environments as reinforcer systems in the study of job satisfaction

Journal of Vocational Behavior, 6, 337-347 (1975)

Environments as Reinforcer Systems in the Study of Job Satisfaction

JOHN C. SMART Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

This paper examined differences in the degree to which fifteen specific sources of job satisfaction were related to and predictive of the overall satisfaction of department chairmen in the six model environments proposed by Holland (1973). The fifteen specific sources of job satisfaction were regressed on overall satisfaction, separately for chairmen in each environment, through the use of incremental stepwise multiple regression procedures. The results indicated that the overall satisfaction of chairmen in these six environments was differentially related to unique weightings and combinations of the fifteen predictor variables. It was concluded that environments, composed of essentially similar groups of people in different organizations, serve as job satisfaction reinforcer systems in a manner similar to organizations as illustrated by Dawis.

Holland (1966, 1973) has proposed a theory of vocational choice/ personality in which he has postulated six primary personality types and analogous environmental models. He defined an environment as the atmosphere created by the people who dominate a given environment and noted that each model environment tends to reinforce its own characteristic achievement. For example, the Realistic environment would be an environment dominated by Realistic types and would tend to promote and reward Realistic achievements. Since each model environment promotes and rewards the characteristic behaviors of the analogous personality type, and since the personality types are postulated to have unique patterns of attitudes, needs, and interests, it seems reasonable to expect that different sets of sources of job satisfaction (i.e., reinforcers) would be related to the overall job satisfaction of members of the six model environments. For example, the overall satisfaction of members in the Realistic environment would be related to the members’ satisfaction with specific aspects of their jobs which are consistent with the Realistic person’s typical behavior, while overall satisfaction of those in the Social environment would be related to their satisfaction with those aspects of

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337

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338 JOHN C. SMART

their jobs which are consistent with the Social person’s characteristic behavior. The study of job satisfaction and its correlates has been an area of

active investigation since the initial monograph by Hoppock (1935). Most research in this area has employed individuals as the unit of observation and the conclusions derived have been directed toward the job satisfaction of individuals. Vroom (1964) provides an extensive review of the results from hundreds of studies which examined the determinants or causes of job satisfaction and the relationship of job satisfaction to occupational behavior. In addition, Pallone, Hurley, and Rickard (1971) reviewed the results of 113 studies reported during 1968 and 1969. They identified 52 variables which had been used to examine the correlates, prediction, and/or consequences of individual job satisfaction.

A recent study by Dawis, Pinto, Weitzel, and Nezzer (1974) represents a unique departure from the traditional emphasis on the job satisfaction of individuals. They postulate that organizations represent reinforcer systems, or possibly, sets of reinforcer systems with different reinforcer systems for different types of workers and proceed to develop separate linear (regression) equations in which the regression weights of specific job satisfaction scales symbolize the relative contributions of these “specific reinforcers” to the overall job satisfaction of employees in five organizations. Their findings indicate broad variation in the relative contribution of the specific job satisfaction scales to the overall job satisfaction of employees in the five organizations. They conclude that if certain specific satisfactions are consis- tently characteristic of overall satisfaction in a particular organization, they represent dimensions on which that organization differs from other organizations. Thus, Dawis et al. (1974) have shown that job satisfaction measures can be used to examine variations in the characteristics of different organizations.

Dawis and his colleagues further suggest that their approach can be used to examine variations in the characteristics of environments comprised of essentially similar groups of individuals in different organizations. The purpose of this study is to employ the unique approach developed by Dawis et al. (1974) to the study of model environments proposed by Holland (1973) which exist within different organizations. Specifically, this study attempts to determine the degree to which different sets of specific job satisfaction items are related to the overall occupational satisfaction of department chairmen in the six model environments. The results of this study should provide new insights into (a) the ability of job satisfaction measures to reveal differences in the characteristics of environments within different organizations and (b) the validity of Holland’s assumption that each model environment tends to reinforce and reward the characteristic behaviors of members of the analogous personality type who dominate it.

The decision to focus this study on the job satisfaction of department chairmen is based on the importance of this position in the administrative

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 339

processes of colleges and universities (Heimler, 1967; Mobley, 1971; and Ryan, 1972). Cohen and March (1974) note that chairmen traditionally come from the ranks of departmental faculty and function as representatives of the departmental faculty, frequently on a rotating basis. In addition, they have experienced a lengthy developmental process, similar to departmental faculty, which resulted in their choice of a particular academic area of study and their present activities are performed primarily within the department. For these reasons, this study assumes that departmental chairmen are representative members of their respective environments.

METHOD

A list of public universities which offer the doctorate and had enroll- ments between 9,000 and 21,000 was initially developed. From this list of 58 institutions, 38 were selected for possible participation in the study. Institu- tions from as many states as possible were selected to achieve geographical balance. The chief academic officer at each of the 38 universities was contacted to determine the willingness of his institution to participate in the study. Positive responses were received from 32 institutions. A questionnaire was distributed to all 1,646 department chairmen at the 32 participating universities by the chief academic officer of each institution. Each chairman was asked to indicate the degree to which he was satisfied with fifteen specific aspects of his position and his overall satisfaction as a department chairman on a five-point scale (5, very satisfied; 4, satisfied; 3, neutral; 2, dissatisfied; 1, very dissatisfied). In addition, chairmen were asked to indicate their sex and the number of years they had served as a faculty member and as a department chairman.

A total of 1,198 (73%) questionnaires were returned for analysis. The response rate by institution ranged from a low of 40% to a high of 100%. The first and third quartiles were 84 and 70%, respectively. The percentage of responses was independent of the regions in which the universities were located (i.e ., northeast, southeast, central, northwest, southwest) as deter- mined by the Kruskal-Wallis test of ranks (H (4) = 3.58) (Khrgh, 1970).

Departments were assigned to the six model environments postulated by Holland (1966, 1973) according to the classification index provided by Holland (1973). All departments from which there were ten or more respondents were identified and two were selected as representative of each model environment. Only two departments in the Realistic, Enterprising, and Conventional environments had ten or more respondents and these departments were arbitrarily selected as representative of these three environments. Departments chosen as representative of the Investigative, Artistic, and Social environments were randomly selected. Table 1 presents the two departments

340 JOHN C. SMART

TABLE 1

Departments Representative of Model Environments and Number of Chairmen From Each Department

Model environments Representative departments” N

Realistic Civil Engineering Mechanical Engineering

Investigative Geology Mathematics

Artistic Art Philosophy

Social Political Science Sociology

Enterprising Business Management Industrial Engineering

Conventional Accounting Business Education

14 17 31

22 22 44

25 23 48

25 33 58

10 IO 20

14 10 24

USource: Holland (1973).

selected as representative of each of the six model environments and the number of chairmen who responded from each department.

The primary purpose of this study was to determine if there were substantial differences in the extent to which the fifteen specific satisfaction items were related to and predictive of the overall job satisfaction of chairmen in these six environments. Six separate sets of product-moment correlation coefficients were computed between overall satisfaction and the fifteen specific satisfaction items for chairmen in the six model environments. In addition, six separate multiple linear regression equations were computed to predict overall job satisfaction for the chairmen in each of the six model environments. These equations were developed in an incremental stepwise manner using the fifteen specific satisfaction items as predictor variables. The first variable to enter the equation was the one which had the highest zero-order correlation with the dependent variable, overall satisfaction. In each succeeding step, the variable which provided the greatest reduction in the error sum of squares was added to the equation (i.e., the variable which had the highest partial correlation with the dependent variable partialed on the variables which had already entered the equation) (Draper & Smith, 1966).


In interpreting the results of this study the reader should recognize that there are no reliability estimates for the fifteen specific satisfaction items and the samples in some environments tend to be moderately small.

RESULTS

Over 94% of the respondents were males and had a median of fifteen and four years of experience as a faculty member and as a department chairman, respectively. Thus, the typical respondent had approximately ten years of previous professional experience as a faculty member prior to becoming a department chairman.

Table 2 presents the product-moment correlation coefficients between overall satisfaction and the fifteen specific satisfaction items for chairmen in each environment.

The correlations shown in Table 2 ranged from .13 to .61, with a median of .38, for the Realistic environment; from .28 to .64, with a median of .48, for the Investigative environment; from .I3 to .62, with a median of Sl, for the Artistic environment; from .20 to .68, with a median of .48, for the Social environment; from .07 to .79, with a median of .37, for the Enterprising environment; and from .02 to .62, with a median of .28, for the Conventional environment. Four items were correlated 40 or higher with overall satisfaction in five of the six environments. These four items were guide program development (number I), develop the potential of students and junior faculty (number 6), receive recognition for efforts (number 9), and concentrate efforts in desired areas (number 14). However, none of the specific satisfaction items correlated .40 or higher with overall satisfaction for all six environments.

A rank order correlation coefficient (Spearman rho) was computed to determine the degree of similarity in the order in which the fifteen specific satisfaction items correlated with overall satisfaction for chairmen in the six environments. The rank order correlations ranged from .57 (Social vs. Enterprising) and .56 (Investigative vs. Social) to .06 (Realistic vs. Social), -.06 (Artistic vs. Conventional), and - .02 (Realistic vs. Conventional), with a median of .20. While there was moderate correlation in two instances (Social vs. Enterprising and Investigative vs. Social), the overall results suggested that there was not much similarity in the rank ordering of the fifteen specific satisfaction items according to their correlation with overall satisfaction for the six environments. Only two of the rank order correlation coefficients were -40 or greater and seven were less than .20.

Table 3 presents the partial regression coefficients for the fifteen-variable regression equations to predict overall satisfaction for each environment, the order in which the variables entered these equations, and indicates those

342 JOHN C. SMART

TABLE 2

Correlations of Specific Satisfaction Items With Overall Satisfaction for Chairmen, by Holland Model Environments

Model environments

Specific satisfaction items

Real- lnvesti- Enter- Conven- istic gative Artistic Social prising tionaJ

(N= 31) (N=44) (N=48) (N=58) (N= 20) (N= 24)

(1) Guide program development (2) Have autonomy in decision

making (3) Guide departmental growth (4) Interact with others in the

institution, outside the department

(5) Have a varied and challenging job

(6) Develop the potential of students and junior faculty

(7) Influence your profession and higher education in general

(8) Achieve own major personal goals

(9) Receive recognition for efforts

(10) Be involved in research (11) Maintain currency in

selected professional field (12) Develop lasting friendships (13) Have sufficient time for out-

side activities and interests (14) Concentrate efforts in

desired areas (15) Avoid extraneous conflicts

60

28 36

42

28

43

49 39 61 45 41 11

37

54 38

20 17

13

52 52 57 45 14 60 48 52 36 14

40 54 58 46 26

25 55 22 36 16 48 62 50 79 15

56 13 33 68 02

64 51 59 74 62

44 31 48 42 48

59 53 68 37 51

50 40 57 78 23 40 31 36 16 43

30 32 20 07 28 55 31 50 33 16

33 41 48 36 43

54 31

Note. Decimal points omitted from correlation coefficients.

variables for each environment which contributed to a minimum-variable-set regression equation for that environment according to the incremental stepwise procedure described by Draper and Smith (1966).

The patterns of the partial regression coefficients for the six environments shown in Table 3 indicated broad variation in the relative contribution of these fifteen predictor variables to the prediction of overall satisfaction of chairmen in these environments. Only one predictor variable, guide departmental growth (number 3), had a consistent, positive partial regression coefficient for all six environments. None of the predictor variables had a partial


TABLE 3

Partial Regression Coefficients for the Fifteen-Variable Regression Equations Regressing Specific Satisfaction on Overall Satisfaction, by Holland Mode1 EnvironmentsQ

Specitic satisfaction items

Model environments

Real- Investi- Enter- Conven- istic gative Artistic Social prising tional

(N=31) (N=44) (N=48) (A’=58) (A’=20) (N=24)

(1) Guide program development 50*(2) 14(11) -05(12) 47*(2) -05(15) -39(4)

(2) Have autonomy in decision making -24(6) 15(7) 13(8) -20(8) -29(10) 24(8)

(3) Guide departmental growth 29(4) 54*(2) 62*(l) 12(10) 79*(l) 28(6) (4) Interact with others in the

institution, outside the department 17(10) 21(5) -19(5) lO(11) 3X3) 15(15)

(5) Have a varied and challenging job 1703 64*(l) 21(6) 234) 290) 62*(l)

(6) Develop the potential of students and junior faculty 04(13) Ol(15) -05(13) 04(l5) -40(9) -21(10)

(7) Influence your profession and higher education in general 2X5) -lO(lO) 31(3) -07(12) 32(13) 41(3)

(8) Achieve own major personal goals -06(12) 41*(3) 07(10) 68*(l) -35(8) 62 *(2)

(9) Receive recognition for efforts 56*(3) -14(6) -05(11) 04(13) 59*(2) -24(9)

(10) Be involved in research OO(15) -14(9) ll(9) 19w -30(11) -16(12) (11) Maintain currency in

selected professional field -03(14) 06(13) -02(15) -19(6) -27(6) 30(5) (12) Develop lasting friendships -17(7) 2X4) 11(7) 270) 35(5) 19(14) (13) Have sufficient time for

outside activities and interests 17w -06( 14) 26(4) 25(7) -M(4) 27(7)

(14) Concentrate efforts in desired areas 06(11) -10(12) OS(14) -03(14) 14(14) 22(11)

(15) Avoid extraneous conflicts 60*(l) 1503) 46*(2) 26(S) -21(12) 21(13) R 87 85 80 85 96 92 R2 76 72 64 72 92 85

Note. Decimal points omitted from partial regression coefficients. QThe order in which each item entered the fifteen-variable regression equations of

each environment is indicated in parentheses. *Variables required for the minimum-variable-set regression equation for each mode1

environment.

regression coefficient of .20 or greater for the fifteen-variable regression equations of all six environments, regardless of the sign. In addition, none of the predictor variables were included in the minimum-variable-set regression

344 JOHN C. SMART

equations of four or more environments. Two predictor variables were included in the minimum-variable-set regression equations of three environments: guide departmental growth (number 3) was included in the minimum- variable-set equations for the Investigative, Artistic, and Enterprising environments and achieve own major personal goals (number 8) was included in the Investigative, Social, and Conventional environments’ minimum-variable-set equations.

In addition, rank order correlation coefficients (Spearman rho) were computed to determine the degree of similarity in the order in which the specific satisfaction items entered the fifteen-variable regression equations to predict overall satisfaction in the six environments. The rank order correlations ranged from .49 (Realistic vs. Artistic) to -.04 (Realistic vs. Enter- prising), with a median of .15. Only three rank order correlation coefficients were .40 or greater (Realistic vs. Artistic, Investigative vs. Artistic, and Investigative vs. Enterprising) and eight were .15 or less. Thus, the rank ordering of the specific satisfaction items according to the order in which they entered the fifteen-variable regression equations to predict overall satisfaction in the six environments was not found to be similar across environments.

DISCUSSION

This study attempted to examine the degree to which different sets of specific sources of job satisfaction were related to and predictive of the overall satisfaction of department chairmen in the six model environments postulated by Holland (1973). The results presented above demonstrated broad variation in the combinations of specific sources of satisfaction which were related to the overall job satisfaction of department chairmen in the six model environments. Both the rank ordering of the correlations of the fifteen specific satisfaction items with overall satisfaction and the partial regression coefficients in the separate multiple regression equations indicated that the overall job satisfaction of chairmen in different environments was differentially related to unique weightings and combinations of the fifteen predictor variables. None of the predictor variables correlated .40 or higher with overall satisfaction across the six environments (see Table 2) or had a partial regression coefficient of .20 or greater for the fifteen-variable regression equations of the six environments (see Table 3). Thus it may be concluded that overall job satisfaction in these environments resulted from a unique combination of satisfactions with different aspects of one’s job.

This conclusion is supported by the variation in the variables required for the minimum-variable-set regression equations for each environment as indicated in Table 3. The overall satisfaction of chairmen in Realistic environments was most highly related to their satisfaction with receiving recognition


for their efforts (number 9), opportunities to guide program development (number l), and their ability to avoid extraneous conflicts (number 15). For chairmen in Investigative environments, opportunities to have a varied and challenging job (number 5) guide program growth (number 3), and achieve their own major personal goals (number 8) contributed most importantly to their overall satisfaction. Opportunities to guide departmental growth (number 3) and avoid extraneous conflicts (number 15) were most highly related to the overall job satisfaction of chairmen in Artistic environments. Those in Social environments tended to consider satisfaction with opportunities to achieve their own major personal goals (number 8) and to guide program development (number 1) as most essential to their overall satisfaction. Opportunities to guide departmental growth (number 3) and receive recognition for their efforts (number 9) contributed most importantly to the overall satisfaction of those in Enterprising environments. The overall satisfaction of chairmen in Conventional environments was related primarily to their satisfaction with opportunities to have a varied and challenging job (number 5) and achieve their own major personal goals (number 8). Thus, six of the specific satisfaction items were highly related to the overall satisfaction of chairmen in the six environments. However, no item was included in the minimum-variable-set regression equation of more than three environments and in only one instance was any pair of the six items found in more than one equation (items 5 and 8 were included in the equations of both the Investigative and Conventional environments).

The diverse sources of overall satisfaction for members of different environments within the academic community have broad implications for the reward system of colleges and universities. These institutions have historically been characterized as pluralistic organizations comprised of diverse sets of professionals. The results of this study suggest that no single reward system would be adequate to meet the diverse needs and interests of members in various organizational environments. In fact, the insistence upon a single institutional reward system could promote dissatisfaction among many, if not most, employees. The results presented above suggest that those colleges and universities which desire to enhance the job satisfaction of their chairmen should seek to establish multiple reward systems which, while equitable for all, would have the potential to satisfy the distinctive needs of individuals in different environments within the institutions. Failure to consider this possibility might contribute to internal disharmony and encourage dissatisfied members to seek alternative means for the solution of their specific desires. One possible approach might be to support formalized collective bargaining procedures which would incorporate these sources of job satisfaction as negotiable issues in a collective bargaining agreement.

Dawis et al. (1974) noted that broad variation in sources of overall job satisfaction for employees in different organizations can also be found for

346 JOHN C. SMART

what appears to be essentially similar groups of individuals in different organizations. The results of this study provide strong support for this possibility since the chairmen included in the present study were employed in 32 colleges and universities located in all regions of the country. Further research is needed to examine the proportion of the total variability in the sources of overall satisfaction that is attributable to the specific characteristics of the immediate environment in which an individual works and the general characteristics of the total environment (i.e., the organization). Astin and Holland (1961) developed the environmental assessment technique (EAT) which characterizes a college or university by the distribution of student and/or faculty types at that institution. The EAT could be used in subsequent research to reflect the primary characteristics of a college environment. This would permit researchers to explore the relative importance of both the immediate and the general environments on the overall satisfaction of professionals in institutions of higher learning. For example, are the sources of overall job satisfaction for faculty in Realistic immediate environments (i.e., Civil Engineering departments) and Realistic institutional environments the same as the sources of overall job satisfaction for faculty in Realistic immediate environments and Social institutional environments? Additional research might also explore the assumption by Holland (1973) that the consistency and differentiation of environments promote vocational satisfaction.

It is clear from the results of this study and those reported by Dawis et al. (1974) that the sources and correlates of overall job satisfaction vary from one organization to another and from one environment to another. Considera- tion of such variation in future research designs should provide a more comprehensive understanding of the causes of job satisfaction and the relationship of job satisfaction to the vocational behavior of diverse types of individuals in different types of organizations.

REFERENCES

Astin, A. W., & Holland, J. L. The environmental assessment technique: A way to measure college environments. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1961, 52, 308-316.

Cohen, M. D. & March, J. G. Leadership and ambigui@: The American college president. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974.

Dawis, R. V., Pinto, P. R., Weitzel, W., & Nezzer, M. Describing organizations as reinforcer systems: A new use for job satisfaction and employee attitude surveys. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1974,4, 55-66.

Heimler, C. H. The college department chairman. Educational Record, 1967, 48, 158-163.

Holland, J. L. Tke psychology of vocational choice. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell, 1966.


Holland, J. L. Making vocational choices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973. Hoppock, R. Job satisfiction. New York: Harper, 1935. Klugh, H. E. Statistics: 7he essentials for research. New York: Wiley, 1970. Mobley, T. A. Selecting the department chairmen. Educational Record, 1971, 52,

321-327. Pallone, N. J., Harley, R. B., & Rickard, F. S. Emphases in job satisfaction research:

1968-1969. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1971, 1, 11-28. Ryan, D. W. Internal organization of academic departments. Journal of Higher Education,

1972,43,464-482. Vroom, R. H. Work and motivation. New York: Wiley, 1964.

Received August 20, 1974.

environments as reinforcer systems in the study of job satisfaction

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