQUALITY 67

5


1 European men andwomen.A comparative studyof socio-political atti-tudes, Commission ofthe EuropeanCommunities,Brussels, December1975.

2 European men andwomen in 1978. Acomparative study ofsocio-political atti-tudes, Commission ofthe EuropeanCommunities,Brussels, February1979.

There is still considerable discrimination betweenmen and women in Europe in a number of areas.Women have a higher unemployment rate thanmen (12.5% and 9.5% respectively). Their jobs areoften unskilled, badly paid and insecure, and dis-crepant pay levels are still a fact of life in mostregions of the Union. Women's access to decision-making positions and their participation in poli-tical and social life are, moreover, still laggingbehind. It was against this background that theCommission presented its fourth medium-termCommunity action programme on equal oppor-tunities for women and men. This new program-me, drawn up for a period of five years (1996-2000), aims to concentrate its action andresources into the following few clearly definedobjectives:1. "mobilising all the actors in economic and

social life to promote equal opportunities ;2. promouvoir promoting equal opportunities

as a means of adjusting working life to thechanges taking place, particularly throughuse of the Structural Funds ;

3. encouraging a policy to reconcile family andworking life for men and women;

4. promoting a gender balance in decisionmaking ;

5. ensuring that conditions are more conduciveto women who are nationals of or resident inthe Union exercising active citizenship ;

6. supporting implementation, monitoring andassessment of activities conducted in order toachieve the above aims ».

The Spring 1996 Eurobarometer survey wasdrawn up with these objectives in mind. Its mainaim was to form a clearer picture of the attitudesand opinions of men and women in Europe onthe question of women working and the obstacles

they encounter at work, to establish how progresson equal opportunities is perceived, and on thisbasis to identify the priority areas for action.

Surveys since 1975

This survey follows on from other large-scale sur-veys on the same theme. In 1975, to coincide withWomen's Year, the Commission of the EuropeanCommunities (now the European Union) carriedout a survey in the then nine Member Statesaimed at identifying men's and women's atti-tudes to certain social questions. This was aEuropean first(1). The interest raised by this initialstudy prompted the Commission to undertake anew survey in 1977 based on a similar sample t2).As well as investigating in more detail certainaspects which had been rather sketchily coveredin 1975, such as how the fact of working affectsthe development of women's socio-political atti-tudes, the report was intended to assess, in thelight of the first election of the EuropeanParliament by direct universal suffrage (June1979), whereabouts in the Community womenwere most likely to vote.

Over the years that followed, the EuropeanCommission, Parliament, and the specialisedcommissions in each Member State implementedan information policy for women and draftedlegislation to improve equal opportunities. Thecontinuation of the research programme onEuropeans' attitudes with a new opinion surveyin Spring 1983, adhering strictly to the conditionsof the previous two surveys, was therefore a logi-cal next step. Some of the topics covered by the1983 survey, such as participation in social andpolitical life, women working, role-sharing orattitudes to equal opportunities, are directly rele-vant to our project, since similar questions wereasked in the Spring 1996 Eurobarometer.

6


1. Duflos, C, Dufour,A. and A.-D.Kowalski,Prestations fami-liales, modes degarde et relationsparents/grandsenfants (Familybenefits, forms ofchildcare andparent/adult - childrelationships) inCredoc survey"Conditions de vieet aspirations desFrancais" (Livingconditions and aspi-rations of theFrench), December1994,210 pages.Berthuit, F. andDufour, A.,Opinions sur lesprestations fami-liales et sur la conci-liation vie profes-sionnelle et viefamiliale (Opinionson family benefitsand on reconcilingwork and familylife) in Credoc sur-vey "Conditions devie et aspirationsdes Francais",December 1993

2. Bozon, M., Laufer,). and Villeneuve-Gokalp, C., "Quelleplace pour lesfemmes ? Uneenquete aupres desjeunes adultes"(What place forwomen ? A surveyof young adults) inRevue francaise desaffaires sociales. Ducote des femmes.Conferences, insti-tutions recherches,Special issue,August 1995.

3. European networkof public opinionsurvey and marketresearch institutes.

Less detailed than the 1975, 1977 and 1983reports, the inclusion of results drawn from diffe-rent Eurobarometers and published in the"Women of Europe" Supplements (1985, 1987,1991) broadens the perspective and enables deve-lopments in the attitudes and opinions of menand women in Europe to be traced, at least oncertain topics. The questionnaire for the Spring1996 survey drew substantially on these previousexperiences, as well as on the Credoc surveys onreconciling work and family life ll) and the surveyon the position and role of women in Francelaunched at the initiative of the French coordina-ting body for the 4th World Conference onWomen (Beijing 1995)(2).

The sample

The Eurobarometer surveys have been carried outfor the EU Commission's Directorate-General forInformation, Communication, Culture andAudiovisual Media every Spring and Autumnsince September 1973, and by INRA (Europe)since 1989 (3). They are conducted in all theMember States of the Union, including Greecesince Autumn 1980, Portugal and Spain sinceAutumn 1985, the former GDR since Autumn1990 and Austria, Finland and Sweden sinceSpring 1995. The same set of questions is put torepresentative samples of the population aged 15or over in each of the Member States. The regularsample in standard Eurobarometer surveys is1 000 people per country, with the exception ofLuxembourg (500) and the United Kingdom(1 000 in Great Britain and 300 in NorthernIreland). Since Autumn 1990, the Germansample has comprised 2 000 people - 1 000 inthe former FRG and 1 000 in the former GDR (inthis report we have presented the totals for theformer East and West Germany next to the com-bined total). The total sample therefore comprises15 800 people. The interviews are held face-to-face at the individual's home. Multi-stage, ran-dom sampling is the system applied in allMember States. In each country, a number ofsampling points are drawn with probabilityproportional to population size and density, toensure total coverage of the country. At therequest of the Directorate-General for Em-ployment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs,a sample of unemployed was added to the stan-dard sample described above, bringing the totalpopulation interviewed to 21 300. The interviewswere held simultaneously in the 15 Member

States of the European Union between27 February and 3 April 1996 under the generalcoordination of INRA (Europe) - EuropeanCoordination Office, in Brussels.

Five chaptersTo reflect current preoccupations more closely,the questions were divided into different subjectcategories corresponding to the objectivesdenned in the fourth action programme. Thefirst chapter sets the scene by establishing thecharacteristics of the sample. The second investi-gates the position of women on the labourmarket, with emphasis on analysing how thequestion of women working is perceived. Therather negative reaction to mothers with youngchildren going out to work leads on to the thirdchapter, with its central theme of reconcilingwork with family life. Chapter four focuses onwomen and decision-making. The final chapterlooks specifically at equal opportunities and themeasures to be taken to reduce or eliminateexisting inequalities between men and women,the type of action needed and the role whichcould be played by the European Union.

7


THE EUROPEAN POPULATION INTERVIEWED

What is the family and worksituation of the women in thesurvey? Two thirds of them aremarried or living with their partner,39% of them work. But factors suchas age, dependent children, level ofeducation or disposable income alsoaffect daily life. A third of Europeanwomen perceive their economicsituation as difficult. Of those livingwith their husband/partner, two outof three consider that householdtasks are unevenly distributed.General satisfaction with life appearsto be higher in the private sphereand in the northern countries.

8


1. MARITAL SITUATION

In 1996, as in 1983, 64% of European womenaged 15 or over were married or lived with theirpartner. Single women, those who were divorcedor separated, and widows accounted for 36%.Almost two fifths of respondents (39%) worked.This figure subdivides into 28% who had a hus-band or partner and 11% who did not. Non-working women with a husband/partner repre-sented 36% of the total sample; unattachednon-working women 25%. Looking at the occu-pational status of the husbands or partners,40.5% of the total female population intervie-wed had husbands/partners who were workingand 23.5% had husbands/partners who werenot.

Comparing these with the figures from theMarch-April 1983 survey reveals that morewomen are now working (22% more than in1983).

64% of women live with their husband orpartner...

• In 22.5% of coses, both the woman and herhusband/partner work.

In 1996, this was the biggest subgroup, mainlycomprising young women: 51% were aged bet-ween 15 and 39. Their level of education wasabove the Community overage (32% hadremained in education beyond the age of 20, as

opposed the Community average of 19%). Onein two women in this category had childrenunder the age of 15. The fact that two salarieswere coming into these households obviouslyhad a positive impact on income. Over a thirdof the women in this group (35%) were in thehighest income category and just over a quar-ter (28%) were in the middle income category,resulting in a total for the two categories com-bined of twice the European overage (63% asagainst 32%).• 5% work and have a husband/partner who

does not.

Two-thirds of this group were aged over 40,which suggests that they were probably livingwith men who had retired, either early or atnormal retirement age. Almost a third still hadat least one child at home. Their level of edu-cation, lower than that of the preceding group,was, on the whole, above the European avera-ge - a third had left school by the age of 15,two fifths had left school between 16 and 19and a quarter had remained in educationbeyond the age of 20, the respective figuresbeing 36%, 37% and 19% for the EuropeanUnion as a whole.

• 18% do not work, while their husband orpartner does.

Over half this group (53%) were aged over 40.Their level of education was, generally spea-

1. SITUATION OF EUROPEAN WOMEN

Sources: European men and women in 1983, p. 8; Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1986.

9


king, considerably lower than that of the firstgroup, twice as many having left school beforethe age of 15. This group also had the highestproportion of women with children aged under15 at home (54% as against 50% in the firstgroup). Their income was lower than that ofthe women with working husband or partner,but slightly higher than the European average.

• In 18% of cases, neither partner works.

This group mainly comprised elderly women.74% were aged over 55. Most had a low level ofeducation, almost two thirds (62%) having leftschool before the age of 15. 16% still had achild aged under 15 at home. This group hadthe highest proportion (47%) in the lowest inco-me categories.

36% of women do not live with a partner...

• 11% work.

lust over a quarter of this group (28%) wasaged under 25. Although not married or livingwith a partner, a fifth of these respondents hadchildren aged under 15. This group containedthe highest proportion of women having com-pleted higher education (35%). A quarter ofthem, however, were in the lower incomebracket.

• 25% do not work.

This group comprised the oldest and youngestrespondents. The over-55s represented the big-gest subgroup (49%) and the under-25s justover a third of the total in this category (35%).29% were still studying, while just over a thirdhad left school before the age of 15. Over fourfifths no longer had or did not yet have chil-dren aged under 15 at home. Over two fifths(41%) were in the lowest income category.

2. SOCIAL AND FAMILY SITUATIONS

Table 1 showed that 39% of the women inter-viewed worked, while 61% did not. Table 2below goes into more detail and illustrates thewide disparities in occupational status betweenwomen and men. One and a half times asmany men as women said they worked fulltime either on an employed or self-employedbasis (75% as against 52% and 20% as against14% respectively). Six times as many women,on the other hand, said they were employedpart time (30% as against 5%).

The "not working" category comprised morewomen than men in absolute terms (6 699 ofthe European sample as against 4 167). Thereasons for not working were, however, distri-buted differently between the sexes. 45% ofmen were retired, 28% unemployed and 21%studying. For women, these figures were 34%,18% and 14% respectively. But the main diffe-rence lay in the fact that almost a third of thewomen (32%) considered themselves "house-wives", whereas barely 1% of men regardedhousehold responsibilities as their main occu-pation. Permanent incapacity for work affected5% of men and 2% of women.

How children affect the situationOf the people with children aged under 15 athome, more men than women were in employ-ment. By contrast, three times as many women

2. OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF MEN AND"WOMEN

Self-employedEmployed, full-timeEmployed, part-timeUnpaid worker in family businessOther unpaid workerOn maternity/paternity leaveWorking/training as partof a government schemefor the unemployed '

EU l5+. Q.8 - Eurobarometer 44.3 -

Men(6153)20.2

74.64.60.10.1

-

0.4

Spring 1996.

Women(4167)14.5

51.630.2

0.8

0.32.2

0,4

10


as men who were not working had childrenaged under 15 at home. Working people withchildren aged under 6 were, obviously, in theyounger age bracket: 70% of the women and54% of the men in this category were agedunder 35. The parents of children aged between6 and 15 were, on average, over 40 (average forwomen: 42, for men: 44). Of the employedpeople with no children, half were aged under35 and a fifth under 25. The majority of non-workers without children were in the student orpensioner categories (see Table 3).

Income and level of education

Table 3 below shows that a third of theEuropeans interviewed left school before theage of 15, almost two fifths between the ages of16 and 19, and one fifth remained in educationbeyond the age of 20. 8% said they were stillstudying. The fact of not working tends, on thebasis of the figures, to be associated with the

lowest level of education, and mainly applies towomen. Of the non-working women with chil-dren aged between 6 and 15, almost half (49%)had left school before the age of 15, as had 45%of non-working women with no children. In thelatter group, however, this was more a questionof generation, as this category included boththe youngest age group, who were still stu-dying, and the oldest age group, among whoma lower level of education was the norm. Of theworking people of both sexes, an average of80% had stayed in education beyond 16.Working women with children aged under 6and working women with no children were thetwo categories with the highest proportion ofgraduates who had stayed in education beyondthe age of 20; at 37% and 33% considerablyhigher than the equivalent proportions of menin the same groups (30% and 27%).

On the question of income, 30% of those wor-king and not working refused to reply. One sixth

3. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO OCCUPATIONAL STATUS, CHILDREN, LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND INCOME

MEN WOMEN

nTHE EUROPEAN POPULATION INTERVIEWED

4. REPLY TO THE QUESTION :"DO YOU FIND IT DIFFICULT/EASY TOMAKE ENDS MEET ?"

EU 15+. Q 84 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Thinking about your currentfinancial situation in general, would you say it is very dif-ficult, quite difficult, neither easy nor difficult, quite easyor very easy to make ends meet ?"

put themselves in the higher income category,just under one fifth in the upper middle catego-ry and over a third in the two lowest categories.Over 40% of the childless men and women whowere not working were in the lowest incomecategories. Over half the working men andwomen with children were in the upper incomecategories.

3. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDINGTO OCCUPATIONAL STATUS,CHILDREN, LEVEL OF EDUCATIONAND INCOME

Less than a quarter of the people interviewedfound it "quite easy to make ends meet" (seechart 4). Of these, only 5% said it was "veryeasy". At the other end of the scale, over athird (36%) found it "quite difficult" to getthrough the month, and for 11% it was "verydifficult". Women (12%) were more likely thanmen (10%) to say that it was very difficult,irrespective of age. Men over 55 were the mostlikely to say their financial situation was com-fortable, while women aged between 15 and24 experienced the most financial difficulties(17%). The survey also confirmed that thelower the level of education, the greater thefinancial difficulties. Those in the most com-fortable situation were most often those in aprofessional occupation who had remained ineducation beyond the age of 20.

There is a clear difference in economic situationsbetween countries. In total, over 37% ofEuropean women found it "quite" or "very" diffi-cult to make ends meet. Over half the French andPortuguese women were in this category, andover two fifths of the Greek and Irish women.Less than a quarter of women in Denmark, theNetherlands, Italy and Luxembourg, however,described their financial situation as "quite diffi-cult". With the exception of the Irish andItalians, the situation of European women wasgenerally less favourable than that of Europeanmen. The widest gaps between the replies from

men and women were inDenmark (7 points difference),Germany (6 points), Swedenand France (5 points) andPortugal, Luxembourg and theNetherlands (4 points). In theother countries, there was littledifference between the two.

Owner or tenant ?In response to the question onhousing, a sixth of the inter-viewees said they lived withtheir parents, 47% were home-owners and just under a thirdwere tenants. Of these, fourout of ten were in public

EU 15+ Q 84 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

Classification on the basis of the replies "quite difficult" and "very difficult"and the replies from women.

12


6. EUROPEANS AND THEIR HOUSING (OVER THE LAST THREE MONTHS)

Living with your parentsor with your partner's parentsLiving in a houseor flat which you own or arein the process of buyingLiving in a houseor fiat rented froma public authorityLiving as a tenantin a houseor flat rented privatelySharing rentedaccommodation with friendsor acquaintancesLiving in lodgingsOtherEU 15+. Q.6 — Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring

Men

15-24(1904)

66.7

5.4

6.4

14.8

2.21.33.2

25-39(3077)

19.0

36.9

11.5

27.1

1.90.62.9

1996.

40-54(1850)

5.6

63.1

11,3

16.6

0.90.42.1

55+(2474)

2.5

69.2

12.0

12.8

0.20.13.2

Total(10231)

20.0

46.3

10.6

18.3

1.20.52,8

Women

15-24(1811)

57.1

7.7

9.0

18.0

2.31.84.1

25-39(2972)

12.1

43.2

14.3

26.4

1.00.12.8

40-54(2448)

4.0

62.0

13.9

16.8

0.80.12,2

55+(3805)

2.3

60.7

17.1

15.5

0.00.33.5

Total(11037)

14.3

47.6

14.3

19.1

0.80.43.1

TOTAL(21357)

17.1

47.0

12.5

18.7

1.00.53.0

Answer to the question : "Over the past three months, have you most of the time been...?" Distribution according to sex and age.

authority housing. While women were less like-ly than men to be living with their parents(14% as against 20%), they were also more like-ly to be in public authority housing (14% asagainst 10%), particularly the oldest group(17%). Flat/house-sharing was most commonamong the youngest age groups.

7. THE DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLD TASKS AS SEEN BYEUROPEAN COUPLES

EU 15+. Q.82 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Thinking about the jobs that need to be doneto keep a home running, such as shopping, cooking and cleaning, how muchis shared between you and your husband/wife/partner?" Target group :couples living together.

73


4. DISTRIBUTIONOF HOUSEHOLD TASKS_______

Are European men and women equal when itcomes to household tasks? Far from it! Twothirds of couples living together admitted thatthe woman did almost all or most of the hou-sework.Barely 1% of the men interviewed answeredthat "the man does almost all of these jobs"and "the man does most of these jobs". Justover a quarter of interviewees (both men andwomen) said they shared the work equally.Women were more likely than men (37% asagainst 30%) to say they did almost all thehousework (see Table 8 below), particularly ifthey were aged 55 or over (42% as against 30%,

K a difference of 12%). Men were more likely tosay they shared the work equally, but while30% of them claimed to do half the householdtasks, this was corroborated by only 25% ofwomen! The gap widens with age, the discre-pancy being 5% in the 15 to 24 age group and8% among the over-55s.

The influence of level of educationThe replies from men and women differed notonly according to age category, but also whenanalysed from the point of view of level ofeducation or occupational status (Table 9).The longer those interviewed had stayed in

education, the more willing they appeared tobe to share the housework equally (34% ofmen and 33% of women). Those who had leftschool before the age of 15 had a more conser-vative attitude, 48% of women and 37% ofmen saying that "the woman does almost allof these jobs". Still in this category, only 20%of the women said they shared the houseworkhalf and half with their partner. Students werethe most likely to share housework equally.The fact of working or not working also affec-ted the distribution of household tasks. Non-working women were twice as likely as wor-king women (48% as against 24%) to "doalmost all of these jobs". Of this latter catego-ry, the proportion of women saying their part-ner did their fair share was no higher than33%. And 34% of them said they "always didmost of these jobs" (Table 9).

North-South divide

Looking at national differences in men's par-ticipation in household tasks is also quiterevealing. Women's responses to the state-ment "we share them half and half" wereused as the basis for classification (see chartbelow). 25% of the women and 31% of themen said they shared the housework equally.Women in the former GDR headed the list,with 39% considering that their partner/hus-

8. UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION, ALL AGE CATEGORIES

The woman does almostall of these jobsThe woman does mostof these jobsWe share them half and halfThe man does most of these jobs

The man does almostall of these jobs

Most of it is doneby someone elseRefusal to replyEU 15+. Q.82 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring

Men

15-24(224) .

13.4

29.850.92.5

0.3

0.31.3

25-39(1895)

27.2

35.233.11.7

0.4

0.41.8

1996

40-54(1930)

34,9

34.4

26.32.3

0.2

0.81.0

55+(2238)

29.8

32.731.02.5

0.7

0.92.3

Total(6288)

30.0

33.830.92.2

0.4

0.71.7

Women

15-24(378)

21.9

26.845.10.6

2.7

0.21.0

25-39(2027)

32.3

33.627.51.2

1.0

0.52.8

40-54(1767)

41.5

31.721.01.6

0.3

0.82.8

55+(1413)

41.8

28.723.01.6

0.4

0.5

3.3

Total(55&5)

36.9

31.325.51.4

08

0.6

2.8

TOTAL(11873)

33.2

32.628.4

1.8

0.6

0.62.2

Answer to the question : "Thinking about the jobs that need to be done to keep a home running, such as shopping, cooking and clea-ning, how much is shared between you and your husband/wife/partner ?"

14'


ACCORDING TO LEVEL'OF EDUCATION AND OCCUPATIONAL STATUS

The woman does The woman does We share them The man doesalmost all most half and half mostof these Jobs of these iobs of these (obs

OVERALL

LEVEL OF EDUCATION

> 1 5

16-1920-or over

Still studyingOCCUPATIONAL STATUS

Working

Not Working

EU 15+. Q.82- Eurobarometer 44 3 -

M

30.0

(N=2248)

36.9

28.5

22.3

3.2

32.2

25.3

- Spnng 1996

W

36.9

(1981)

48.0

34.6

24.5

10.6

24,8

48.4

M

33.8

(2602)

32.4

33.2

37.1

42.1

35.5

30.3

W

31.3

(2315)

26.8

33.3

34.8

30.4

33.9

30.3

M

30.9

0415)

26.1

33.5

33.6

41.3

28.2

36.6

W

25.5(1249)

19.7

26.1

33.0

46.4

32.7

18.7

M

2.2

(23)

1.7

2,2

2.6

11.4

1.1

4.4

W

1.4

(41)

0.8

0.6

0.9

2.5

2.1

0.7

Target group: couples living together.

band did an equal share. Spanish womenwere the worst off, only 12% claiming a 50-50distribution. Between these two extremes(27% difference), two fifths of women inSweden, 37% in Denmark and Finland, justunder a third in Britain, Belgium, theNetherlands and Ireland, and just over aquarter in France, Luxembourg and formerWest Germany seemed to be able to count ontheir partner to do their share of the house-work. The Austrian, Portuguese, Italian, Greekand Spanish women were not so fortunate, allscoring below the European average.

Men had a general tendency to overestimatetheir contribution. The discrepancy between thereplies from men and women was widest in theUnited Kingdom, where 47% of men claimed todo an equal share of the housework, while only33% of women agreed that they did, but therewere also considerable discrepancies inFinland, Luxembourg and France (12 pointsdifference), Denmark (10 points) and Ireland (8points). At the other end of the scale, in Austriaand Greece, the replies from men and womenwere very consistent.


5. SATISFIED WITH LIFE ?

To assess how satisfied Europeans were withtheir life, they were asked about various aspects- lifestyle, leisure activities at home, social lifeoutside the home, family life, how democracyworked in their country and the society inwhich they lived.

Private happiness, public dissatisfactionOf the six options proposed, "family life" polledthe most positive response. Almost 90% ofEuropeans said they were "fairly satisfied" andover 40% "very satisfied" (see chart and tablebelow). Three other aspects (lifestyle, social lifeand leisure) came in second place, over 80%saying they were "fairly satisfied" and 27%"very satisfied".

"The way democracy works" in each MemberState and "the kind of society we live in",however, were found satisfactory only by aminority of Europeans: 19% said they were"not at all satisfied" with the way democracyworked in their country and 23% wereunhappy with the society they lived in, whileover two fifths said they were "not very satis-fied" in these two respects. There was very litt-le difference between the replies from menand women. At most, there may have been aslight difference between the sexes in the way

the replies were affected by age category. Menaged over 55 showed the most satisfactionwith their lifestyle or leisure activities, whilethe women in the youngest age categoriesgained most satisfaction from their familylife. It is worth looking at the national diffe-rences underlying the general figures forEurope as a whole. To simplify the analysis,we have looked only at the distribution of theresponse "very satisfied" to the first fouroptions given in Table 12, and the response"not at all satisfied" to the last two options.The results are categorised on the basis of theanswers from women.

Different countries and their sourcesof satisfaction

A glance at figures 13-16 below shows Danishwomen to be monopolising the top of the"satisfactions" chart. Nearly two thirds of themwere "very satisfied" with the life they led, theirleisure activities, and their social life; 73% ofthem were also "very satisfied" with their fami-ly life. Women in the Netherlands and Austriavied for second and third places. The Irish andBritish women were never very far behind thistrio, while the Belgians and Finns were aroundthe Community average. Women in Italy, for-mer East Germany, Portugal and France were atthe bottom of the list, often over 50 points

behind those at the top.Generally speaking, there waslittle difference between menand women, although Danishmen appeared to be happierwith their lot than did theirfellow countrywomen, whilethe reverse was true in theNetherlands. At the other endof the scale, in Italy, formerEast Germany, Portugal andFrance, men also seemed to bemore satisfied with life thandid their female compatriots.

Dissatisfaction was strongestamong women in Italy,Greece and former EastGermany, over 35% (and inthe case of Italy, as many as44%) of whom said they were"not at all satisfied" with "theway democracy works" and

The life Your leisure Your social life Your family The way The kindyou lead at home outside the home life democracy of society

works we live inEU 15+, Q.I 03 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Would you say you are very satisfied, fairly satisfied, not very satis-fied or not at all satisfied with each of the following things?"

16


"the kind of society we live in"; and the Frenchwere not far behind. The least dissatisfactionwas expressed by women in Denmark, theNetherlands and Austria, as well as Ireland

and Finland (between 5 ond 10%). Here, too,there was very little difference between theviews of men and women (less than 5 pointsdifference).

12. SOURCES OF SATISFACTION FOR EUROPEANS

Men Women

THE LIFE YOU LEAD

Very satisfied

Fairly satisfied

Not very satisfied

Not at all satisfied

YOUR LEISURE AT HOME

Very satisfied

Fairly satisfied

Not very satisfied


YOUR SOCIAL LIFE OUTSIDE THE HOME

Very satisfied

Fairly satisfied

Not very satisfied


YOUR FAMILY LIFE

Very satisfied

Fairly satisfied

Not very satisfied


THE WAY DEMOCRACY WORKS IN YOUR COUNTRY

Very satisfied

Fairly satisfied

Not very satisfied


NSP

THE KINO OF SOCIETY WE LIVE IN

Very satisfied

Fairly satisfied

Not very satisfied


15-24(1904)

29.1

54.5

13,0

3.1

27.8

53.8

15.3

2.8

34.8

53.2

10.9

0.7

35.7

50.3

10.2

1.9

5.8

27.1

42.1

18.3

6.8

4.5

29.5

42.5

21.2

25-39(3077)

22.5

61.0

13.0

3.0

22.8

54.7

17.9

3.8

23.5

58.5

14.1

2.9

38.6

49.4

8.6

1.8

4.6

31.2

40.3

21.4

2.5

4.4

27.9

43.0

22.8

40-54(2474)

24.1

59.6

12.7

3.3

25.0

54.4

17.3

3.2

22.8

58.3

16.2

2.4

39.8

47.6

7.7

3.0

3.5

33.6

40.6

20.0

2.3

3.7

28.3

43.0

23.8

5S+(2866)

32.3

54,3

10.4

2.4

37.9

50,0

9.3

2.3

29.8

54.9

11,1

3.1

47.2

44.1

5.7

1.9

5.6

33.0

40.8

18.2

2.2

4.7

30.0

41.4

22.4

Total(10321)

26,8

57,6

12.9

2.5

28.4

53.1

14.9

3.0

27.2

56.4

13.2

2.4

40.7

47.7

7.9

2.1

4.8

3T.5

40.8

19.6

3.1

4.3

28.9

42.5

22.6

15-24(1811)

28.5

57.7

11.6

1.7

25.8

51.4

19.2

3.3

35.0

47.8

14.3

1.9

38.9

49.2

9.0

1.5

3.0

30,1

40,7

20.3

5.8

3.7

28.1

41.6

24.8

25-39(2972)

27.2

55.2

14,8

2.4

23.5

52.1

19.9

4.2

25.6

54.7

15.0

4.0

43.8

48.0

5.8

1.7

3.3

29.8

43.9

17.1

5,8

2.9

24.2

48.1

22.4

40-54(2448)

27.3

55.5

14.4

2.3

23.5

52.7

19.3

4.3

24,4

55,4

16.0

3,1

42,0

47.1

7.8

2.2

2.8

29.6

43.0

20.1

4.1

3.7

23.2

44.7

25.6

55+(3805)

28.4

56.5

12.9

1.9

32.5

52.5

12.3

2.5

27.0

51.3

15.6

4.5

41.6

45.0

9.2

2.6

5.4

30.9

38.0

17.8

7.8

4.3

27.3

42.5

23.3

Total(11037)

27.9

56.1

13.5

2.1

27.0

52.2

17.0

3,5

27.4

52.5

15.3

3.6

41.8

47.0

7.9

2.1

3.9

30.2

41.2

18.5

6.1

3.7

25.7

44.4

23.8

TOTAL(21357)

27.4

56.8

12.9

2.5

27.7

52.7

16.0

3.3

27.3

54.4

14.3

3.0

41.3

47.3

7.9

2.1

4.3

30.8

41,0

19.1

4.7

4.0

27.2

43.4

23.2


Answer to the question : "Would you say you are very satisfied, fairly satisfied, not very satisfied or not at all satisfied with each of thefollowing things ?"

77


Very satisfied

Classification on the basis of the reply "not at all satisfied", EU 15+. Q. 103.F- Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR MEN AND WOMEN IN EUROPE ?

Inequality at work!

Although more and more Europeanwomen are going out to work, theyare at greater risk of the pitfalls ofpart-time work and unemployment.When unemployed, they face a grea-ter threat of social exclusion. On theEuropean labour market, women aregenerally at a disadvantage in com-parison with men, even when theyhave the same level of skills. Theycontinue to have more difficulty inobtaining decision-making posts.The question of whether the womanshould work is still debated in fami-lies, especially if there are children tolook after. It would appear that men-talities in Europe are lagging behindpractices.

20


1. See Labour ForceSurvey, 1996results,Luxembourg, 1996,pp. 20-21.

1. THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN INWORK IS INCREASING

In 1970, women made up 30% of the labourmarket, and in 1995 45%. It is perhaps evenmore significant that two thirds of the jobs crea-ted in the European Community between 1985and 1990 were filled by women. There ore dif-ferences between countries, however. The pro-portion of women on the labour market ishighest in Denmark, Finland, Portugal and theUnited Kingdom. 35% of women are on thelabour market in Greece, Italy, Luxembourgand Spain01. Lastly, the annual growth inemployment rates was highest in theNetherlands, Spain arid the United Kingdom.

The 25-49 age group accounts for most of theincrease in the number of women on the labourmarket. In this age group, Denmark, Swedenand Finland have the highest activity rates(above 80%), followed by France, Portugal,Austria and the United Kingdom (between 80%and 75%). The countries of southern Europe(apart from Portugal), which have traditionallyhad lower female activity rates, have seen thefastest growth, however.

To sum up, young women, most of themmothers, therefore account for this radical chan-ge in the European labour market statistics. Theemployment rate of mothers increased in factfrom 41% to 50% between 1985 and 1991 fortheCommunity of 12 Member States. It should beborne in mind that this increase had no effect onthe rise in male unemployment and that thepercentage of women in work remains belowthat of men. Lastly, it is interesting to note thatwomen who work attach as much importance to

their work as men do (Table 19). Accordingly, inan analysis conducted on the basis of otherquestions from Eurobarometer 44.3, Gallicshows that 48% of men and women say thatthey would want to continue working even ifthey had enough money to live comfortably.

Women attach just as much importance asmen to initiative and independence at work,training and promotion prospects. There arestill many inequalities, however, with womenconsidering themselves to be at a disadvantagein comparison with men when it comes to pro-motion and think that they are given less res-ponsibility than men in their work.

The pitfalls of unemploymentand part-time work

This increase in the number of women on thelabour market does have its drawbacks, howe-ver, as it goes hand in hand with a sharp increa-se in part-time work and in unemploymentrates. The problem is that it is more difficult, andtakes longer, to reduce unemployment amongwomen than among men. This problem is com-pounded by the fact that, with the exception ofthe United Kingdom and Finland, the unem-ployment rates of women are higher than thoseof men in all Member States. The countries withthe highest inequality between the sexes in thearea of unemployment in 1995 were Greece andLuxembourg, where the unemployment rateamong women was twice as high as amongmen. The unemployment rate among women inFrance, Spain, Belgium and Italy is nearlydouble the rate for men. In Ireland, unemploy-ment among women is only very slightly higherthan that among men. Women, more of whom

19. ATTACHMENT TO WORK

% who % who are % whowould continue not sure wouldworking stop workinq

All workers

MenWomen

4848

48

89

6

44

43

46

EU 15+. Q. 40 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "If you had enough money to allow you to liveas comfortably as you wish for the rest of your life, would you continue wor-king, not necessarily in your present job, or would you give up work ?" SeeDuncan Gallie, The Employment in Europe Survey, to be published.

20. EQUAL CHANCES OP PROMOTION ?

None 25% S0% TOTALMenWomenTotal

41.754.1

47:1

24.0

22.7

23.4

34.3

23.3

29.5

100

100

100


Answer to the question : "What do you think yourchances of promotion are in the organisation in whichyou are working at the moment? None, 25%, 50%,75%, 100%, Don't know ?" See Duncan Gallie, TheEmployment in Europe Survey, to be published.

21

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

21. SUFFERING FROM UNEMPLOYMENT

At work

UnemployedTotal

Men0.54

1.07

0.60

Women0.64

1.08

0.71

TOTAL0.58

1.080.65

GHQ scores calculated by Duncan Gallie, in TheEmployment in Europe Survey, to be published.

22. PART-TIME WORK: A SOURCE OF INSECURITY ?No No No jobvocational chances of influence on securitytraining promotion decisions

affectingthe organisation (very true)of work

Men, full-timeWomen, full-timeWomen, part-time

58.455.365.7

40,247.963.9

29.630.438.9

30.127.524.5

See Duncan Gallie, The Employment in Europe Survey, to be published.

23. DOES PART-TIME WORK INCREASE INEQUALITY ?

Not at all true Partly true Laraelvtrue TrueMY WORK IS INTERESTINGMen - full-timeMen - part-timeWomen - full-timeWomen - part-timeTotalMY WORK IS VERY VARIEDMen - full-timeMen - part-timeWomen - full-timeWomen - part-timeTotal1 AM ALWAYS LEARNING NEW THINGS IN MY JOBMen - full-timeMen - part-timeWomen-full-timeWomen - part-timeTotal1 HAVE A SAY IN WHAT HAPPENS IN MY )OBMen - full-timeMen - part-timeWomen-full-timeWomen - part-timeTotalMY POSITION ALLOWS ME TO TAKE PART IN THEMen - full-timeMen - part-timeWomen - full-timeWomen - part-timeTotal

8.315.86.99.98.3

14.017,213.914.214.1

12.324.315.122.814.9

18.526.615,225.118.7

DECISIONS AFFECTING MY WORK18.127.621.225.620.3

18.917.419.316.718.6

22.029.721.721.422.0

26.226.422.222.424.6

26.535.229.931.128.4

23,429.524.426.524.3

37.627.637.335.036.9

29.620.634.034.231.2

29.827.229.132.029.8

30.629.331.426.830.3

30.319.231.227.729.9

35.339.236.538.536.2

34.532.430.430.232.7

31,722.133.622.830.7

24.39.023.517.022.7

28.123.723.220.225.5


Answer to the question : "Here is a list of statements about your current job. Please say whether each statement is true, largely true,partly true or not at all true".

22


are unemployed than men, suffer financiallyand psychologically from unemployment asmuch as men.These figures unfortunately cover only visibleunemployment, in other words that denned inthe Labour Force Survey. If account were takenof the level of non-activity (the population ofworking age which is not officially registered aspart of the labour force), the figures would befar worse even. Accordingly, in 1995 in theEuropean Union, 85.9 million women were eco-nomically non-active, accounting for 64% ofall non-active persons (1). More women thanmen are non-active in all age groups, and espe-cially between the ages of 25 and 55 (morethan 80% of the total).Comparisons of unemployment are not the onlyindicator of inequality between men andwomen on the labour market. Account mustalso be taken of the considerable differences inthe structures of male and female employment.There is a high level of sexual segregation in cer-tain sectors of employment, while part-timework, in particular, affects a growing proportion

of women, but not as many men. Major varia-tions exist between the countries. In 1995, morethan 60% of women worked part time in theNetherlands, between 40% and 50% inDenmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom,more than 30% in Germany, between 20% and30% in France, Ireland, Austria and Belgium,between 10% and 20% in Finland, Luxembourg,Spain, Italy and Portugal, and less than 10% inGreece (2).

The Gallic study shows that part-time work isone factor accounting for the insecurity whichmany women feel about their jobs. What ismore, the female part-time workers interviewedconsidered that this type of work offered littlesecurity, poor chances of promotion and novocational training.Female employment has therefore become alarge-scale phenomenon which is deeply rootedin today's society, but how do Europeans viewthese changes and their implications? Are they infavour of women working? What repercussionsdo they think female employment may have onthe balance between the members of the family?

1.Voir Enquete surles forces de travail,op.cit., p. 62.

2. Ibidem, p. 162.

24. OCCUPATIONAL STATUS

Self-employedEmployed, fuli-timeEmployed, part-timeUnpaid worker in family business'Other unpaid worker ' - - -On maternity/paternity leaveWork/training as partof a Government schemefor the employedUnemployedHousewife/househusband(no paid job)Permanently unableto work because sick or disabledFull-time student(school, college, university)Retired

Men15-24(1904)

4.329.13.60.2

0.921.7

0.1

-

40.1-

25-39(3077)

13.064.54.5

-

0.212,6

0,5

1,1

3.40.3

40-54(1850)

19.962.21.5-

0.1

0.110.2

0.5

2.8

0.32.4

55+(2474)

9.517.91.3-0.1-

3.3 -

0.2

3.2

-64.4

Total(10231)

12.144.52.7---

0.211.1

0.4

1.9

8.518.5

Women15-24(1811)

2.419.97.40.1.0.5

0.617.9

6.2

-

44.8-

25-39(2972)

7.429.517.10.40.22.8

0.217.3

21.0

0.6

3.10.3

40-54(2448)

9.031.917.90.50.10.2

.9.0

26.7

1.5

0.42.7

55+(3805)

3,95.86.00.10.1-

.3.1

20.5

1.8

-58.7

Total(11037)

5,720.311.90.30.10.9

0.210.7

19.7

1,1

8.320.9

TOTAL(21357)

8.832.07.40.20,10.5

0.210.9

10.3

1.5

8,419.8

EU 1 S+. Q.8 - Eurobarometer 443 - Spring 1996,

Answer to the question : "Which of the following options best describes your situation in the last seven days ?"

23

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

2. THE EMPLOYMENT OF MEN ANDWOMEN IN EUROPE

There are numerous statistical and economic stu-dies on male or female employment at bothCommunity and national levels. The informationprovided below is designed merely to describe thebackground to attitudes on women's employment.

Women at a disadvantageTable 24 confirms the results presented in thefirst chapter. While it is true that more andmore women are now on the labour market,their jobs differ from those of men. Fewer ofthem are self-employed (6%, as opposed to 12%for men) or full-time employees (20%, asagainst 44%). Part-time work, which is rareamong men (3%), appears to concern womenprimarily, even though they do not alwayschoose this type of work of their own free will.Lastly, it should be pointed out that, in percen-tage terms, more women than men have nopaid work, as they are unemployed, pensionersand, above all, housewives.Table 25 provides more detailed information onthe occupational categories of the personsinterviewed. There is a clear difference betweenthe situation of men and women. Accordingly,twice as many self-employed men as womenemploy workers (7%, compared to 3.5%). Thereare half as many women in management postsas men, and there are four times as many menas women working as supervisors or foremen

(7%, compared to 1.6%). There are morewomen in salaried employment, be it perma-nent (59% among women, as opposed to 50%among men), seasonal, temporary or casualwork (6%, as opposed to 3.5%), or on fixed-term contracts (6.5%, as opposed to 5%).When Europeans were asked why they hadopted for temporary or fixed-term work ratherthan for a permanent job, 52% of them repliedthat they had not managed to find a perma-nent job, this being more the case for men thanfor women (58%, as opposed to 46%). However,twice as many women as men stated that theydid not want a permanent job (28.5%, as oppo-sed to 11%). It should also be noted that 18% ofthose interviewed chose the "other" category.

The figures in the Eurobarometer survey there-fore also show the disparities between the em-ployment of women and men and the greaterinsecurity of women on the labour market.

Outside the world of workMany women in Europe do not do paid work,either because they have given up work, orbecause they do unpaid work or because theyare housewives who regret never having wor-ked outside the home.The people without work who had not lookedfor paid work in the previous four weeks wereasked a question about this regret. There areten times as many women as men in this cate-gory in absolute terms.

25. TYPES OF ACTIVITY

Self-employed with employeesSelf-employed without employeesManagerForeman or supervisorOther employee, permanent jobOther employee, seasonal,temporary or casual jobOther employee, under contractor for a fixed periodOther

Men15-24(725)3.78.83.02.848.2

10.0

15.18,4

25-39(2530)5.810.48.85.357.8

3.6

5.32.9

40-54(2073)9.015.411.79.548.0

1.6

1.43.5

55+(825)11.621.714.910.033.9

2.4

4.01.4

Total(6153)7.413.49,97.050.1

3.5

5.03,5

Women15-24(562)1.57.61.31.457.0

11,2

13.26.7

25-39(1713)3.49.86.81.461.0

5.4

7.34.9

40-54(1460)3.512.85.11.961.1

3.4

4.57.7

55+(603)5.619.04.91.948.4

8.1

3.09.0

Total(4337)3.511.85.21.658.8

5.9

6,56.6

TOTAL(10491)5.812.78.04.853.7

4.5

5.64.8

EU 15+. Q.n.A-Eurobarometer 44.3- Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Which of these categories best describes your job ?"

24


More than 40% of the women interviewed saidthat they had never regretted not having paidemployment, and this was particularly the casefor women aged 55+ (52%). More of the youn-gest women regretted "often" (16%) or "some-times" (50%) that they did not work outside thehome, followed by women aged 25-39 (14%and 34% respectively). As for men, the fact ofnot working was a source of regret for them"sometimes" in 42% of cases and "often" in26% of cases.The reasons given by women who regrettedhaving no paid employment were, in decrea-sing order of frequency, family responsibilities,poor health, influence of the husband and dif-ficulty in finding a job. This order is naturallyinfluenced by age, with the youngest womenciting their family responsibilities, and theoldest women emphasising their poor state ofhealth and pressure from their husband butalso the fact that they had not looked for a jobwhen they should have done.

A debate at homeAs well as involving personal choice and beingsubject to economic constraints, the question ofwomen going out to work is also a topic ofdebate, especially at home. Besides, according

to Table 26,10% of the women interviewed saidthat their husband preferred them to stay athome. Part of this debate was shown up by foursupplementary questions. Women were asked:"Please say which of the following two statementsapplies to your situation : 1) I would like to go outto work; 2 ) : my husband would like me to go outto work".The questions put to men did not relate to themen themselves, but to their partners/wives:"Please say which of the following two statementsapplies to your situation: 1) I would like my wife togo out to work; 2); my wife would like to go out towork".These distinct questions provide an interestingminor image of the situation because each personexpresses his/her own wishes and then giveshis/her opinion of what his/her spouse thinksabout the same question. There is a certain level ofdisagreement between men and women, with 48%of men wanting their wife to go out to work, and54% of women expressing a desire to go out towork. This comparison is all the more interestingto analyse since women underestimate their part-ner's desire for them to go out to work (42%, asopposed to 48%), and men - although aware oftheir wife's wishes - still underestimate their desireto go out to work (52%, as opposed to 54%).

26. THE REASONS FOR THE LACK OF PAID EMPLOYMENT

1 do not have sufficient training1 did not manage to find a jobjl did not think of it when1 should have doneMy family responsibilities prevented meMy spouse prefers me to stay at home1 lost my job and could not findanother oneMy health is not good enoughTo have more time for my familyand for my leisure activities1 do not need the moneyDon't know

MENTotal(235)

7.313.0

2.117.41.0

23.712.7

5.81.311.9

WOMEN15-24(134)

12.111.5

2.952.52.1

4.93.1

9.30.31.0

25-39(679)

6.44,5

4.245.110.1

5.63.9

14.41,13.8

40-54(665)

3.35.9

8.335,58.8

3.97.8

20.03.52.4

55+(805)

2.52.3

9.330.312.7

3.316.0

10.64.56.9

Total .(2284)

4.54.5

7.137.510.2

4.29.3

14.42.94.3

TOTAL(2519)-

4.75.3

6.635.79,3

6.19.6

13.62.85.0

EU 15+. Q.57.B - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "What is the main reason why you do not have a paid job ?"

25

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

The wishes of men and women living togetheras a couple concerning the question of thewoman going out to work are linked mainly tocriteria such as age, level of education andwhether or not they are economically active.The desire to see the woman go out to work fallsconsiderably with increasing age among men,and even more so among women. On the otherhand, it increases more among women thanmen according to level of education. A higherproportion of economically active people -women even more so than men -want womento go out to work.

Two trends combine on the question of womengoing out to work: a historical development underwhich the younger generations are more in favourof women working, and a development relating tothe time of life and to the wish not to go out towork when both spouses no longer work.

The situation varies somewhat from one countryto another although, almost everywhere, menare less in favour of women working thanwomen are. In the former GDR, in France andPortugal, however, there is a relative consensusbetween the sexes. This is far from being the casein Belgium, Denmark, the former FRG, Greece,Luxembourg and the Netherlands, where there isa difference of more than 10% between thewishes of men and women on this issue. InAustria, the difference is as high as 21%.

27. THE CHOICE OF HOUSEHOLDS AS TO WHETHER OR NOT THE WOMAN SHOULD HAVEA JOB, BY COUNTRY

Women's preference Men's preference

PREFERENCE AS TO WHETHER ORBelgium

DenmarkWest Germany

GermanyEast Germany

Greece

Spain

France

IrelandItalyLuxembourg

NetherlandsAustria

PortugalFinland

SwedenUnited Kingdom

UE15+

In their own view

MOT THE WOMAN SHOULD56.0 -

83.6

57.762.9

79.8

68.061.3

51.152.453.452.346.2

55.5

56.4

83.837.633,2

53.7

In the view'of thetr husband

HAVE A JOB48.3

72.136.3

44.8

72.5

55,750.0

40.142.536.8

35.133.642.3

54.577.7

30.029.8

42.0

In the viewof their wife

41.3

81:2

54.259.7

79.2

64.855.651.6

58.652.945,736.7

498

58.5

81.0 38,33.4,951.7.

In their own view

.43.0

70.3 48.1

55,1

80,0

56.653.7

50.350.846.339.0

34.234.257.180.7

29.1

31.447.8

EU 15+ Q 80 and Q.81 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Opinion of couples about the woman having a job. Distribution by sex and country.

26


3. VIEWS ABOUT EMPLOYMENTAND UNEMPLOYMENT

What do people in Europe think about the employ-ment and unemployment of women? While only50% of Europeans, taking both sexes together, arein favour of women going out to work, 86% ofEuropeans declare paradoxically that it is asimportant for a woman to have a job as it is for aman (see Table 28). In all age groups, morewomen than men are of this opinion. There is vir-tual unanimity among the youngest women(96%) and while support for this view falls withincreasing age, the fall is comparatively slight.There is a difference of around 6% between theviews of men and women in all age groups. Lastly,support for this view is higher among those whowork themselves. 85% of working men believe thatit is just as important for women to have a job as

Danish and Portuguese men, with figures of bet-ween 92% and 94%. French, Greek, Spanish andItalian men are also in the leading group (withbetween 84% and 87% of them taking this view).Austrian men (68%) lag behind West German,Luxembourgish and Irish men (77%). Whilethere is a certain consensus between men andwomen in Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Italy,the differences are quite marked in Austria (11%),France and the former West Germany (8%).

A substantial majority of men and women inEurope agree that "when jobs are scarce", menshould have priority over women. Support forthis view is higher among women thanamong men (65%, as opposed to 58%), espe-cially in the youngest age groups. Accordingly,four out of five women in the 15-24 year agegroup and three out of four women in the 25-

it is for men. 95% of economical-ly active women are convincedthat this is the case. Support forthis view falls somewhat amongthose who are not economicallyactive (85% among women and80% among men).

Should men have priorityin obtaining jobs?The answers were classified inChart 29 by country and on thebasis of the reply "I tend toagree" and of the male replyrates. The classification is hea-ded by Swedish men, 97% ofwhom emphasise that work isjust as important for women asit is for men. They are followedby the German men of the for-mer GDR and by Finnish,

29. "I TEND TO AGREE" THAT IT IS JUST AS IMPORTANT FORA WOMAN TO HAVE A |OB AS IT IS FOR A MAN

Answer to the question : "Do you tend to agree or disagree with the follo-wing statement: It is just as important for a woman to have a job as it is fora man ?" Classification on the basis of the answer "I tend to agree".

28. WORK IS AS IMPORTANT TO WOMEN AS IT IS TO MEN

Men Women

I tend to agreeI tend to disagree

15-24(1904)

89.4

8.2

25-39(3077)

87.1

11.0

40-54(2474)

83.3

13.5

55+(2866)

74.7

22.1

Total(10321)

83.2

14.2

15-24(1811)

96.4

3.2

25-39(2972)

90.7

7.6

40-54(2448)

89.8

8.2

55+(3805)

83.3

14.6

Total(11037)

88.8

9,4

TOTAL(21357)

86.1

11.7

EU 15+ Q 91 A - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Please tell me if you tend to agree or disagree with the following statement: It is as important for a womanto have a job as it is for a man".

27

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

30. SHOULD MEN GET PRIORITY WHEN JOBS ARE SCARCE ?

Men Women

I tend to agree

I tend to disagree

15.24(1904)

28.6

668

25-39(3077)

29,5

62,9

40.54(2474)

33,6

582

55+(2866)

484

452

Total(10321)

35.6

57.6

15-24-(1811)

14.3

82.3

25-39(2972)

19.4

75.7

40-54(2448)

28.4

64.6

55+(3805)

43.9.

480

Total(11037T

29.0,

64.8

TOTAL.(21357)

32.2

61.3

EU 15+ Q 91 E - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Do you tend to agree or disagree with the following statement: When jobs are scarce, men should have prio-rity over women ?"

non-active men). While aconsiderable majority ofEuropeans believes that it isjust as important for womento have a job as it is for men,32% of all Europeans believethat when jobs are scarce prio-rity should be given to men.There is a particularly strongcontrast between the MemberStates. While such a priority isfavoured by ± 10% of Finnish,Swedish and Danish men, it isstrongly supported by a consi-derable majority of Greek(57%) and Belgian men(53%), closely followed byItalian (48%), Portuguese(46%) and Austrian men(42%). French,Luxembourgish and Spanishmen (33%) are close to theCommunity average (36%), asare Irish men and Germanmen from the former WestGermany (38%). If the opi-

UE 1 S+ Q 91 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Classification on the basis of the reply "I tend to agree".

31. MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MEMBER STATES

34 year age group take this view, whereasthree out of ten men in the same age groupsthink that they should have priority overwomen for employment. It should also bepointed out that 44% of women aged 55+ alsothink that men should be given priority whenjobs are scarce. Lastly, the differences of viewbetween women who are economically activeand those who are not may be noted: only20% of the former group think that menshould have priority, whereas the proportionfor the latter group is 35% (33% of economi-cally active men and 40% of economically

nion of women in Denmark, Sweden, Finland,the Netherlands, the United Kingdom orLuxembourg is close to that of the men fromthese countries (± 1% difference), this is notthe case for women from Greece (15% diffe-rence), Austria (13), Germany (12), Portugal(12), Belgium and Italy (10).

28


32. ARE WOMEN AT GREATER RISK OF BECOMING UNEMPLOYED ?

Men Women

I tend to agreeI tend to disagree

15-24(1904)

52.3

38.3

25-39(3077)

56.5

34.1

40-54(2474)

63.2

28.8

55+(2866)

65.7

250

Total(10321)

59.9

31.1

15-24(1811)

65.8

27.4

25-39(2972)

70.0

23.3

40-54(2448)

72.6

21.6

55+(3805)

68.8

208

Total(11037)

69,5

227

TOTAL(21357)

64.8

26.8

EU 15+. Q.91 F - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question: "Do you tend to agree or disagree with the following statement: Women are at greater risk of becoming unem-ployed than men ?"

Women run a greater risk of becomingunemployed than menWe have seen how men in certain MemberStates believe that they should be given prioritywhen jobs are scarce. It comes therefore as nosurprise to discover that 65% of all Europeansbelieve that women run a greater risk of beco-ming unemployed than men.More women tend to agree with this statementthan men (69%, as opposed to 60%, especially inthe 25-39 and 40-54 age groups (70% and 73%respectively). The differences of opinion are par-ticularly marked in the youngest age groups,with a 13% difference between the views of menand women in the 15-24 and 25-39 age groups.Lastly, women who are economically non-activetend to be most aware of the problem, perhapsbecause of personal experience, with 70% of

them believing that women are at greater risk ofbecoming unemployed than men.The differences between countries are alsosignificant in this case. Four fifths of Germansfrom the former GDR, three quarters of thePortuguese, Danes and Swedes, two thirds ofGreeks, Italians, Spaniards and Germans fromthe former West Germany believe that womenare at greater risk of becoming unemployedthan men (see Chart 33).

Only one third of people in the United Kingdomtake this view, and it is true that the UnitedKingdom is the only Member State of theEuropean Union in which the unemploymentrate among men exceeds that among women.Once again, there are clear differences betweenthe opinions of men and women. While theviews of women in Luxembourg, the

Answer to thequestion :"Do you tend toagree or disagreewith the followingstatement:Women are atgreater risk ofbecomingunemployed thanmen ?"

33. "I TEND TO AGREE" THAT WOMEN ARE AT GREATER RISK OF BECOMINGUNEMPLOYED THAN MEN

Netherlands, Denmark andPortugal are broadly similar tothose of men in these countries(less thar 4 points' differencebetween the opinions of menand women), the difference isgreater in the case of women inSpain (14% difference), the for-mer West Germany and theUnited Kingdom (12%),Belgium (11%), Finland (10%)and France (9%).Lastly, there is a strange logicin that Greece, Italy andPortugal have the highest pro-portions of people who believethat men should be givenpriority when jobs are scarce,the same people believe thatwomen are at greater risk ofbecoming unemployed thanmen !

UE 1S+ Q 91 F - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

29

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

34. ARE UNEMPLOYED WOMEN AT GREATER RISK OF BEING MARGINALISED ?

Men Women15-24(1904)

I tend to agree 49.8

I tend to disagree 35 0

25-39(3077)

54.233.0

40-54(2474)

61.127.9

55+(2866)

59.924.3

Total(10321)

56629.7

15-24(1811)

57.528.5

25-39(2972)

64.1

26.0

40-54(2448)

69.222.8

55+(3805)

64.6

21.0

Total(11037)

64.324.0

TOTAL(21357)

60.6

26.8

EU 15+ Q 91 ) - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Do you tend to agree or disagree with the following statement: An unemployed woman is at greater risk ofmarginalisation and exploitation than an unemployed man T'

Marginalisation and exploitationfor the unemployedThe lost question put to Europeans aboutemployment and unemployment concernedthe extent to which women are at greater riskthan men of being marginalised and exploi-ted when they are unemployed (Table 34).Almost two thirds of women and slightly overhalf of men tended to agree that there is agreater risk of marginalisation and exploita-tion for women. The highest level of supportfor this view came from women aged 40-54(69%), whereas the highest percentage ofpeople who tended to disagree was foundamong the youngest men (35%). Generallyspeaking, women who are economically acti-ve also seem to be very aware of this problem.

There are national differences on this question,with three quarters of Germans from the formerEast Germany and of Greeks, two thirds of Finnsand the Portuguese, a considerable majority ofLuxembourgers, Spaniards, the British, Danesand Austnans considering that women are at nskof marginalisation and exploitation when theyare unemployed. Fewer than two fifths of peoplein the Netherlands take this view. The greatestdifferences between the answers of women andmen were found in the former West Germany(14%), Spain (13%), Ireland and Austria (11%).

35. "I TEND TO AGREE" THAT UNEMPLOYED WOMEN ARE AT GREATER RISKOF BEING MARGINALISED

EU 15+ Q 91 I - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Classification on the basis of the reply "I tend to agree".

30


4. INEQUALITY ... AT WORK

Most Europeans think that women are at adisadvantage in comparison to men at theworkplace in at least four main areas :• the possibility of obtaining a decision-making

post;• salary/wage;• the number and variety of occupations open to

them;• the chances of promotion.

On the other hand, women are considered to bein a similar position to men as regards :• job security;• commanding respect from other people.

Views about inequalities between men andwomen at the workplace vary considerably bet-ween the sexes and, even more so, between theage groups, as shown by Table 37.

A view that increaseswith ageGenerally speaking, more women than menbelieve that the situation of women is difficult.Overall, there is a difference of 10% betweenthe answers of men and women, and even 14%on the question of promotion prospects. Themost negative view is taken by men andwomen aged 40-54 years. Moreover, in this agegroup, 72% of women stress the difficulty of

obtaining a decision-making post, and 67% ofthem emphasize the problems of remuneration(59% and 56% respectively among men). Theyoungest women are the least negative on thequestions of "promotion prospects" and of "thechances of finding an occupation that corres-ponds to your training" (differences of 16% and13% respectively between women in the 15-24year age group and women in the 40-54 yearage group). Is this idealism or inexperience as aresult of youth?

Inequality as the rule ?In order to analyse further the perception ofinequality in employment, women's answers of"tends to be worse" in the various areas wereclassified in increasing order and by country.These inequalities are felt particularly stronglyin the unified Germany and Spain, where twothirds, in some cases even four fifths, of femalerespondents believe that they are at a disad-vantage in comparison with men in all theareas covered by the question, and especially asregards the occupations that are open to them,the chances of finding a job or a place on a trai-ning course, remuneration and promotionprospects (see Charts 38-44 below). More thanthree quarters of women in Austria, Swedenand Finland also complain about inequality inthe areas of remuneration and promotion, aswell as venting their frustration that they can-not obtain decision-making posts. As a whole,less than half of women in Belgium, theNetherlands, Denmark, Greece and Italy thinkthat their position "tends to be worse" thanthat of men. There appears to be less inequali-ty in the areas of job security and of comman-ding respect from other people, as we haveseen, apart from in the case of German women.Here, too, there are particularly large diffe-rences between the answers of men andwomen. It should be noted that the greatest dif-ferences of opinion between men and women(between 10 and 19%) are found in the case ofIreland, Italy, Spain, Finland, Sweden and theformer West Germany, and this concerns allaspects of the question.

lob Commanding job Promotion Number Salary/ Possibilitysecurity respect torrespon- of occupations wage of obtaining

from ding to a decision-other people education mating post

EU1 S+ Q 95 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Do you think that women's current situation atthe workplace, in comparison with that of men, tends to be better, worse orthe same in the following areas ?" Classification on the basis of the reply"tends to be worse".

31

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

37. THE POSITION OF WOMEN AT THE WORKPLACE TENDS TO BE WORSE IN THE FOLLOWING AREASMen Women

The number and varietyof occupations open to them

The chance of finding anoccupation that correspondsto your training

Salary/wage

Promotion prospects

The possibility of obtaininga decision-making post

job securityCommanding respectfrom other people

15-24(1904)

45.7

29.8

44.5

33.1

49.124.7

33.5

25-39(3077)

49.2

38.3

50.539.9

53.3

30.9

32.2

40.54(2474)

51.5

42.9

56.4

47.3

59.2

34,3

33,2

55+(2866)

48.9

42.3

56.947.4

59.636,7

33,0

Total(10321)

49.0

38,9

52.642.5

55,732.2

32,9

15-24(1811)

55.7

40.3

56.547.2

62.8

36.2

40.8

25-39(2972)

57.2

49.0

63.8

56.5

68.3

41.1

40,2

40-54(2448)

58.6

53.1

67.0

62.9

71.7

43.9

42.0

55+(3805)

53,3

49.6

60.256.9

61.6

44.3

39.5

Total(11037)

55.9

48.7

62.156.5

65.8

42.0

40.4

TOTAL(21357)

52.6

44.0

57.5

49.7

60.9

37.3

36.8

UE 15*. Q.95 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

38. WOMEN TEND TO BE IN A WORSE POSITIONAS REGARDS THE NUMBER AND VARIETYOF OCCUPATIONS OPEN TO THEM

39.... AS REGARDS THE CHANCE OF FINDINGAN OCCUPATION THAT CORRESPONDSTO THEIR TRAINING

40.... AS REGARDS SALARY/WAGE 41. „. AS REGARDS PROMOTION PROSPECTS

Answer to the question : "Do you think that women's current situation at the workplace, in comparison with that of men, tends to bebetter, worse or the same in the following areas... 7"EU 15+. Q.95 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996. Classification by the answer "tends to be worse".

32


42.... AS REGARDS THE CHANCES OF OBTAININGA DECISION-MAKING POST

43.... AS REGARDS JOB SECURITY

Answer to the question : "Do you think that women's currentsituation at the workplace, in comparison with that of men, tendsto be better, worse or the same in the following areas... ?"EU 15+. Q.95 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996. Classificationby the answer "tends to be worse".

33

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

5. PROBLEMS SPECIFICALLYAFFECTING WOMEN

There is every indication that the widespreadsocial phenomenon of women in work hasbecome irreversible. "Women's work is now hel-ping to build the female identity: girls at school pre-pare for an occupation in the same way as boys,and very few of them do not look for a job whenthey leave education. However, the occupation ofmen remains the priority in most families, whosesocial status depends primarily on the husband'semployment" (Bihr and Pfefferkorn, 1996: 59).This explains why parental leave is taken bywomen in most cases and why women conti-nue to be responsible for most household tasks.On the same subject, mention should be madeof the occasionally recurring idea of a salary for

referring to the economic activity of mothers(with a young child).

A way of becomingintegrated into societyThree of the statements refer directly to womenworking and do not allude to the existence ofchildren. They concern the sense of isolationfelt by women who do not have a job, the needfor women to have their own financialresources and the preference given to men injob-seeking.According to Table 45 (see below), nearly halfof Europeans (49%) say that the lack of econo-mic activity is a factor of isolation, while 44%disagree. This view is held by 52% of women (asopposed to 45% of men), especially the youn-gest women (58% of those aged 15-24 years

housewives, which may possi-bly be renamed "parentalsalary", since while womenwere quick to enter the marketof paid employment, the per-ception of this work has chan-ged more slowly.A series of statements corres-ponding to widely-held opi-nions were put to the peopleinterviewed in order to findout whether they agreed ordisagreed with them. Thesestatements may be divided upinto two groups. First, thereare those referring to the eco-nomic activity of women ingeneral, and, second, those

46. OPINIONS BY COUNTRY

UE 15+ Q.109.A- Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

45. ARE WOMEN WHO ARE NOT EMPLOYED "CUT OFF FROM THE WORLD" ?

Strongly agree

AgreeDisagree

DisagreeStrongly disagreeDK

Men

15-24(1904)

7.2

32.8

38.1

8.912.9

25-39(3077)

15.136.6

32.6

7.08.7

40-54(2474)

13.0

35.736.4

6.9

8.1

S5+(2866)

11.6

28.138.4

12.59.4

Total(10321)

12.1

33.336.1

8.9

9.5

Women

15-24(1811)

18.6

39.7

29.2

7.84.6

25-39(2972)

16.838.4

31.2

10.13.4

40-54(2448)

16.7'35.1

33.0

12.03.2

55+(3805)

14.031,6

33.9

13.2

7.3

"Total(11037)

16.135.532.2

11.2

4.9

TOTAL(21357)

14.2

34.5

34.1

10.17.1

EU 15+. Q109 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Please tell me if you strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with each of the following opinions ?"

34


and 55% of those aged 25-39 years). Womenwho are economically active - perhaps becausethey have a job - are the most convinced (62%)that women who are not economically activemust feel isolated. It is no doubt revealing that45% of women who are not economically acti-ve also agree with this statement. It is clear thatemployment is also tied up with integrationinto society. While it is not yet taken for gran-ted that women should go out to work, there isa certain social pressure on those who do not,with 45% of them saying that they are "cut offfrom the world",When women's answers are classified in increa-sing order and by country, they show that thereis by no means unanimity in the EuropeanUnion. A substantial majority of women in theUnited Kingdom, Denmark, France, Finland,Greece, Belgium, Sweden and the former GDR

Financial independenceHalf of Europeans think that women with noeconomic activity suffer from a certain degreeof isolation. At the same time, 55% of thoseinterviewed consider it essential for a woman tohave her own source of income. This view istaken by 60% of women, and even by 71% ofwomen in the 15-24 year age group (which is adifference of 17% with their male counterparts)and 63% in the 25-39 year age group (10% dif-ference). More working women consider finan-cial independence to be essential, with twothirds of them saying that they agree with thisstatement, whereas half of those who are noteconomically active (be they men or women)agree, and 40% of them disagree.As in the case of the previous question, thesame countries are above the Community ave-rage, apart from the former GDR and the

think that women who do notgo out to work feel cut off.There is less support for thisview, however, among womenin the Netherlands, Spain,Luxembourg and Italy. Thefirst of these two large groups ismade up of countries witli aparticularly high proportion ofwomen in work, and thesecond comprises countrieswith a much lower proportion.May this difference explain theparticularly wide gap betweenthe two ends of the spectrum(45% difference betweenwomen in the Netherlands andthe former GDR)?

UE 15+ Q.109.E. - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996-

Classification on the basis of the replies "I strongly agree" and "I agree".

47. IS FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE ESSENTIAL ?

Strongly agreeAgree

Disagree

Strongly disagreeOK

Men

15-24(1904)

13.4

40.327.7

6.511.9

25-39(3077)

11.342.132.1

6.77.4

40-54(2474)

12.6

35.036.6

7.38.6

55+(2866)

10.1

35.833.4

10.310.2

Total(10321)

11.7

38.332.7

7.8

9.3

Women

15-24(1811)

27.843.219.5

3.7

5.5

25-39(2972)

22.9

40.527.54.64.3

40-54(2448)

20.938.8

29.5

5.55.1

55+(3805)

17.336.6

26.3

9.89.5

Total(11037)

21.339.226.2

6.56.5

TOTAL(21357)

16.7

38.829.47.1

7.8

EU 15+. Q 109 E - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Please tell me if you strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the following opinion:A woman must have her own source of income".

35

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

United Kingdom, which are replaced byPortugal and Spain. If a considerable majorityof women respondents think that women whodo not work feel isolated, even more of themconsider that it is essential for a woman to haveher own source of income. Accordingly, 93% ofPortuguese and Greek women, 87% of Finnishwomen and more than two thirds of Swedish,Spanish and Belgian women take this view. Onthe other hand, no more than two fifths ofwomen in the Netherlands, Austria and the for-mer FRG consider it essential for women tohave their own source of income. While there isa fairly clear consensus between men andwomen respondents from the Netherlands,Luxembourg, Denmark and Portugal, there arevery marked differences (over 15%) betweenthe opinions of men and women in Austria,Italy, Ireland and the former GDR.

Equal skills, but an unequal situationWhile the two previous opinions (social reco-gnition and financial independence) ore gene-rally accepted by Europeans and are factorsthat tend to promote female employment, ano-ther question shows up the difficulties which

women encounter in finding employment: "Youapply for a job that corresponds to your training.You are competing with a person of your age whohas the same qualifications and experience as youbut is of the other sex. Do you think that he/she hasa better chance of getting the job than you becau-se he/she is a man/woman? Or do you think thatyou have a better chance than him/her because youare a woman/man? Or do you think that the fact ofbeing a woman or a man has no influence?"

More than one third of European men think that,with equal skills, they have a better chance of fin-ding work than women do. 47% of women agree.This view is countered by the 47% of men and 36%of women who say that "the fact of being a womanor man has no influence".Women over the age of 40 feel strongly thatthey face inequality when it comes to findingwork. More than 50% of them say that menhave a better chance of being chosen, whileonly 39% of the youngest women (15-24 years)take this view. The same difference existsamong men, with the gap between the attitudeof the youngest men and that of their eldersbeing far more marked (27%, as opposed to

49. AN ADVANTAGE WHEN IT COMES TO EMPLOYMENT ?

In the opinion of men

She has better chances than youYou have better chances than herThe fact of being a womanor a man has no influenceDK

15-24

(1904)

6-8273

54.810.7

25-39 '(3077)

6.933.6

49.890

40-54

(2474)

7.739.6

42.79.6

55+

(2866)

5.041.6

41.111.8

Total

(10321)

6,636.1

46.6

10.2

Economicalactive men(6153)

6337.2

47.09,1

Economically"non-active men(4167)

7.0'34.6

46.011.9

UE 15+. Q 94 - Eurobarometre 44.3 - Pnntemps 1996.

In the opinion of women

HeYou have better chances than himTheorDK

has better chances than you

fact of being a womana man has no influence

15-24

(1811)

39.19.1

45,36.4

25.39

(2972)

42.68.5

41.47.2

40-54

(2448)

49.610.3

32.8'7.3

55+

(3805)'

53.36.2

29,510.6

Total

(11037)

47.38,2

3608.2

Economicallyactive women(4337)

'41.711.5

39.96.9

Economicallynon-active women

(6699)

-50.96.1

33.59.1

LIE 15+ Q 93. - Eurobawneter 44,3 - Spnng 1996.

36


42%, in other words 15% difference). The fact ofbeing active or non-active has little influenceon men's answers, whereas active women -who one would think most likely to be aware ofany discrimination - are less aware than theEuropean average of this inequality. Non-acti-ve women, however, emphasise this inequalitymore often than active women (51%, as oppo-sed to 42%).Of all the countries of the European Union, theformer GDR has the highest proportion ofwomen (69%) who think that men have betterchances than women, the skills level being

equal. Spanish women (61%) and Swedishwomen (55%) also feel this discrimination verystrongly. This feeling is less strong, however,among women in Belgium, the Netherlands,Italy, Greece and Denmark, more of whomstate that "the fact of being a woman or a manhas no influence".

More than 40% of men in Finland, the formerFRG, Denmark and Sweden and 56% ofGermans in the former GDR admit that theyenjoy an advantage over women with the sameskills as them. There was a fair amount ofagreement between men and women inGermany and Sweden, as there was in Italy,Belgium and the Netherlands, where men ten-ded to emphasise that the sex of the applicantdoes not affect the decision.

The activity of mothersThe questions relating to the employment ofmothers reveal some of the problems of recon-ciling work and family life.

If, in absolute terms, the replies to the previousquestions tended to consiaer women's employ-ment to be legitimate to a certain extent and todenounce the inequality that women may face,the results in this case show, either directly orindirectly, that the population is more reticentabout the question of mothers working.

Children should have priority !74% of Europeans agree that "a mothershould give priority to her young child ratherthan to her work". 58% of people think thatthe amount that a woman earns from herwork is taken up by the costs of childcare, and53% of people think that it is not the father'sresponsibility to give up work in order to lookafter the children, even if he earns less. Inother words, the traditional image of thefamily in which the husband goes out to workand the wife stays at home to look after thechildren is still very much rooted in people'sminds. Age has a certain effect in answers tothis question, with two thirds of those underthe age of 25 agreeing that a mother shouldgive "priority to her young child rather thanto her work", whereas the proportion is over80% among those aged 55+. Three quarters ofnon-active men and women and more thantwo thirds of active men and women agreewith this statement...

50. "HE HAS A BETTER CHANCE THAN YOU"

EU 15+ Q 93 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Classification on the basis of the reply "He has a better chance than you"and of the answers of women.

51. "YOU HAVE A BETTER CHANCE THAN HER"


Classification on the basis of the reply "You have a better chance thanher" and of male replies.

37

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

52. SHOULD A MOTHER GIVE PRIORITY TO HER CHILD RATHER THAN TO HER WORK ?

Strongly agree

AgreeDisagreeStrongly disagree

OK

Men

15-24(1904)

22.0

45.116.14.2

12.6

25-39(3077)

25.3

45.816.22,3

10.1

40-54(2474)

28.8

47.614.2

2.56.9

55+(2866)

36.1

47.3

7.31.0

8.2

Total(10321)

28.5

46.5

13,22.4

9.3

Women

15-24(1811)

19.6

44.623.23.5

8,7

25-39(2972)

24.544.5

21.5

2.86.7

40-54(2448)

28.3

44.917.7

2.1

6.9

55+(3805)

36.7

44.8

9.8

1.37.1

Total(11037)

28.7

44.716.92.2

7.2

TOTAL(21357)

28.6

45.6

15.5

2.38.2

EU 15+ Q 109 D - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

European consensus

The analysis of the questions on women goingout to work showed the lack of unanimity bet-ween the respondents from the various MemberStates of the Union, whereas there appears tobe a certain consensus on the question ofmothers going out to work. There are smaller,albeit still large, differences between the num-bers of people supporting the various state-ments (30% difference between the two ends ofthe scale; see Chart 53 above). The highest levelof support for the view that "a mother mustgive priority to her young child rather than toher work" is found among Greek women (87%),closely followed by women in Ireland, theUnited Kingdom and Luxembourg (four fifths),Italy, Portugal, the former FRG, Spain andSweden (three quarters), and France, the

Netherlands and Denmark (two thirds). Thereis a certain similarity between the answers ofmen and women even though there are com-paratively more men than women who thinkthat a mother should give priority to her youngchild, except in Denmark, Spain, Austria,Luxembourg and Ireland. With the exceptionof this last country, the differences remain verysmall and do not exceed 2%.

Is. it financially worthwhile for a motherto go out to work?58% of Europeans are convinced that the costsof childcare cancel out the amount that amother earns from work (15% "strongly agree"and 43% "agree"). There is little variation forsex, age or activity of the person interviewed. Itshould be pointed out that almost one fifth ofpeople do not know, and this proportion ishigher among men and especially among theyoungest men (29% in the 15-24 age group); itis lowest among working women, who are the-refore the most convinced that it is worthwhilefor a mother to work. It is true that theEuropeans who are faced with this problem donot make up the majority of the persons inter-viewed and therefore perhaps find it difficult togive an opinion on something that they do notknow enough about.On the question of childcare, there are threegroups among the Member States. About 45% ofScandinavian women (from Finland, Denmarkand Sweden), as well as women from the Nether-lands - even fewer than 35% in Finland - thinkthat the costs of childcare are equivalent to themother's remuneration. About 60% of women inan intermediate group (Belgium, France, EastGermany and Italy) take this view. Lastly, there isa third group comprising most countries (Spain,

53. MORE THAN TWO OUT OF THREE EUROPEANS...

EU 15+. Q 109 0 - Eurobarometer 44 3 ~ Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Please tell me whether you strongly agree,agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the following statement: A mothershould give priority to her young child rather than to her work".

38


54. YES, THE COSTS OF CHILDCARE SWALLOW UP ALMOSTALL THE MOTHER'S REMUNERATION

ED 15+. Q.109.C - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spnng 1996.

Answer to the question : "Please tell me if you strongly agree, agree,disagree or strongly disagree with the following statement: In many cases,childcare costs about as much as the mother earns". Classification on thebasis of the answers "I strongly agree" and "I agree".

United Kingdom, former FRG, Ireland,Luxembourg, Portugal, Greece and Austria);more than two thirds of women in these countriesare convinced that the costs of childcare are swal-lowed up by the mother's remuneration. An exa-mination of the forms of childcare in the variousMember States would certainly provide someinteresting insights about these opinions.

It should be noted that the proportion of mensupporting this view is always lower than that ofwomen, apart from in Greece (+ 1% difference).There are fairly sharp differences between theanswers of men and women in the UnitedKingdom, the former FRG and Ireland (15%, 9%and 12% respectively). Does this disparity reflectthe ignorance of male respondents in these coun-tries about the costs of childcare and the level ofwomen's remuneration?

55. IF THE FATHER EARNS LESS THAN THE MOTHER, SHOULD HE GIVE UP WORK IN ORDER TO LOOK AFTERTHE CHILDREN ?

Men Women

I strongly agreeI agreeI disagreeI strongly disagreeDK

15-24(1904)7.925.936,319.310.5

25-39(3077)11.230.832,717.28.0

40-54(2474)9.430.336.315.98.1

55+(2866)8.526.532.720.410.5

Total(10321)9.428.634.618.29.2

15-24(1811)15.824.935.018.16.0

25-39(2972)12.828635.815.37.5

40-54(2448)11.929.436.314.08.4

5S+(3805)9.924.536.318.410.9

Total(11037)12.126.736.016.68.7

TOTAL(21357)10.827.635.317.38.9

EU 15+. 0.109 B - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Do you strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the following statement: In a family, if thefather earns less than the mother, he should give up work in order to look after the children ?"

56. SOME DIFFERENCES OF VIEWS BETWEEN COUNTRIES

EU 15+. Q.109 B - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spnng 1996

Fathers do not give up work to lookafter the children

If the father earns less than the mother, should hegive up work in order to look after the children?53% of Europeans say no (17% even "stronglydisagree"). If age and sex have little influence onthe replies, occupational activity does.

Although, overall, women are against the idea ofthe father giving up work in order to look afterthe children, women in employment are lessopposed to this. Men appear to show little enthu-siasm for the idea, however, regardless of whetheror not they are employed.

39

INEQUALITY AT WORK!

There are major variations between the natio-nalities, with 25% of women of the former FRGagainst the idea of the father giving up work,while the level of opposition among Portuguesewomen is 85%! Three quarters of Belgian,Italian and Greek women also reject the idea,followed by a substantial majority of Dutch,Luxembourgish, French, Danish and Finnishwomen. The views of German, British, Irish,Spanish, Swedish and Austrian women fallbelow the Community average. In most coun-tries men take the same view as women, apartfrom Danish, British and Dutch men, however,who, overall, are less opposed to this idea thanthe women of their respective countries.Are these men "new fathers" who are challengingthe traditional distribution of roles in the family?

6. IS THERE A THREAT TO THE WELL-BEING OF THE FAMILY ?

To mention the wellbeing of the family whentalking of female employment is to touch onthe problems of reconciling work and familylife and to highlight the contradictions thatpeople see between the interests of women andthe interests of children..When asked about the effects that the increasein female activity may have on the wellbeing ofthe couple and the household, Europeans givewidely differing answers depending on whetherthey mean the effects on the woman, the man,the couple or the children. Accordingly, 80% ofpeople think that the increase in the number ofwomen going out to work tends to have a posi-tive effect on the wellbeing of the woman, while50% of people consider it to be detrimental tothe child (Table 57). The key point in the dis-cussion about whether or not the womanshould go out to work therefore seems to be theexistence of children. Lastly, 74% of Europeansalso think that the fact of the woman going outto work is good for the wellbeing of the couple,and 66% of Europeans think that it is good forthe wellbeing of the man.In all age groups, there is a slightly higher pro-portion of women than men (± 5%) who thinkthat the fact of the woman going out to workhas a positive effect on the wellbeing of thevarious members of the family, while slightlyfewer women than men (48%, as opposed to

57 AND 58. IF THE WOMAN GOES OUT TO WORK,DOES THIS HAVE A POSITIVE EFFECT ON... ?

Tends to have a Tends to have a OKpositive effect negative effect

The wellbeing of the womanThe weilbeing of the coupteThe wellbeing of the manThe wellbeing of the children

79.974.565.639.5

11.716.521450.0

8.38.912.8103

Men who Men who Women who Womenwork do not work work do not work

Answer to thequestion:Proportion ofEuropeans whothink that if thewoman goes outto work, this tendsto have a positiveeffect on...

The wellbeing of the womanThe wellbeing of the coupleThe weilbeing of the manThe wellbeing of the children

79.974.367.037,0

74.470.462.436.1

865 79.081 6 72 871,4 62.645 3 40 3

EU 15+ 0,108-Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spnng 1996.

40


52%) think that their employment is bad forthe children.There are slightly more marked differences bet-ween the views of men and women, however,when the question of their employment istaken into account (Table 58). Those who work,regardless of their sex, are more inclined to seethe benefits of the woman going out to work,whether for the wellbeing of the woman, thecouple or the man, but their views tend to bemore mixed as far as the wellbeing of the chil-dren is concerned.

Concern for the child

Here, the level of education has the same effectas age. Irrespective of the age at which the per-sons interviewed had left the education system,they always considered the fact of the womangoing out to work to be beneficial for, in decrea-sing order, the wellbeing of the woman, thewellbeing of the couple and the wellbeing ofthe man. However, those who had remained inthe education system over the age of 20 all tooka more positive view of the effect of the womangoing out to work than those who left the edu-cation system before the age of 15. It should bepointed out once again that, when it comes tothe wellbeing of the children, a majority ofEuropeans, regardless of their level of educa-tion, still do not consider the employment ofthe woman to be positive.It comes as a surprise that the southern coun-tries - Greece, Spain, Portugal and Italy -have the highest percentages of people whothink that the fact of the woman going out towork "tends to be positive" for the wellbeingof the child (Chart 59). While the malerespondents also take this view, they are lesspositive than women, with the differencebeing greatest in Spain, and especially inGreece. The views in most other countries areclose to the average for the Community, apartfrom the former FRG and Austria, where nomore than one fifth of women take this view.Sweden is the only country in which men out-number women in thinking that it is a goodthing for the children if their mother goes outto work, but the difference between the viewsof men and women is only 2%.

59. IF THE MOTHER GOES OUT TO WORK THIS TENDS TOHAVE A POSITIVE EFFECT ON THE WELLBEING OF THECHILDREN

EU 15+ Q.108 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

41EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR MEN AND WOMEN IN EUROPE ?

Working lifeand family life

Career and children: can women haveboth ? Or must they opt for one or theother ? How can young parents behelped ? Should we introduce a sort of"maternal salary" or offer more childminding facilities to make it easier foryoung mothers to carry on working ?Might homeworking be another solu-tion ? Under what circumstances areEuropeans prepared to take leave tolook after their families or for theirown personal development ?

42


1. CHILDREN AND/OR A JOB ?

How do Europeans feel about the difficultiesfaced by women trying to juggle working lifeand family life? The statistics published byEurostat show that a high percentage of womenbetween the ages of 25 and 54 are workingmothers, which would seem to indicate thatwomen are in fact able to fulfil both roles.However, as Table 60 shows, in the Europe ofFifteen, as many women believe that "womenare often forced to choose between having chil-dren and a career" (48.5%) as feel that "womencan combine working and having children"(48%). Twice as many men as women hove no

opinion (7% compared with 3.4%). Slightlymore than half of European women in the agegroups 15-24 and 40-54 say that they can com-bine working life and family, as opposed to47% aged 25-39.

Two categories of mothers

However, the most significant results are to befound in Table 61 above. A large majority ofworking women (56%) with children under theage of 6 or between the ages of 6 and 15 belie-ve that "women can combine working andhaving children". At the same time, 59% ofnon-working women with children under 6 and53% of those with children aged 6 to 15 feel

60. CHOOSING OR COMBINING ?

Men Women

EU 15+. Q..106 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

EU15+.Q,106-Eurobarometer443-Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Which of these two statements do you think is closest to reality nowadays ?"

43

WORKING LIFE AND FAMILY LIFE

that "women are often forced to choose bet-ween having children and working". We aretherefore dealing with two categories ofwomen: those who have probably been able tofind a solution to their child minding needs andthose who have been "forced to choose" bet-ween career and children.

Since childcare facilities for young childrenvary considerably from one country to another,it is particularly interesting to see where thebest arrangements for reconciling the roles ofmother and working woman are provided andwhat these arrangements are.In terms of possibilities for fulfilling bothroles, three countries fall below the

Community average: few Austrian (20%),East or West German (25%) or Spanishwomen (39%) feel that the two activities canbe combined; there are therefore more womenin these countries who believe that women areforced to choose between working and havingchildren. At the opposite end of the scale, thecountries where the most women believe it ispossible to reconcile the two are Scandinavia(Denmark, Sweden and Finland) andBelgium. More than 60% of Dutch, Greek andBritish women, and a large majority of Frenchand Italian women also support this view.This is a reflection of the disparities betweenthe Member States in the area of child min-ding.

Men appear to share the opinions of their fel-low countrywomen, although in most coun-tries, slightly fewer men than women believethat women can combine working and havingchildren.

62. CHOOSING OR COMBINING BY COUNTRY

Women

44


2. HOW TO RESOLVE THEWORK/FAMILY DILEMMA

Clearly, it is not always possible for Europeanwomen to reconcile family and working life.What specific measures would they therefore pre-fer to make things easier for them? Financial aidto allow them to stop work temporarily? Aid inthe form of child-care facilities and services toallow them to continue to work? Or more possibi-lities for homeworking ?

Financial help or assistance in kind ?The first question was about the choice between"assistance in kind" or "financial help", but italso raised the issue of whether a mother shouldcontinue to work or not, and the problems ofchild minding. The answers given are thereforesubject to various influences which are notalways easy to appreciate. For example (cf.Chapter II), using the terms "mother" or "youngchild" in the question could influence somerespondents. In addition, the answers mayobviously be influenced by the standard of child-care facilities in a given country. In countrieswhere facilities are clearly inadequate, there ismore enthusiasm for financial aid to allowmothers to stop work.

48% of those interviewed felt that "mothers ofyoung children should be enabled to continueto work by being offered more child-care facili-ties and services" as opposed to 46% who pre-ferred "financial help to enable them to stopworking temporarily". The answers varied to agreater or lesser extent depending on sex, occu-

63. CHILD-CARE FACILITIES AND SERVICESOR FINANCIAL HELP ?

More child-carefacilitiesand services

Men 46,7

Women 48,5

Financialhelp

44,1

45,9


Answer to the question : "Which of these two state-ments do you agree with most ?"

pational status, the presence of dependent chil-dren and, above all, nationality.The solution favoured by both sexes (48% ofwomen and 47% of men) and particularly bythe youngest women (56% of those aged 15 to24 and 51% of those aged 25 to 39) was theimprovement of child-care facilities and services.The greatest demand for financial aid camefrom the oldest age bracket: 51% of women and47% of men aged 55 and over. Working womenwith children under 6 and working womenwithout children preferred more facilities, whilewomen who did not work and had childrenopted for a temporary break from work withfinancial compensation. Finally, slightly morenon-working men with dependent children

64. TYPE OF AID PREFERRED BY WOMEN 65. TYPE OF AID PREFERRED BY MEN

Answer to the question : "Would you prefer more child-care facilities and services or financial help ?"EU 15+. Q.I 07 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

45


than women in the same categories preferredmore child-care facilities.

Disparities between the Member StatesThe differences between countries were much moremarked (Charts 64 and 65). Slightly more thanhalf of German, Dutch, Belgian, British andSpanish women wanted more child-care facilitiesand services while 70% of Finnish, 63% of Swedishand the majority of Luxembourg, Danish, French,Greek and Italian women expressed a preferencefor a temporary break from professional activitywith financial compensation. Finally, throughoutEurope, there was little difference between the ans-wers of men and women.HomeworkingEuropeans seemed to be attracted by the idea ofhomeworking as a means of resolving the childminding problem. For 49% of those interviewed,homeworking was " a good solution for thosewho want to continue to work while at the sametime looking after their children at home" (cf.Table 66). However, 40% considered that it was

impossible "to work at home while at the sametime looking after the children". A majority ofwomen, particularly young women (55% in the15-24 age group) agreed with the first statement.A smaller majority of men shared this view,though nearly 14% had no opinion. Both wor-king and non-working people with children up tothe age of 15 expressed a preference for home-working (54% and 58% respectively). Workingmen and women alike with children under 6 feltthat it was impossible to work at home and lookafter children at the same time (49% and 53%).

In all countries, more women than men conside-red homeworking to be a good solution to the childminding problem. There was a significant diffe-rence between the answers from Finnish, Greekand Belgian women on the one hand and Swedishwomen on the other (± 20%), but overall, therewas little variation on the European average. Moremen than women, particularly Belgians,Germans, Austrians, Italians, Greeks, Spanish,Portuguese and British, felt that it was impossibleto combine homeworking .with child minding.

66. IS HOMEWORKING COMPATIBLE WITH CHILD MINDING ?

Working at home is agood solution for thosewho want to continue to workwhile at the same time lookingafter their children at home (A)It is impossible to workat home while at the same timelooking after the children (B)Don't know

Men15-24(1904)

45.6

38.4

8.0

25-39(3077)

43.5

41,9

14.5

40-54(2474)

44.7

44.3

10.8

55+(2866)

43.9

42.7

13.3

Total(10321)

44.3

42.0

13.6

Women15-24(1811)

54.9

36.6

8.5

25-39(2972)

53.5

38.8

7.6

40-54(2448)

53.1

38.8

7.5

55+(3805)

52.0

38.8

8.4

Total(11037)

53.1

38.4

8.0

TOTAL(21357)

48.9

40,1

10.7UE IS+. Q.78 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

67. DISTRIBUTION BY ACTIVITY AND PRESENCE OF CHILDREN

Proposition A

Proposition BNSP

MENWorking

children igedunder 6 6-15(1MB) (2241)

39.3 45.6

53.1 45.17.4 9.3

Workingno children

(3271)

45.9

38.415.5

Not working(hlldren aged

under 6 6-15(148) (675)

39.5 45.0

52.6 42.47.6 12.5

Networkingno children

(3415)

44.4

39.416.1

Total

(10321)

44.3

42.013.6

WOMENWorting

children agedunder i 6.15(60(1) (1720)

47,9 54.5

48.9 39.13.2 5.5

Workingno children

(2224)

50.8

37.710,8

Not workingchildren aged

under 6 6-15(753) (1907)

52.8 58.4

44.1 36.13.1 5.5

Notwoiiingno children

(4391)

51.6

38.69,5

fotaf

(11037)

53.1

38.48.0

TOTAL

(21357)

48.9

40.110.7

EU 15+. Q.78 - Eurobawnetre 44.3 - Printemps 1996.

Answer to the question : "Which of these two statements do you agree with most ?"

46


68. BY COUNTRYA. HOMEWORKING COMBINED WITH CHILD MINDING

3. SABBATICAL LEAVE

In general, Europeans welcomed measures tohelp reconcile family and working life. Anagreement on parental leave has just beenadopted as a result of the social dialogue, butsince it is still a long way from being applieduniformly throughout the Union, it was feltthat it was better to ask how Europeans feltabout the idea of taking unpaid leave,without referring to the existing legislation.The respondents were therefore asked to spe-cify under what circumstances they would beprepared to take unpaid leave.Overall, slightly more than one-third of thoseasked would be prepared to apply for unpaidleave to bring up a child, follow a trainingcourse or look after an elderly member of thefamily, 29% for their own personal develop-ment and 26% in order to look for a new job.The opinions of men and women coincidedon the subject of vocational training and jobseeking. For men in the youngest age bracket,training was the most frequent answer (46%of 15-24 year olds were prepared to take leaveto follow a training course) while amongwomen, this was the most common answer inthe 25-34 age group (43%). The oldest groupsexpressed little interest in taking unpaidleave to find a new job.Practically twice as many women as menwould consider taking unpaid leave to bringup a child. The ratio falls to 1.5 times when itcomes to looking after older relatives.Overall, women - particularly in the 15-24age bracket - were far more attracted thanmen to the idea of sabbatical leave.Naturally, working women with dependentchildren were the most interested in takingunpaid leave to bring up a child (58% and54%) or to look after older relatives (46% and48%). Working women with children under 6were also the most enthusiastic about takingleave to follow a training course (47%).

look for Develop Follow Look Bring upa new job yourself a training after older a child

(sabbatical leave) course relativesUE 15+ Q. 25.A- Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Would you be ready or not to take exceptionalunpaid leave in order to ... ?"

47


70. LEAVE ... TO BRING UP A CHILD 71.... TO FOLLOW A TRAINING COURSE

EU 15+. Q. 25.A - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Breakdown by sex and country of originAttitudes towards sabbatical leave varied consi-derably according to sex and country. Twice asmany women as men said they would considertaking leave to look after a child or an elderlymember of the family. Italian, Swedish, Austrianand British women were far above theCommunity average in this respect. Womenfrom the former GDR and Belgian women werethe most reluctant.The differences between men and women on thispoint are quite interesting. For example, amongthe men, only the Swedish and Finnish were pre-pared to take leave to look after a child or elder-ly member of the family. 80% of Belgian, 75% ofFrench and two-thirds of Danish, German,Greek, Spanish and Irish men were completelyopposed to interrupting their careers to stay athome. The differences between men and womenwere particularly marked in Ireland, Italy,Austria and the United Kingdom (30%).

With regard to looking after elderly relatives, dif-ferences between countries were small. Therewere also smaller differences between men andwomen on this point, because European women

74. ... FOR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

EU 15 + Q 25 A - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

48


were less prepared to take leave to look afterelderly relatives than to bring up their children.For the other questions, the replies of men andwomen were fairly similar. However, Irish andSpanish women were more eager than their malecompatriots to take leave to follow a trainingcourse or for their own personal development.

Financial considerationsThose who rejected the idea of taking unpaidleave to look after children or elderly rela-tives, were asked to give the two main rea-sons why. A large majority (62%) answeredthat they " could not afford it", one-sixthwere held back by the fear of losing their joband another sixth said they did not want to

be financially dependent on someone else.For women in the 25-39 age bracket, the lossof financial resources was the principal rea-son given (71% of answers), followed - a longway behind - by the fear of being financiallydependent upon someone else. Women inthe 15-24 age group were more concernedthan the older age brackets about losingtheir job. The difference between the men'sand women's answers was not very marked.The answers given by those with dependentchildren followed the same pattern: lack offinancial resources was by far the mostimportant reason given by both sexes for nottaking unpaid leave, followed by fear oflosing their job.

75. REASONS FOR NOT TAKING UNPAID LEAVE

I cannot afford it

I am afraid of losing my job

I am afraid it will harm my career

I do not want to befinancially dependenton someone elseOtherDon't know

Men

15-24(254)

57.6

20,8

7.7

15.7

6.119.8

25.39(981)

672

22.9

9.8

21.2

4.313.5

40-54(873)

59.1

16.0'

7,6

19.4

10.115.7

55+(401)

617

15.9

4.9

9.8

17.714.9

Total(2509)

62.519.2

8.0

18.2

8.6

15.1

Women

15-24(108)

55.2

23.0

6.0

6.3

10.4

23.0

25-39(354)

71.1

19.4

7.5

24.2

4.310.8

40-54(443)

62.3

14.9

2.8

11.6

9.719.2

55+(230)

52.6

10.6

0.2

18.1

8.9

27.3

Total(1136)

62.4

16.2

4.0

16.3

7.918.6

TOTAL(3645)

62.5

18.2

6.8

17.6

8.416.2

EU15+ Q 25 B - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Which are the two main reasons why you wouldn't take such unpaid leave ?"

49


WOMEN ANDDECISION-MAKING

The massive influx of women onto thelabour market is far from being mat-ched by an increase in the number ofwomen in decision-making positions.In the two traditional strongholds ofpower, politics and business, fewwomen are to be found in the seniorranks. The reasons given by Europeanmen and women are yet anotherreflection of how hidebound we are bytraditional mentalities. Family respon-sibilities are cited as the main obstacleto women, while education is the bestmeans of ensuring that women findtheir rightful place.

50EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN AND MEN IN EUROPE ?

1. WHERE THERE'S A WILL

As the fourth Community programme stresses,equality between the sexes is one of the funda-mental principles of the European model ofdemocracy. However, recent studies - in parti-cular, studies carried out by the EuropeanExpert Network on women in decision-making- have highlighted the absence or under-repre-sentation of women in centres of power,influence and decision-making. Women maybe entitled to participate in elections and theymay be eligible for senior civil service posts, butthis has had little impact on equality in practi-ce. The imbalance between men and women inrepresentative, administrative and advisorybodies in the media, finance, justice and publicadministration is evidence of a democraticshortfall and deprives these institutions of theirfull legitimacy. The increased presence ofwomen in decision-making institutions andbodies could lead to a revitalisation of values,ideas and behaviour which would benefit socie-ty as a whole and bring us nearer to the goal ofequal representation.

The European Commission and Parliament areplaying their part: five women have now beenappointed Commissioners (25%) and a groupof Commissioners on Equal Opportunities bet-ween Women and Men has been set up to ensu-re that the principle of equality is incorporatedinto all European policies and programmes. Inaddition, in its Communication of 5 luly 1995,the Commission fixed new objectives for therecruitment and promotion of women to posi-tions of responsibility within its own organisa-tion. It intends to continue its efforts to promo-te a better balance between men and women atall levels. Finally, since June 1994, 27% ofMEPshave been women. There is, then, some eviden-ce of a political will which points the way for-ward, but improvements on a daily basisconcern us all. What is the attitude of Europeanmen and women towards participation andpolicy in this field? How much say do they haveabout decisions at their own place of work?Why are there fewer women than men in deci-sion-making positions.

76. POLITICAL DISCUSSIONS

Frequently

Occasionally

Never

Don't know

Men

15-24(1904)

12.0

52.2

35.00.7

25-39(3077)

13.765.7

19.8

0.7

40-54(2474)

22.2

60.7

16.10.6

55+(2866)

19.358.7

21.50.4

Total(10321)

17.060.0

22.2

0.6

Women

15-24(1811)

7.5

52.239.4

0.8

25-39(2972)

9.858.031.2

1.0

40-54(2448)

11.856.9

31.1

0.2

55+(3805)

12.545.7

41.0

0.8

Total(11037)

10.852.535.9

0.7

TOTAL(21357)

13.8

56.2

29.30.7


Answer to the question : "When you get together with friends, would you say that you discuss political matters frequently, occasionallyor never ?"

77. FREQUENCY OF POLITICAL DISCUSSION IN 1983, 1989, 1994 AND 1996.

April-May 1983 July 1989 April 1994 April1996

FrequentlyOccasionally

NeverDon't know

H

20

57221

W

12

49372

M

18

55271

W

11

48401

M

22

56211

W

14

51341

M W

17 11

60 52

22 361 1

51

WOMEN AND DECISION-MAKING

1 "Women and men ofEurope today.Attitudes towardsEurope and policies",in the Women ofEurope Newsletter,No 35, Commissionof the EuropeanCommunities,Brussels, May 1991,p. 2. See also:Women and men ofEurope. Attitudestowards Europe andits policies,November 1994,74 pages.

2 Femmes et hommesd'Europe aujourd'hui.Les attitudes devantI'Europe et la poli-tique, op.cit., p. 3.

3 Ibid., p. 14.

4 Ibid., p. 16-17.

2. POLITICS,A MAN'S WORLD?

The political behaviour and opinions of Europeanwomen have changed in recent years. In severalcountries, we are seeing more women exercisingtheir right to vote or a new tendency to vote left(1).A number of questions asked in 1983 and again in1989 at the request of the Commission of theEuropean Communities, as part of the Euro-barometer surveys, also showed that the generalpublic, men and women alike, is increasingly pre-pared to accept women playing a more dominantrole in politics, once a strictly male preserve (2).

How have things changed over recent years?One Eurobarometer 44.3 question reveals howwomen's attitudes towards politics in 1996have changed since previous surveys.In 1996, as in 1994, 1989 and 1983, the follo-wing question concerning women and politicswas put: "When you get together with friends,would you say that you discuss political mattersfrequently, occasionally or never?"Table 76 shows that women are less interestedin politics than men. In Europe, 77% of menand 63% of women said that they "frequently"and/or "occasionally" discussed politics withtheir friends. Finally, more than one-third ofwomen and one-fifth of men never discussedpolitics. There were other factors, apart fromsex, which explain the differences in attitudestowards politics. For example, women's ans-wers varied considerably depending on age,level of education and professional activity.

Interest in politics decreases with ageThe 1996 survey confirms the results of the1989 survey, that interest in politics is lowamong young people, increases in adults andthen falls again among the more elderly 0).There were many more under 25s than 25-54year olds who said that they never discussedpolitics with their friends. A similar lack ofinterest was also shown among women agedover 55 (41% as opposed to 21% among men).The difference between the two sexes risesconsistently with age. In the 15-24 age bracket,35% of men and 39% of women said they neverdiscussed politics, a difference of 4%. Thisincreases to 11% among 25-39 year olds and15% among 40-54 year olds, reaching its peakat 20% among the 55 and over.

Both the 1996 and the 1989 surveys showedthat the difference increases with age, althoughin 1989 the difference reached its peak amongthose aged under 40. The 1996 survey seems toindicate a slight increase in political interestamong young people and young adults, menand women alike, although 1.5 times as manywomen aged 25-39 as men of the same age saidthey never discussed politics.

The necessary cultural background

The difference between male and female atti-tudes seems to depend on the level of education(Table 78). In the least educated group (thosewho left school before 15), 29% of men and 49%of women never discussed politics with friends (adifference of 20%). In the middle group, therewas a 10% difference (22% and 32%) and inthose who continued to study beyond the age of20 the difference was 9% (10% and 19%). Therewas a very marked increase among the mosteducated group compared with the 1989 survey,when the figures were 21% for men and 27% forwomen. The author of the 1989 report rightlysaid that "the better the education the smallerthe difference between men and women. Inother words, education is the best route for ente-ring politics. Only if a woman has a good edu-cation is she likely to be as involved in politics asa man(...) Growing numbers of women arestaying in education longer and they will there-fore have the same political tools at their dispo-sal as men, and be able to become opponents tobe reckoned with in any debate(4)". The results ofthe 1996 survey thus reflect an improvement inwomen's education.

Europe and political (dis)interest

Table 79 reveals considerable differences in atti-tudes between the countries of the EuropeanUnion. In Denmark, unified Germany, Greece,Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria,Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom, morethan 80% of men often or occasionally discussedpolitics with their friends. Conversely, as in 1989,one-third of men in Spain, Portugal and Irelandsaid that they never discussed politics. TheBelgians and French were only slightly moreinterested in the subject ,.26%). It was in thecountries where there was little interest in poli-tics that the differences between men andwomen were the greatest. Interest in politics wasthus particularly low amongst Belgian, Greek

52


and Spanish women, around17% lower than their malecounterparts, and Italian andBritish women (20% and 23%difference). Danish, EastGerman, Dutch, Swedish andFinnish women were the closestin attitude to men (between 5and 8 % difference). Thereseems to have been very littlereal change over the last sevenyears on this point. We stillhave a two-tier Europe: thenorth where women are alsointerested in politics and themuch more traditional south -together with Belgium, theUnited Kingdom and Ireland -where politics continues to be aman's world.

78. INTERESTS IN POLITICS AND EDUCATION

Often Occasionally Never

TOTAL

LEVELOF EDUCATION

16-19

20 and over

Still studying

M

17.0

14.7

15.5

23.6

15.4

W

10.8

6.8

11.9

16.9

9.0

M

60.0

55.4

61.6

65.6

54.7

W

52.5

43.3

54.9

63.7

55.5

M

22.2

29.2

22.0

10.1

29.3

W

35,9

49.2

32.3

19.2

34.1


Answer to the question : "When you get together with friends, would yousay that you discuss political matters frequently, occasionally or never ?"

79. INTEREST IN POLITICS, BY COUNTRY

B DK WD D OD OR E F 1RL I L NL A P FIN S UK UE15+

MEN

Often

Occasionally

Never

Don't know

WOMEN

Often

Occasionally

Never

Don't know

9.4

64.0

26.1

0.5

4.2

49.4

46.3

0.2

19.9

63.4

16.7

0.0

18.8

57.3

23.9

0.0

19.7

66.5

11.6

1.6

11.7

58.6

28.3

1.4

21.1

65.8

11.1

1.5

12.7

60.1

25.9

1.3

26.4

62.8

9.0

1.0

16,5

65.5

16.9

0.7

29.7

49.6

20.6

0.0

16.4

48.2

35.3

0.2

9.3

58.1

32.3

0.3

6.8

42.5

49.7

0.9

14.5

58.4

26.9

0.2

10.6

56.1

32.8

0.5

15.4

50.9

31.6

2.1

7.7

41.5

49.9

0.9

23.2

61.4

15.2

0.1

11.3

51.3

36,9

0.5

23.4

55.3

20.7

0.7

11.2

54.2

32.2

2.4

14.8

64.9

19.8

0.5

12.2

63.6

23.8

0.4

20.7

60.8

16.9

1.6

12.2

57.1

28.4

2.3

10.2

47.8

41.9

0.0

6.5

35.1

57.5

1.0

15.7

64.6

19.5

0.0

12.0

61.7

25.1

0.0

13.8

68.6

17.6

0.0

12,7

67.9

19.1

0.2

13.8

68.6

17.6

0.0

11.4

47.6

40.7

0.3

17.0

60.0

22.2

0.6

10.8

52.5

35.9

0.7

EU I 5+. Q.2 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "When you are with friends, would you say that you often, occasionally or never discuss politics ?"

53


3. THE SPIRIT OF ENTERPRISE

Given the growing numbers of women enteringthe labour market, it should naturally followthat they have more say in decision-making atwork. But what is happening in reality?Europeans were asked three questions aboutconsultation at the workplace. Only those inemployment were questioned.

Age countsWhen Europeans were asked how much say theyhad in decisions taken by the company whichaffected the way they did their job, nearly one-third (32%) replied that they would have noinfluence. Nearly two-thirds felt that they couldinfluence a decision: 11% felt that they wouldhave a great deal of influence and 29% said theywould have little influence (see chart and tablebelow)..The answers from men and women were fairlysimilar, differing by at most 2%. However, agedoes appear to have some impact. Nearly twiceas many men aged 55 and over as those in the15-24 age bracket felt that they would have agreat deal of influence (11% as opposed to 6%)and 28% felt they could exerdse "quite a lot ofinfluence" (as opposed to 22% among the youn-gest age bracket). The views of women closelyreflected those of men and again the differencesbetween the generations were very marked.Europeans are satisfiedThe differences are much more marked if theresults are broken down by sex and country. Morethan two-fifths of former GDR, British and Spanishwomen and one-third of Belgian, Irish,

Luxembourg and Austrian women felt that theycould not exercise any influence on a decisiontaken at their place of work which concerned themdirectly. More than one-quarter of Portuguese,Dutch, Greek and French women shared this opi-nion, as do one-sixth of Italian, Danish andSwedish women. The highest percentages ofwomen who felt that they had a lot of influencewere to be found in Denmark, Sweden andPortugal (20%). The majority of Italian, Finnish,former Federal Republic and Greek women belie-ved that they could influence such a decision "justa little" or "quite a lot". In all Member States apartfrom Italy, the former Federal Republic ofGermany, Austria, France and Luxembourg, fewermen than women felt they could exercise noinfluence. Twice as many Finnish men as womensaid they could have a great deal of influence.Sweden had the highest proportion of men whofelt they could exercise a lot of influence.

80. BEING CONSULTED ON CHANGES

No Yes. Yes, Yes,a great deal quite a lot just a littleof influence or influence influence

EL) 1 S+ Q 26 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

81. AT THEIR PLACE OF WORK

NoYes, a great deal of influenceYes, quite a lot of influenceYes, just a little influenceDon't know

Men15-24(644)

36.1

6.421.630.74.3

25-39(2132)

31.9

10.324.328.94.2

40-54(1580)

30.515.822.927.03.4

55+(554)

28.3

11.228.128.13.3

Total(4908)

31.611.723.928.4

3.8

Women15-24(518)

35.0

7.016.134.95,8

25-39(1494)

31.2

8.726.127,44.6

40-54(1239)

34.6

10,619.231.73.7

55+(546)

30.5

12.827.620.78.4

Total(3707)

32.8

9.622.6

29.14,9

TOTAL(8615)

32.1

10.823.32874.3

EU 15+. 0.26 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Suppose there was to be some decision made at your place of work that changed the way you do your job.Do you think that you personally would have any say in the decision about the change, or not? ( I f yes) How much influence over the deci-sion do you think that you personally would have ?"

54


Answer to thequestion:"Do you thinkthat you shouldhave more sayin the decisionsthat affect yourwork or are yousatisfied withthe way thingsare ?"

82. SATISFIED WITH THE WAY DECISIONSAFFECTING YOUR WORK ARE TAKEN?

EU 15+. Q. 27- Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

Asked whether they thought they should"have more say in decisions that affect theirwork" (Table 82), a large majority said theywere satisfied with the way things were, whiletwo out of five felt that they should havemore say. The older age groups seemed to bethe most satisfied with their situation, whileamong 25-39 year olds of both sexes 44% ofmen and 40% of women felt they shouldhave more say.An analysis of those who felt they "should havemore say" reveals clear differences between theMember States and between the sexes. Nearlyhalf of French women (48%) and two-fifths ofSwedish, Finnish Italian, former GDR andBritish women felt that they should have more

Opportunity, or lack of,to express your views at workTo conclude the analysis of worker participationin decision-making, a final question was put toEuropeans on the way in which they were able"to express your views about what is happeningin the organisation". A large majority of men(58%) said that their management organisedmeetings at which they were able to expresstheir views. However, 45% of women questionedsaid that this type of meeting was not organi-sed. The difference between men's and women'sanswers was particularly marked in the oldestage brackets (8% between men aged 40 to 54and women in the same group and 10% in the55 and over group).In Sweden, Finland, Denmark and theNetherlands two thirds (cr more) of workingwomen were able to attend meetings organisedby the management where they could expresstheir opinions. This also applied to a clearmajority of former GDR, British, Austrian andFrench women. A striking 25% fewerPortuguese, Spanish and Italian women thanScandinavian women said they were invited toexpress their opinions at work.

say in decisions affecting theirwork (Chart 83).In other Member States, thepercentages were slightlybelow the European average(38.5%). The greatest diffe-rences between the numbers ofmen and women who felt theyshould have more say were tobe found in the Netherlandsand Luxembourg (16% diffe-rence). Differences were alsomarked in Greece (12%),Portugal (11%) and the UnitedKingdom where the highestnumber of men wanted tohave more say. In France, theformer GDR, Finland, Sweden,Denmark and Belgium, it wasthe women who felt theyshould have more say.

83. SHOULD YOU HAVE MORE SAY ABOUT YOUR WORK

EU15+ Q 27 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "Do you think that you should have more say inthe decisions that affect your work or are you satisfied with the way thingsare ?" Breakdown by sex of those answering "should have more say".

55


84. WHY DO WOMEN LESS OFTEN HOLD POSITIONSOF RESPONSIBILITY ?

They are not Women are Women have The work Women dointerested less ready less time environment not always

than men to because of is dominated have thefight to make their family by men who required

a career burdens do not have qualities toenough trust hold

in women positions ofresponsibility

EU 15+ Q.102 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "In your opinion, what are the two main rea-sons why women less often hold positions of responsibility?Is it because ... ?"

4. THE BURDEN OF FAMILYRESPONSIBILITIES

Why do fewer women than men hold key posi-tions? The main reason given was of a domesticnature: the burden of family responsibilities.Next, European men and women pointed to "awork environment dominated by men who donot have enough trust in women" (52%). Nextcame the fact that "women are less ready thanmen to fight to make a career" (17%). No morethan 10% of them felt that "women are not inter-ested" by positions of responsibility or that they"do not always have the required qualities tohold positions of responsibility".The sex and age of those asked influenced theanswers. For example, women placed far moreemphasis than men on the burden of familyresponsibilities (65% as opposed to 59%) andthe fact that the working environment is domi-nated by men (55% as opposed to 50%). Theyoungest age group of women (15-24) weremost concerned with the fact that men did nothave enough trust in them (63%), comparedwith 55% of men in the same age brackets and55% of women aged 55 or over..

85. OPINIONS ON THE REASONS WHY THERE ARE FEW WOMEN IN POSITIONS OF RESPONSIBILITY

They are not interestedWomen are less readythan men to fightto make a careerWomen have less timebecause of their family burdensThe work environment isdominated by men whodo not have enoughrust in womenWomen do not alwayshave the required qualitieso hold positions ofresponsibilityOtherDon't know

Men15-24(1904)

10.9

14.7

52.9

54.6

10.9

2.45.7

25.39(3077)

8.7

178

56.9

52.5

12.5

2.13.8

40.54(2474)

98

18,7

61.0

50.3

9.5

2.54.2

55+(2866)

8.9

20,6

63.0

430

13.4

2.64.5

Total(10321)

9.4

18.2

588

49.7

117

2.44.4

Women15.24(1811)

6.4

153

60.6

631

50

132.4

25-39(2972)

7.8

16.8

63,3

590

6.9

2.22.6

40-54(2448)

6.1

18.3

64.3

579

7.2

2.03.2

55+(3805)

8.1

17.4,

67.9

45.1

10.1

1.34.3

Total(11037)

7.3

171

64.6

54.6

7.8

1.73.3

TOTAL

(21357)8.3

17.6

61.8

52.3

9.7

203.8


Answer to the question : "In your opinion, what are the two main reasons why women less often hold positions of responsibility7 I s itbecause... ?".

56


Family responsibilities were thereason most often given by theoldest women (68%). Slightlyfewer young Europeans gavethis as a reason: 61% of womenand 53% of men. In general,more men than women still feltthat women were not interestedin posts of responsibility (+ 2%)that they were "less ready thanmen to fight to make a career"(+ 1%) or that they did "notalways have the required quali-ties to hold this type of post"(+ 4%).Different reasonsOnce again there were hugedisparities between the sexes

86. REASONS WHY THERE ARE FEW WOMEN IN KEY POSTSBY COUNTRYFamily

and countries. Although, overall, the majority ofEuropeans believed that women held fewer posi-tions of responsibility because of family responsi-bilities, this reason was given more often in someEuropean countries than in others. For example,four-fifths of Greek women, 70% of British,Finnish, Belgian and Swedish women and two-thirds of Italian, German and Irish women gavethis as the reason. French women (66%) andSpanish women (65%) considered the male-dominated nature of the work environment to bethe biggest problem. More than half of Swedishwomen (55%) felt that "women are less readythan men to fight to make a career", an opinionshared by 42% of Danish, 36% of Finnish and25% of Dutch women. More women in thesecountries also said that they were not interestedin posts of responsibility (between 11% and 16%).Finally, in most Member States, the proportion ofwomen who said that they "do not always havethe required qualities to hold positions of respon-sibility" did not exceed 10%. Austria was theonly exception, where one woman in five sharedthis view.There were fairly significant differences betweenthe sexes on this point. In Sweden, Spain andDenmark, for example, 8% more women thanmen felt that their family responsibilities preven-ted them from holding down posts of responsibi-lity.The difference was even greater in Greece,Ireland, Austria (10%) and the Netherlands(13%). In addition, more women than men inIreland, Spain (12%), France and Austria (8%)

referred to the male-dominated aspect of thework environment. Finally, in Germany, Austria,Spain and Greece, considerably more men thanwomen felt that women "do not always have therequired qualities to hold positions of responsibi-lity" or that "they are not interested".

57


86. REASONS WHY THERE ARE FEW WOMEN IN KEY POSTSBY COUNTRYProfessional environment

86. REASONS WHY THERE ARE FEW WOMEN IN KEY POSTSBY COUNTRYQualifications

EU 15+. Q. 202 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

86. REASONS WHY THERE ARE FEW WOMEN IN KEY POSTSBY COUNTRYCareer

86. REASONS WHY THERE ARE FEW WOMEN IN KEY POSTSBY COUNTRYInterest

59


TOWARDSFULL EQUALITYOF OPPORTUNITY

The fight for equal opportunities is andmust remain a priority for the EuropeanUnion. Equality is widely seen as a factorin strengthening democracy. However,Europeans are very often unaware of exis-ting national and Community laws,actions and initiatives to combat inequali-ty. A comparison with previous surveysshows that awareness of such measures hasactually fallen.

The 1996 survey outlines areas for progress,examines the responsibilities of the sexesand considers the strength of collective andindividual action respectively. It examinesemerging priorities both in the privatesphere (greater sharing of tasks) and interms of public action at European level(greater respect for the individual, male orfemale) to bring about the much neededmove towards full equality of opportunity.

60


1. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES: A PRIORI-TY FOR THE EUROPEAN UNION

The European Community has been a primemover in changing the status of women insociety. It first established the legal principle ofequal treatment at work and to a large extentwith regard to social security on the basis ofArticle 119 of the Treaty enshrining the prin-ciple of equal pay. Realising that equal oppor-tunities are conditional upon, but not necessa-rily guaranteed by, equality in law, theCommission also instituted a host of measuresthrough three consecutive programmes to pro-mote de facto equality. To this end it has lentits support to various initiatives such as settingup networks, stepping up its information andcommunication activities, supporting pilot acti-vities or studies and identifying and dissemina-ting sound practice.

At the Fourth World Conference on Womenheld in Beijing in September 1995, theEuropean Union said it was ready to buildupon these achievements and to confirm andincrease its commitment to the democraticvalues of equal opportunities. The Europeansummits at Essen, Cannes and Madrid reaffir-med the priorities of combating unemploy-ment and promoting equal opportunities.Equal opportunities strengthendemocracyHow do Europeans view equal opportunities? Morethan two fifths "agree totally" that "equality ofopportunity strengthens democracy, makes perso-nal development easier and improves human rela-tionships". Over two thirds "disagree totally" withthe opinion that "equal opportunities bring moreharm than good in daily life".

Slightly more women than men agreed with thefirst three opinions (approx. 5 percentagepoints). Women in the age group 40-54 were byfar the largest group (50%) to consider that equa-lity of opportunity is one of the factors thatcontribute to strengthening democracy andimproving human relationships. Young men(15-24 years) had more mixed opinions: a higherproportion "agreed" than "agreed totally" withthe first three opinions expressed.In general, big differences can be seen betweenthe mole and female responses in all the MemberStates, but there were also similarities in thecountry rankings. With regard to the effects ofequal opportunities on democracy, personaldevelopment and human relationships, forexample, it can clearly be seen that the femalerespondents in the former FRG, Austria,Luxembourg, Belgium, Ireland and the UnitedKingdom had response levels below theCommunity average, while almost three times asmany Danish and Dutch as British womenagreed totally. The Spanish, Italian, Swedishand Greek women had response levels above theCommunity average, with a considerable majo-rity of the women in these countries strongly inagreement with the opinions expressed.The distribution of male responses by country isquite similar to the female responses, with theexception of the united Germany and Austria,where the women were more definitely in agree-ment with the first three opinions than theirmale counterparts. It should also be noted thatrelatively more Spanish, Italian and Greekwomen than men disagreed with the idea that"equal opportunities bring more harm thangood in daily life".

87. THE EFFECTS OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES

Strengthensdemocracy

Men 43,2

Women 45,8

Makes thepersonaldevelopmentof women andmen easier

40,5

45,1

Brings moreharm thangood in dailylife

7,4

6,3

Improvesthe qualityof humanrelationships

40,9

44,9

EU15*- Q 98 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

"Agree totally" with each statement.

61

TOWARDS FULL EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY

2. A LACK OF AWARENESSOF MEASURESTO PROMOTE EQUALITY

European public opinion is therefore strongly infavour of equal opportunities for women andmen. But to what extent are Europeans aware ofwhat the different Member States of theEuropean Union are doing to promote equality?The two questions designed to ascertain theirawareness were asked previously in 1983 and1987, and on both occasions the public wasobviously poorly informed. Unfortunately, it hasto be said that the situation has not improved.The chart below shows the extent to whichEuropean public opinion is unaware of national

laws that allow "women to demand the sametreatment as men".34% of the respondents said they "did not know"that such laws were in force and 11% thought nosuch laws existed. Only 22% said that such lawsexisted and that they were applied in practice.Women were less aware than men of the exis-tence of legislation (37% compared to 31% ofmen) and unusually, men in the 40-54 age groupwere more likely than any other group to thinkthat "the laws exist and are applied in practice"(30%, i.e. 11 percentage points higher than therate for women in the same age group).The results show that in 1996, more Europeansgave a negative response than in 1983 and 1987(+ 4 percentage points) and that more people

88. EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN ...

Men Women

62


89. EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN ...... strengthens democracy

89. EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN ...... Makes personal development easier

EU 15+ Q 98 A - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

89. EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN ...... improves human relationships

89. EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN ...... brings more harm than good in daily life

Of-

Classification on the basis of the reply "agree totally" Classification on the basis of the reply "disagree totally"Answer to the question : "Could you please tell me if you agree totally, agree, disagree or disagree totally with the following opinions.Equality between men and women...".

90. ARE THERE LAWS TO PROMOTEEQUALITY ?

gave no response (34% "did not know" compa-red to 28% in 1983 and 26% in 1987). Wherethey knew that the legislation existed, they wenton to say that it was not applied in practice.Lastly, the proportion of respondents who consi-dered that the laws are applied has fallen conti-nually, from 30% in 1983 to 27% in 1987 and22% in 1996.

The lack of awareness among those who aredirectly affected by these measures, i.e. the activepopulation, is rising steadily. Fewer men andwomen in 1996 than in 1987 said that they knewsuch laws existed. More women than men saidthey regretted that the laws were not applied inpractice.

Answer to thequestion:"Do you knowif there arelaws in yourcountry whichallow women todemand thesame treatmentas men atwork? I f YES,are theyapplied m prac-tice or not?" EU 15+ Q U O - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

63


EU 15*. Q 11O - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "Do you know if there are laws in your country which allow women todemand the same treatment as men at work. I f YES, are they applied m practice or not?"Classification on the basis of the reply "Yes, but they are not applied".

91. ARE THERE LAWS?

91. ARE THERE LAWS?Women

EU 15+ Q U O - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

92. DOES THE EUROPEAN UNION DEALWITH THE PROBLEM ?

ED 15+ Q 100 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : In your opinion, do the ins-titutions of the European Union deal with equality bet-ween men and women at work? I f YES, do they seem todeal with this issue efficiently, or not ?"

Women are less aware ofthe existence of equalopportunities legislationOpinions on this question variedfrom country to country.Awareness of "laws which allowwomen to demand the sametreatment as men at work" wasparticularly lacking in Luxem-bourg. Greece, Ireland, Spainand Portugal had response levelsconsiderably below the Commu-nity average, since a large majo-rity of respondents (especiallywomen) admitted that they didnot know of any legislation.Where women replied that suchlaws definitely existed, theyquickly added that they were notapplied in practice: 52% of thefemale respondents in Denmark,46% in France, 40% in Sweden,39% in the former GDR and 37%in Finland were of this opinionand were therefore above theEuropean average (33%). Itshould also be noted that inPortugal, Italy and the formerGDR, the proportion of womenwho responded that "the lawsexist but are not applied in prac-

tice" was twice as high as the proportion of womenwho considered that they were applied in practice.This percentage was three times as high in Spainand Denmark and five times as high in France.Lastly, it must unfortunately be noted that in mostMember States, women were less aware than menof the existence of such legislation, even though itis they who are most affected by it.While almost half of all Europeans are unawareof national laws, the lack of knowledge about theEuropean Union's activities is even greater (60%).Barely more than a third of respondents said theyknew about the Community's activities in thearea of equality. One-sixth considered that theEuropean institutions were dealing efficientlywith equality issues and one-quarter consideredthat they were not efficient. Far more womenthan men, especially in the age group 55 andover, were unaware of the European Union's rolein this area. As is the case for national legisla-tion, lack of knowledge about Community mea-sures has increased over the past few years and

64


93. DOES THE EUROPEAN UNION DEAL WITH THE PROBLEM ?Women


93. DOES THE EUROPEAN UNION DEAL WITH THE PROBLEM ?Men

EU 15+. Q.100 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996

Classification on the basis of the reply "don't know".

3. HOW CAN INEQUALI-TIES BE ELIMINATED?

To eliminate unequal opportu-nities in Europe, "who shouldchange first, men or women"?"Both" was the answer givenby over 40% of respondents.39% said that men shouldchange first and 9% thatwomen should change theirbehaviour first. The responseswere strongly influenced bythe respondents' gender andage.Women were much more ada-mant than men that menshould change first (45% asopposed to 33% of men). Menwere more inclined thanwomen to say that bothshould change (44% compa-red to 40%) and twice asmany men as women (12% asopposed to 6%) expectedwomen to change first. At50%, women in the age group15-24 were the ones who mostwanted men to change. This

the number of Europeans, whether economicallyactive or not, who think that the Union deals withequality issues is barely above the 1983 level.Whether economically active or not, Europeansknow very little about the measures taken by theEurope of Fifteen in the area of equal opportuni-ties.Chart 93 shows that 84% of the Swedishwomen and two-thirds of the Dutch, Italian,Spanish, Danish, Finnish, Portuguese,Austrian and Belgian women do not knowthat the European Union is active in the areaof "equal opportunities for men and women inthe workplace". Luxembourg, Greece, the uni-ted Germany and Ireland are the four coun-tries where women have above average awa-reness of Community policies. In this respecttoo, it can be seen that men are again betterinformed than their female counterparts.

figure was 19 percentage points higher thanthe rate for European males in the same agegroup. Lastly, it should be noted that morethan one in ten male respondents had no opi-nion on the matter.

94. WHO SHOULD CHANGE FIRST ?

EU 15+. Q.97. Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

Answer to the question : "In order to remove anyinequalities that may exist between men and women,who do you think should change first, men or women ?"

65


95. BY AGE GROUP OF RESPONDENTS

Men

Women

Both

DK

Men15-24(1904)

31.2

13.8

453

9.3

25-39(3077)

34.4

10.8

44.0

10.4

40-54(2474)

31.4

9.9

45.2

12.8

55+(2866)

32.7

13.0

40.7

13.1

Total(10321)

32.6

11.7

43.6

11.5

Women15-24(1811)

50.4

4.6

38.5'

6.2

25-39(2972)

47.7

5.7

42.2

4.3

40-54(2448)

46,8

6.6

38.8

7.6

55+(3805)

39.2

7.1

39.1

13.8

Total(11037)

45.0

6.2

39.8

8.6

TOTAL(21357)

39.0

8.9

41.6

10.0

EU 15+ Q 97 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "In order to remove any inequalities that may exist between men and women, who do you think should chan-ge first, men or women ?".

96. "MEN SHOULD CHANGE" ACCORDING TO THEWOMEN

EU 15+. Q. 97 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

"Men should change first" according to the women. Distribution bycountry. Classification on the basis of the reply "Men".

97. "BOTH SHOULD CHANGE" ACCORDING TO THEMEN

EU 15+ Q. 97 - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996

"Both women and men should change" according to the men.Distribution by country. Classification on the basis of the reply "Both".

The responses also varied from country tocountry. More than half of the Finnish, Britishand Dutch women considered that men shouldchange first. In contrast, 61% of the Luxem-bourgish women and a large majority of theBelgian, Danish and German women conside-red that inequalities would be eliminatedwhen both men and women changed theirattitudes. It is interesting to note that inGreece, Austria, Portugal and Finland, morethan one in ten women stated that womenshould change first.The men's responses were classified on the basisof the reply "both" since, as was previously sta-ted, men tended to agree more with this state-ment. Like the Luxembourgish and Belgianwomen, more men in Luxembourg andBelgium (58%) than in any of the other coun-tries thought that both sexes should change.This was also the opinion of a majority of theItalian and Irish men (50%). Almost half of theFinnish men and 45% of the Dutch, Swedishand British men thought that men shouldchange first, and were therefore in full agree-ment with the female respondents in theircountries. In Greece, the former FRG, Spain,Austria and Portugal, almost one man in sixstill thinks that women should change theirbehaviour first.

A battle to be foughtWhile it is important that changes take place onan individual level, collective action must also betaken. For 54% of Europeans, "the most efficientmeans of reducing inequalities between womenand men is for women to act together to defendtheir rights". 16% thought that it would be bet-ter for each woman to fight on her own and 19%

66


98. THE MOST EFFICIENT WAY Member State. Like their female counterparts,the men in the former GDR, Greece, Spain andthe United Kingdom were more strongly infavour of collective action than the Communityaverage. The Dutch, Portuguese and Finnishmen, like the women in those countries, weremore often in favour of individual action, whilethe Luxembourgish, Italian and Belgian men,like their female counterparts, stressed theimportance of combining the two areas of col-lective and individual action more often thancitizens of any other country in the Europe ofFifteen.

EU 15+. Q 99 - Eurobarometer 44 3 - Spring 1996.

Answer to the question : "In your opinion, what isthe most efficient means of reducing inequalities whichmay exist between men and women ?".

thought that the fight should be both collectiveand individual.

Slightly more women than men thought thatcollective action was more efficient (+ 5 points).Men were twice as likely to give no opinion(14% as opposed to 7%). There were few diffe-rences between age groups. Women in the 40-54 age group, however, more often stressed col-lective action (60%), whereas younger womenadvocated individual action (18%).

Agreement among men and women atMember State levelMore than two-thirds of the German womenand 60% of the British and Spanish womenopted for collective action, whereas one-third ofthe Dutch and Finnish women advocated indi-vidual action. Although they favoured collecti-ve defence of their interests, the Danish, Greek,Austrian and Portuguese women were, howe-ver, the women who most frequently stated that"women must fight on their own to defend theirrights". It should also be pointed out that one-third of the Luxembourgish women and morethan one-quarter of the Belgian, Italian andSwedish women stated that a combination ofindividual and collective action could be "anefficient means of reducing inequalities bet-ween women and men".Lastly, there is some similarity between thechoices made by the men and women in each

67


4. PRIORITIES IN THE FIGHTAGAINST INEQUALITY

While the vast majority of Europeans areconvinced of the need for progress in the area ofequal opportunities for women and men, inwhat areas do they think priority action shouldbe taken? The respondents were asked to reactto a list of areas where equality between menand women does not exist: to begin with theyhad to give an absolute priority for action andthen they had to list two other areas wherechange was particularly important in theirview.

The list is given below :• Sharing household tasks• Sharing children's education• Sharing entertainment and free time• Respecting the individual• Access to positions of responsibility• Taking part in political life• A sufficient number of women in positions of res-

ponsibility in law• A sufficient number of women in positions of res-

ponsibility in business• A sufficient number of women with positions of

responsibility in journalism and media• Access to higher education• None• Other

Sharing household tasks: an absolutepriorityAlmost a quarter of European men and womenwere of the view that "sharing household tasks"was the most important area where actionshould be taken to fight inequality. In secondplace came "respecting the individual" (22%),i.e. respect for the male and female identity andfor the individual freedom that this implies.Next came "access to positions of responsibi-lity" (15%) and "sharing children's education"(10%). A sufficient number of women in posi-tions of responsibility in business (6%), politics(5%) and law (3%) appear to have lower priori-ty in the list of demands. However, if the num-ber of times that these three areas are mentio-ned is added to the proportion of those whostress access to positions of responsibility, wecan see that more than a quarter of theEuropeans questioned (29%) wished for greaterequality in terms of positions of responsibility.8% of those asked did not express an opinion.An examination of the two areas given assecond and third priorities shows that morethan a quarter of European men and womenchose "sharing children's education" (26%) and"access to positions of responsibility" (25%).Sharing household tasks and respecting theindividual were also high on the list of prioritiesof those who did not put them in first position.There is little divergence in the distribution ofresponses by sex and age of the respondents.More women than men wanted men to play agreater role in sharing household tasks, espe-cially women in the age groups 25-39 (27%)and 55 and over (28%), while men in the sameage groups tended to place greater emphasis onaccess to positions of responsibility (19% and13%). The differences were rarely greater than6 percentage points. When the responses to theopinion that was listed as the top priority- "sharing household tasks" - are distributedaccording to the sex and country of origin ofthe respondents, and then classified in decrea-sing order based on the female responses, quitemarked differences can be seen between themale and female respondents and also betweencountries.With the exception of Denmark, the formerGDR and Finland, where more men thanwomen (+5%) wanted greater sharing of house-hold tasks, more women than men in all the

99. THE PRIORITY OF SHARING HOUSEHOLD TASKSACCORDING TO NATIONALITY

EU 15+. Q.101.A - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

68


other countries wanted household tasks sharedmore evenly. The proportions were a third ofall women in Ireland and Spain and a quarterin Luxembourg, Belgium, the former FRG,Portugal, Italy and Austria. The proportion ofFrench, Dutch, Swedish, Greek and Finnishwomen who opted for this opinion was fairlylow, varying between 14% and 18%. Thesevariable proportions probably reflect differentcultural behaviour: on the one hand, men aremore involved in household tasks than in thepast, while on the other hand, the femalerespondents appear to accept a lack of maleinvolvement in the domestic sphere. It is alsopossible that women do not look very favoura-bly upon male involvement in a domain thatwas always their preserve.

Europe must promote respect for theindividualTaking the above list again, the respondentswere then asked to state what in their viewshould be the priority areas for European Unionaction, with the generally recognised exceptionof unemployment which was dealt with elsew-here. Here too, the respondents had first to givean absolute priority for the European Union,followed by two other priority areas.For almost one fifth of European men andwomen, (18%), "respecting the individual"should be the priority area for European Unionaction. This was followed by "access to posi-tions of responsibility "(16%) and "taking partin political life"(12%). Almost 18% of respon-dents did not have an opinion, which is an

100. "RESPECTING THE INDIVIDUAL" AS AN ABSOLUTEPRIORITY FOR THE UNION

EU 15+. Q.IOI .C - Eurobarometer 44.3 - Spring 1996.

extremely high proportion. 20% prioritised "asufficient number of women in positions of res-ponsibility", of which positions of responsibilityin business accounted for 9%, in law 7% and injournalism and the media 4%.

As regards the second and third priorities, issuesof responsibility came out on top. "A sufficientnumber of women in positions of responsibilityin business" came first (23%) ahead of "accessto positions of responsibility" (22%) and"taking part in political life (21%). "A suffi-cient number of women in positions of respon-sibility in law" (18%) was mentioned ahead of"respecting the individual" (13%) and "a suffi-cient number of women in positions of respon-sibility in the media and journalism" (12%).Areas for action in the private sphere such as"sharing household tasks" and "children's edu-cation", which were prioritised in the first ques-tion, were relegated to the bottom of the orderof priorities for the European Union.

Once again, there were few differences betweenthe male and female responses: when it cameto choosing the priority area for EuropeanUnion action, slightly more European menthan women stressed respect for the individual,access to positions of responsibility and partici-pation in political life, but the difference wasrarely greater than 3%. A higher proportion ofwomen than men of all ages stated that a "suf-ficient number of women in positions of res-ponsibility in business" should be a priority.

At Member State level, it can be seen that onequarter of Greek, Danish, Italian and Swedishwomen and one-fifth of Belgian, Dutch, Frenchand Finnish women chose "respecting the indi-vidual" as the area of priority action for theUnion. Less than 15% of Austrian, Irish,Luxembourgish and British women chose thisoption. However, it is important to note that,with the exception of Ireland, Belgium and allof the German Ldnder, more men than womenstressed "respect for the individual". This diffe-rence in opinion between men and women wasparticularly strong in Greece, Denmark, theNetherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom.

Definite expectationsWhile for the vast majority of Europeans thefight against unemployment remains one ofthe priority areas for European Union action, itseems that improved conditions for women will

69


come about through greater sharing of respon-sibilities (in the home and with regard to chil-dren) in the private sphere, and respect for themale and female identity. European men andwomen were less affirmative with regard toaction at Community level (more than a quar-ter "did not know"), but when they did have anopinion, they wanted the European Union topromote a more even sharing of responsibilitiesin working life and politics.

European Commission

Equal opportunities for women and men in Europe?Eurobarometer 44.3 — Results of an opinion survey

Luxembourg Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

1998 — 69 pp — 21 x 29 7 cm

ISBN 92-828-5236-9

Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg ECU 15

equal opportunities for women and men...equal opportunities for women and men in europe?...

Documents