environmentally ethical behaviour (eeb): a … · manner of environmentally ethical behaviour...

Solid Waste Solution Journal; Vol. 1 2015

ENVIRONMENTALLY ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR (EEB):

A SOLUTION TO SOLID WASTE PROBLEM

Mashitoh Yaacob

Pusat Citra Universiti, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

43600 Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan

Abstract

The lifestyle choices made by many of us today had distorted our wise judgement between

‘needs’ and ‘desires.’ Our modern lifestyles are greatly surplus consumption levels far

beyond meeting the basic physiological needs. Lifestyles are made up of a series of specific

behaviours. The problem of solid waste in Malaysia is rooted in these behaviours. This paper

discusses solid waste problem in Malaysia in terms of the main issue and the causes; the

long-term challenge for Malaysia and the way to address it; and environmentally ethical

behavior (EEB). The methods employed are analysis and synthesis of relevant literature, as

well as logical and comparative analysis. The analyses resulted in my argument that EEB is a

crucial collective solution for a safe environment and a quality of life of the current and

future generations. We can improve the quality of our environment only when we are able to

be ethical in our consumption, mobility, and waste production.

Keywords: environmentally ethical behaviour; solid waste; lifestyle; consumption

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Solid waste is a major problem to the environmental and human health in Malaysia to the

point that merely technical and regulatory solutions are not enough. Hence, the change in our

lifestyle, i.e., a series of specific behaviours, is needed to sustain the quality of the

environment and our wellbeing. In order to achieve environmental sustainability this change

cannot be only at the level of individual preference, i.e., individual project, but must also be

at the level of collective effort, i.e., social and other major groups such as women; children

and youth; indigenous people; non-governmental organizations; local authorities; workers

and their trade unions; business and industry; scientific and technological community;

farmers; and religious institutions.

Thus, in this paper, I argue that it is timely for our lifestyle change to take place in the

manner of environmentally ethical behaviour (EEB). EEB embeds moral and ethical

Environmentally Ethical Behaviour (EEB):

A Solution To Solid Waste Problem

obligations toward the environment; knowledge on the environment; positive attitudes toward

the environment; and environmentally friendly practices. Therefore, in this paper, I discuss

EEB as a solution to solid waste problem in Malaysia.

2.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD

The main methods used in this paper are the analysis and synthesis of scientific literature, as

well as logical and comparative analysis. However, pre-requisites to the analysis and

synthesis of literature such as doing general observations; corresponding with relevant

academics, and individuals; and participating in relevant seminars/events were taken. Such

steps are to ensure that the understandings of the issue to be discussed in this paper are

obtained. Textual data (in the form of scientific literature) are explored using pre-determined

concept/thematic approach or framework approach. Passages of text are identified, and labels

of pre-determined themes are applied to indicate thematic ideas studied. Each theme is

charted by completing a table where each case has its own row and columns represent

subtopics. Cells contain relevant summaries from the data set. All the texts associated with a

thematic idea are examined together for patterns and connections and different cases are

compared in that respect. The results are then presented and discussed in this paper as

follows.

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 The Main Issue and the Causes

The main issue with solid waste in Malaysia is the amounts and types of solid waste

produced, and the methods for disposing of this waste. The amount of solid waste is kept

on increasing by the years. The local newspaper reported that Malaysia generates 15,000

tonnes of food waste daily in 2013 compared to 930 tonnes in 2011 and around 430

tonnes in 2009 (Ng et al, 2013). Additionally, the type of solid waste is becoming more

varied with the development of technology on the production side (Figure 1 & Table 1).

Hazardous wastes, biomedical wastes, polystyrene, plastics, batteries, oil, tires and other

non-biodegradable wastes have been a challenge for waste disposal management sector,

i.e., to collect, transport, and dispose the wastes.

Mashitoh Yaacob, et al.

Figure 1: Waste Stream Destinations

Source: Lancashire Landscapes (2015)

Table 1: Sources and Types of Solid Wastes

Source Typical waste generators Types of solid wastes

Residential Single and multifamily

dwellings

Food wastes, paper, cardboard,

plastics, textiles, leather, yard

wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes,

special wastes (e.g., bulky items,

consumer electronics, white goods,

batteries, oil, tires), and household

hazardous wastes.).

Industrial Light and heavy manufacturing,

fabrication, construction sites,

power and chemical plants.

Housekeeping wastes, packaging,

food wastes, construction and

demolition materials, hazardous

wastes, ashes, special wastes.

Commercial Stores, hotels, restaurants,

markets, office buildings, etc.

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood,

food wastes, glass, metals, special

wastes, hazardous wastes.

Institutional Schools, hospitals, prisons,

government centers.

Same as commercial.

Construction

and demolition

New construction sites, road

repair, renovation sites,

demolition of buildings

Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.

Municipal

services

Street cleaning, landscaping,

parks, beaches, other

recreational areas, water and

wastewater treatment plants.

Street sweepings; landscape and

tree trimmings; general wastes from

parks, beaches, and other

recreational areas; sludge.

Process Heavy and light manufacturing, Industrial process wastes, scrap



(manufacturing,

etc.)

refineries, chemical plants,

power plants, mineral extraction

and processing.

materials, off-specification

products, slay, tailings.

Agriculture Crops, orchards, vineyards,

dairies, feedlots, farms.

Spoiled food wastes, agricultural

wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g.,

pesticides).

Source: Hoornweg & Thomas (1999)

With the amounts and current composition of solid wastes the methods for disposing of

the wastes in a safe and efficient manner are becoming more difficult. Except for

avoidance/waste minimization, reactive methods of disposing solid wastes such as

landfills; incineration/combustion; recovery and recycling; plasma gasification;

composting; waste to energy (recover energy); animal feeding; fermentation; and land

application have more disadvantages than advantages to the environment as the solid

wastes are addressed at the end-of-pipe, i.e., end-of-pipe solution instead of pollution

prevention. Our choices of how to deal with solid waste disposal do make a difference in

its impact to the environment. It is always in our best interest to take a look at all of the

options that we have available before making the choice.

Solid wastes, in Malaysia, are caused mainly by an increased population and their socio-

economic behavioural changes; and the increase of non-organic and potentially hazardous

components of the waste stream. Today, the amounts, the composition of solid waste, and

the methods for disposing of this waste paired with the lack of reduce, reuse and recycle

activities amongst the public caused a huge problem to the management of solid waste

disposal in Malaysia.

In September 2015, Malaysia enforces Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management

Act 2007 (Act 672), i.e., requires household solid waste segregation into six categories,

i.e., (1) Papers to be put into a blue rubbish bag; (2) Plastics to be put into a white rubbish

bag; (3) Glass/ceramic, small electronic/electrical wastes, aluminium/metal/copper,

hazardous wastes to be put into a green plastic bag; (4) Bulky wastes to be neatly put on

the roadside; (5) Garden wastes to be put into a rubbish bag or an appropriate container

on the roadside; and (6) Organic wastes, nappies etc. to be put into a rubbish bag or an

appropriate container before putting them into the rubbish bin (SWCorp, 2015). However,


at the moment, only Melaka, Kedah, Perlis, Johor, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur,

Negeri Sembilan and Pahang subscribed to the Act.

3.2 The Long-Term Challenge for Malaysia and the Way to Address It

3.2.1 The challenge:

The long term challenge for Malaysia is the need to break the link between economic

growth and the production of waste and to achieve sustainable growth by the more

effective use of resources.

High level waste generation must be addressed as part of the effort to sustain the

quality of the environment and human wellbeing. The amount of solid waste is closely

linked with the growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A study to investigate the

relationship between waste production and economic activity for a period of time

should be conducted. We need to make sure that waste quantities increase at a lower

rate than growth in GDP (European Commission, 2010).

Waste generation is related to materials used in the production of goods. To curb the

waste generation at the rate of economic growth, we must decrease waste production

by firms and households relative to economic activity. The future target for waste

reduction by companies in their production processes and by households must be

determined.

Additionally, effective use of resources is vital in sustaining environmental quality

and economic activity, i.e., utilising natural resources in a sustainable manner. Natural

resources are different than other resources utilised in the production of goods

(Everett et al, 2010:8):

Some elements of natural capital have critical thresholds beyond

which sudden and dramatic changes may occur; some have finite

limits; changes to natural capital are potentially irreversible; and

impacts extend across many generations. Therefore, while natural

capital is used to generate growth, it needs to be used sustainably

and efficiently in order to secure growth in the long run. This is

most obvious in the context of non-renewable resources such as oil

and minerals, but the rate of consumption of renewable resources

such as forests and fisheries and of ecosystem services such as



biodiversity and carbon sequestration must also be considered

relative to their rate of recharge and replenishment and any critical

thresholds they exhibit.

3.2.2 Way to address it:

With current policies it is difficult to avoid increasing quantities of waste. Breaking

the link between economic growth and waste generation by shifting the location of

production to other countries, e.g., many of the goods and services consumed in the

United Kingdom (UK) now being produced in other countries, is not a solution

(Everett et al, 2010).

Malaysia needs to switch the focus of waste policies from ‘end-of-pipe’ solutions

(i.e., dealing with disposal of waste) to prevention of waste solutions such as EEB

(e.g., pre-cycling / reducing, reuse and recycling) by consumers. Hence, strong policy

measures and strategies are required to mobilise companies and households towards

sustainable production and consumption, and consequently breaking the link between

economic growth and waste generation. European Commission (2010) suggests that:

For companies, policy instruments, such as a tax on virgin

materials, must ensure production techniques change to those that

generate less waste. For households, policy instruments, such as

different VAT [value-added tax] rates for goods and services that

generate less waste, are needed to change the pattern and intensity

of domestic consumption.

Hence, government intervention via policy change is required in order to inject moral

entity into the market because in the absence of government intervention the market

has failed to ensure the sustainable use of environmental resources resulted in the

natural resources being over-used (Everett et al, 2010).

In Malaysia, a policy change in order to address the market failure in sustaining the

use of natural resources may be utilised. Among others are market-based instruments,

especially the Landfill Tax. Currently, Malaysia does not have a landfill tax and the


capital costs for new landfills will have to be burdened by the federal government

(UK Trade & Investment, 2010; Effie Papargyropoulou, 2011). However, direct

regulation relating to solid waste, i.e., the Solid Waste and Public Cleansing

Management Act, gazetted in 2007, is timely to reorganise the sector. “Information

provision and other policies to address barriers to behaviour change, such as product

labelling policies and policies to increase take-up of resource efficiency measures that

provide environmental and financial savings” (Everett et al, 2010: 9) should be

enhanced by authorities in solid waste management sector.

Additionally, the role of green technology is equally important, i.e., “…changes in

technology that have the potential to reduce the environmental impacts of production

and consumption decisions whilst also driving economic growth” (Everett et al,

2010:7). These changes may be in adopting new production techniques and product

designs by manufacturers. Moreover, these changes may trigger innovation in

technology in reducing environmental impacts, and the opportunities for businesses

and industries. It is crucial for Malaysia to adopt green technologies, and in 2009,

Malaysia has started the effort to treat waste into energy, such as landfill gas capture,

that can either feed back into the treatment process or be delivered to local

communities (UK Trade & Investment, 2010).

Equally important is improving the efficiency of resource utilisation by industries in

the manner that the resources will be maintained in a way that sustains economic

growth and prosperity in the long-term. Everett et al (2010:8) suggest that:

Declining levels of some natural assets – for example, the use of

minerals and metals in manufacturing – can be acceptable as long

as the decision to deplete them reflects the real costs of

environmental resources, taking into account their scarcity and

how substitutable they are, and only if adequate investments are

made in other types of capital. However, where environmental

resources have critical thresholds beyond which they cannot be

substituted for by other types of capital, interventions to prevent

these thresholds from being exceeded must be considered.



3.3 Environmentally Ethical Behavior (EEB)

Environmentally ethical behaviour is actions with values that are morally friendly or

in conformity with the environmental wellbeing. As far as the solid waste is

concerned pre-cycling / reducing, reusing and recycling are the environmentally

ethical behavior cases in point.

3.3.1 Pre-cycling / Reducing:

Pre-cycling / reducing behavior is “the purchases of products that benefit or cause less

harm to the environment than do more conventional consumer goods” (Ebreo et al,

1999:108). Examples of pre-cycling / reducing behaviours are: (1) Shop at a flea

market, or a second hand shop for household; (2) Buy refillable items for household

such as ink pens, perfume, or dishwasher liquid; (3) Buy fruit and vegetables loose,

not packaged, or with as little packaging as possible; (4) Use own bag when going

shopping, rather than one provided by the shop; (5) Buy products because either the

products or their packaging can be used again rather than those that can only be used

once; (6) Buy products with the phrase “environmentally friendly” on the label; (7)

Buy canned drinks or glass bottled drinks, rather than plastic bottled drinks; (8) Buy a

bulky pack rather than a small pack for products that household consumes in quantity;

(9) Minimise waste by using every bit of the food prepared for family and throwing

away as little as possible; (10) Buy a handkerchief rather than tissues, or washable

nappies rather than disposable nappies.

3.3.2 Reuse and Recycling:

Reuse is “centred within the household, involving a form of direct at-the-source

recycling [whereas recycling] involves a link between the household and the

community because it involves a community-scale organization – if only to store the

collected materials prior to sale [and] recycling requires manufacturing energies and

produces waste of its own, whereas reuse does not” (De Young, 1986:444).

Additionally, recycling uses energy in transportation and processing. Some of the

examples of reuse and recycling are: (1) Try to get something repaired rather than

buying a new one; (2) Take old recyclable items to a recycling centre; (3) Sort out

household waste according to whether or not it is recyclable; (4) Re-use paper,

cardboard, junk mail, magazines, or newspapers for other purposes such as wrappers,


artwork, or to light the fire; (5) Feed animals such as pets, livestock, wild birds, stray

cats etc., with household organic waste; (6) Compost household organic waste; (7)

Freeze food leftovers for another meal, or unexpected guests; (8) Re-use plastic items

such as bottles, bags, containers, etc.; (9) Recycle food cans, drinks cans, or foil; (10)

Re-use textiles such as old baby clothes for a new baby; and (11) Recycle or re-use

glass bottles and jars.

3.3.3 Triggers of EEB: Economic factors

Researchers have consistently noted several economic factors that drive people to

adopt environmentally ethical behaviour (EEB) but financial incentive; product

attribute; cost/price; and charge are amongst the most influential ones:

(1) Tax credits and exemptions to environmentally friendly

goods/properties/activities; recycling for cash/coupon/voucher; new reuse and

recycling facilities; recycling performance grants for municipals (based on

residential and commercial recycling tonnages, a “bonus award” based on the

recycling rate, and an extra incentive for high levels of commercial recycling);

zero waste business assistance programme (free consulting & technical

assistance).

(2) Environmentally friendly designed products – not products that are designed to

be thrown away after use or to be used for less than their physical capacity due to

changes in styles, or have been created to break down faster than they should and

can’t be repaired, or with unnecessary (unrecyclable, unreturnable and not

biodegradable) packages.

(3) Less money and time spent for environmentally product and to recycle it,

respectively.

(4) Polluters pay or pay-as-you-throw (PAYT) – restaurants/hotels etc.

3.3.4 Triggers of EEB: Social factors

Social factors that trigger EEB can be categorised into social intrinsic and social

extrinsic / subjective norms. Social intrinsic factors refer to social conscience;

perceived behaviour control; moral and environmental concerns; pro-environment

belief; internal locus of control (sense of personal efficacy); perceived consumer

effectiveness; word-of-mouth; ecologically conscious living; altruism; personal

concern; safety concern; and intrinsic satisfaction while social extrinsic / subjective



norms refer to social pressure; information availability; convenience; community;

family; friends; co-workers; existence of recycling programmes; social approval;

knowledge of environmental issues, family composition; neighbour’s expectations;

the need to conform with others; practicality; and mass media.

3.3.5 Triggers of EEB: Political factors

Political factors that trigger EEB can be divided into five categories, i.e., national

policy, government, law and regulation, environmental non-governmental

organisations (NGOs), and political parties / politicians:

(1) Environmental national policy on business and industry; reducing, reusing and

recycling (3R); and funding;

(2) Decisive government action on issues of balancing economic profits and

environmental well-being, and provision of facilities and accessibilities for

3R/curbside programmes;

(3) Enforcement of environmental law and regulation, e.g., a returnable bottle law,

requirements to recycle office paper, and a ban on aseptic containers;

(4) Environmental NGOs activities, e.g., 3R – encourage people to donate to and

become volunteers for environmental causes;

(5) Environmentally active political parties/politicians – support people’s

environmental political actions or behaviours include writing complaint

letters/emails and making phone calls to officials as well as boycotts of non-

environmentally friendly products.

3.3.6 Triggers of EEB: Philosophical factors:

Some of the philosophical factors that trigger EEB are value-based, i.e.,

anthropocentric and eco-centric, e.g., utilitarianism. Some are based on the status of

ecology in life, e.g., deep-ecology, eco-feminism, and eco-socialism. Others are

tradition-based, i.e., theories of consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics, e.g.,

Gaia, and romanticism:

(1) Utilitarianism: All living things has their own need and desire, hence, they should

not be hindered from satisfying their needs and desires.

(2) Deep ecology: The intrinsic values of nature – independent of the usefulness of

the nonhuman world for human purposes.


(3) Eco-feminism: There is no hierarchy or distinction between human and the

environment as well as there is no distinction between men and women and equal

in terms of rights and priorities.

(4) Eco-socialism: The evolution of nature (not human) should dictate human

economy, social and culture.

(5) Gaia: Darwin’s evolution theory in that the existence of organisms on earth

including humans is from the evolution of species.

(6) Romanticism: The current practice of modern science and technology in

industrialization has stripped the environmental phenomena from human emotion,

intuition and soul, hence, the loss in natural beauty and aesthetic aspects of the

environment.

3.3.7 Triggers of EEB: Religious factors:

EEB may be performed due to other reasons than religion such as social, economic,

political, or philosophical reasons. But, religious reasons are particularly important for

not only do they trigger higher commitments, they also govern other aspects of life

such as social, economic, and political. Four main religions in Malaysia, i.e.,

Buddhism – the Noble Eight Fold Path; Hinduism – Eternal Truth; Christianity –

Stewardship; and Islam – Khilafah/Trusteeship, play an important role in mobilising

people behaviour towards the environmentally ethical ones. These religions stem from

the sacred teaching of revealed knowledge. Hence, human needs and desires are

governed by the religious worldview which derives from the set of beliefs and values.

These beliefs and values provide guides, references, basis, measures and principles for

human attitudes and behaviours. The difference in reasoning and rationales behind the

position, attitude and action taken towards the environment between the religions is

due to the difference in theological principles beyond logic.

3.3.8 The importance of EEB:

I argue that EEB is important in solving solid waste problem in Malaysia due to the

mounting problem of solid waste disposal despite the technical and regulatory

measures that have been taken thus far. However, relevant authorities should work on

strategies to realise EEB using all of the triggers discussed earlier. EEB may

contribute to the creation of an environmentally sustainable community (Figure 2).



Figure 2: Sustainable Community

Source: Cwanamaker (2015)

Additionally, EEB may become a tool to curb a potential threat / hazard of solid waste

to public health and the environment (Figure 3), and to reduce the costs of operating

refuse sites, collection and disposal of solid wastes that mounting to RM320 million

in 2013 alone with the estimation of the cost of solid waste management services at

RM14.80 per premise. This figure is excluding the industry value for solid waste of

around RM600 million annually (Mohd Dinie Muhaimin Samsudina & Mashitah Mat

Dona, 2013; Nadzri Yahaya 2012).


Figure 3: Threat/Hazard of Solid Waste

Source: City of San Diego Solid Waste LEA (2015)

4.0 CONCLUSION

Malaysia faces significant challenges in dealing with its solid waste disposal in order to

sustain public health and services provided by the environmental ecosystems. Malaysia has

made used of technical and regulatory measures extensively to curb the high level generation

of solid waste but solid waste disposal remains as one of the major environmental problems

in Malaysia. It is timely for Malaysia to explore EEB as a tool to overcome barriers to

behaviour change, and to help lower the rate of solid waste generation in Malaysia. A

consistent, coherent and effective policy framework on behavioral change, i.e., EEB, may be

created in order to sustain the natural environmental ecosystems that support human

wellbeing and long-term economic growth and development. In this regard, EEB is a crucial

collective solution for a safe environment and a quality of life of the current and future

generations.

5.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work is supported by the research funds: (1) AP-2013-014 Islamic Environmental

Ethics: Addressing the Phenomenon of Consumer Culture in Malaysia; and TD-2014-010

Transformasi Tingkah Laku Melayu Islam ke arah Kelestarian Alam Sekitar berasaskan Nilai

Islam (Malay Muslim Behavioural Transformation towards Environmental Sustainability

based on Islamic Values).

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