Environmental Science AP2012 - 2013

PACIFICA HighInstructor: STEVE DOUCETTE

Semester I: Chapters 1-16, 28, 29, and 30 Study Outlines: 61 pages

The Semester I Final will cover all 19 chapters listed above.

Please plan on 250-300 multiple-choice questions, with the Final Exam point total being scaled to = 20% of the semester grade, - - a fairly traditional

comprehensive final relative point value.As you know, you’ll have 2 hours to complete the

exam.

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Chapter Study Outlines

Chapter 1: Part I

1. Noteworthy Environmental Science themes:

a. People & Nature: People and Nature are intimately connected; human survival depends on the environment.

b. Rapid human population growth: - is generally considered to be a (“the”) fundamental environmental issue/topic/challenge.

c. Sustainability: Human survival and human-built systems (e.g., an urban area), like natural systems, depend on sustainable systems.

d. Human environmental impacts: Humans have had an impact on the environment for millions of years.

e. Urban environments: Approximately 50% of the global population lives in cities, and it is projected that about 65% of the global population will live in cities by the year 2025.

f. Science and Values: Value judgments based on scientific knowledge: Solutions to environmental challenges typically involve making value judgments based on scientific knowledge. Environmental problems or challenges have a cultural and social context, and understanding the role of cultural, social, and economic factors is vital to the development of solutions.

g. Precautionary Principle: This principle implies that there is a social responsibility to protect the public from exposure to harm when scientific investigation has found a plausible risk, even though an exhaustive body of scientific evidence may not exist at the time that a decision is made or could be made.

2. Describe what is meant by the phrase “an environmentally sustainable society”.

3. Compare and contrast “ecology” and “environmental science”:

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4. Identify five different “natural sciences” which are generally considered to be a part of environmental science.

5. Graphically display linear and exponential growth (show both on the same graph):

6. Describe the overall trend in human population growth over the last 500 years or so.

7. What has happened to the length of doubling time of the human population over the course of human history?

8. Describe a relatively quick way to calculate doubling time. (For example, given a growth rate of 2.0%, D.T. =?).

9. Define “economic growth” and identify the two basic ways this accomplished:

10. Define GNP and per capita GNP:

11. What does the “Ecological Footprint” refer to?

12. Describe the Gaia hypothesis:

13. How is a “megacity” defined?

14. Describe carrying capacity (K):

15. Why is there a time lag between a given population overshooting K and die-back?

16. Identify three environmental resistance factors:

17. Distinguish between renewable resources, potentially renewable resources, and non-renewable resources; include an example of each.

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18. Which resource(s) is considered “perpetual”?

19. Discuss the relationship between potentially renewable resources and sustainable yield.

20. Describe the four justifications or methods of placing value on the environment listed below: a. Utilitarian justification:

b. Ecological justification:

c. Aesthetic justification:

d. Moral justification:

21. Define “environmental degradation” and give two examples:

22. Describe “the Tragedy of the Commons”:

23. Identify two approaches which might decrease/prevent “the tragedy of the commons”:

24. Define “pollution”:

25. Contrast “Point” and “Nonpoint” pollutant sources, providing two examples of each:

26. Identify two governmental approaches which might encourage pollution preventionand pollution cleanup.

27. Describe two limitations or drawbacks to pollution cleanup strategies: (vs. prevention)

28. Identify three major environmental/resource problems from/associated with each of the following categories:

(a) Water Pollution (b) Biodiversity (c) Air Pollution (d) Food Supply (e) Waste

29. Briefly explain the I = PAT equation.

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30. Who was Julian Simon and what did he see as “the most valuable resource” on Earth:

31. “Julian Simon vs. Paul Ehrlich”: contrasting views on a global human carrying capacity ...

32. Identify two important changes that many environmental scientists think should take placein the decades ahead in order for our species to experience sustainability on a global level.

_______________________Important Terminology:

1. Environmental Science2. Ecology3. Exponential Growth4. Linear Growth5. Doubling Time; Rule of 706. Natural Science7. Social Science8. Conservation9. Preservation10. Restoration11. Natural Resources12. Sustainability13. Gross National Product(GNP)14. Per Capita GNP15. “MDCs”16. “LDCs”17. The Wealth Gap18. Ecological Footprint19. Perpetual Resource20. Renewable Resources21. Nonrenewable Resources22. Common Property Resources23. The Tragedy of the Commons24. Sustainable Yield25. Environmental Degradation26. Mineral 27. Metallic Mineral Resources 28. Nonmetallic Mineral Resources 29. Economic Depletion 30. Recycling; Reusing 31. “Pollution”: Point sources, Nonpoint sources, Prevention, Cleanup

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Chapter 1, Part II

Environmental History: Brief Overview

1. Describe how the American Bison was nearly driven to extinction.

2. Identify two approaches used which have helped to increase bison numbers.

3. Discuss major differences between hunter-gatherer societies and industrialized-agriculture societies in terms of the following:

(a) The division of labor:

(b) The use of energy and material resources: (c) The relationship between humans and the natural world: (d) Population size:

(e) The impact(s) of their societies on the environment.

4. Homo sapiens (sapiens) have walked the earth for approximately how many years?

5. Earth is approximately how many years old?

6. Approximately how many years ago did each of the following begin?(a) the agricultural revolution: ______ ; (b) the industrial revolution: ______(c) the “information/globalization” revolution: ______

7. Describe three specific and significant positive impacts of the agricultural revolution:

8. Describe three specific and significant negative impacts of the agricultural revolution:

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9. Describe three specific societal or environmental changes which occurred due largely or solely to the industrial revolution.

10. Describe the fundamental difference(s) between Conservationists and Preservationists:

11. Briefly describe what each of the following legislative measures/agreements calls for:{Note: Dates/Years, overall, are not a point of emphasis, but may provide insight regarding particular time periods in U.S. and/or global history.}

(a) Forest Reserve Act (1891):

(b) Lacey Act (1900):

(c) Antiquities Act (1906):

(d) National Park Service Act (1916):

(e) Taylor Grazing Act (1934):

(f) Soil Conservation Act (1935):

(g) Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (1937): (h) Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1947): FIFRA

(i) Atomic Energy Act (1954):

(j) Price-Anderson Act (1957):

(k) Wilderness Act (1964): Howard Zahniser & Aldo Leopold

(l) National Environmental Policy Act (1969): NEPA

(m)Resources Recovery Act (1970):

(n) Ocean Dumping Act (1972):

(o) Endangered Species Act (1973): ESA

(p) Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972:

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(q) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976): RCRA

(r) Clean Water Act (1977 + amend.):

(s) Safe Drinking Water Act (1974, 1984, 1996):

(t) Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977): SMCRA

(u) Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (1980):{“Superfund”}

(v) Montreal Protocol (1987):

(w)Clean Air Act (1990 + amend.): NAAQS

(x) “The Kyoto Meeting”(1997):

(y) “The Copenhagen Summit” (2009): COP 15 (UN Conference of the Parties) –as one example of the COP gatherings

(z) We may add one or more acts or treaties to the assemblage above:

12. Who was Rachel Carson? What is the title of her most famous book (in the context of this course)?

13. Who was Aldo Leopold? Briefly describe his concept of “Land Ethics”:

14. Who was Garrett Hardin and what is the title of his most famous essay? Briefly describe what this essay is about, beyond merely restating the essay title.

Important Terminology, Case Studies, Individuals, and Concepts:

1. Hunter-gatherers2. Agricultural revolution3. Slash-and-burn cultivation4. Shifting cultivation5. Sustainable cultivation6. Industrial revolution7. Sustainable yield8. Multiple use

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9. Wise-use Conservationists10. Preservationists11. The first Wildlife Refuge established,(1870, Lake Merritt, California)12. Yellowstone National Park(1872)13. First National Wildlife Refuge established,(1903, Pelican Island, Florida)14. Civilian Conservation Corps15. Tennessee Valley Authority16. Soil Conservation Service (National Resources Conservation Service)17. U.S. Forest Service18. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring(published 1962)19. Paul Ehrlich’s Population Bomb(published 1968)20. Garrett Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons (article published 1968)21. Cuyahoga River fire(1969)22. Santa Barbara off-shore oil well leaks(1969)23. National Environmental Policy Act(1969)24. EPA established(1970)25. OPEC Oil Embargo(1973)26. Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina: CFCs and Stratospheric O3 (1974)27. Love Canal(1978) 28. Three Mile Island(1979) 29. Bhopal, India accident: Union Carbide Chemical Plant(Pesticides)30. Sagebrush Rebellion31. Henry David Thoreau32. George Perkins Marsh33. John Muir34. Theodore Roosevelt35. Gifford Pinchot

Chapter 2: Critical Thinking & The Environment-Solving/Attempting to Solve Environmental Challenges

Note: This section also includes fundamental science concepts, processes, and terms related to science, energy, and matter. While many of these may be review for you, we’ll make sure that we are fine with these, along with the rest of the topic/chapter material.)

1. Mono Lake case study: please summarize this famous case study:

2. Accuracy (agreement w/ accepted value): Provide one example

3. Precision (degree of exactness measured): Provide one example:

4. Briefly summarize the Easter Island case study:

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5. Briefly describe one of the significant challenges or limitations of the

environmental science discipline:

6. Describe what a hypothesis is, including the two most essential characteristics ofa functional hypothesis:

7. Contrast the independent variable and the dependent variable in an experiment:

8. Describe the purpose of the control in an experiment:

9. Discuss the value of reproducibility in experimentation:

10. Comment on the issue of sample size in experimentation:

11. Contrast theory and law as they apply to science:

12. Define a “system” and include the key components found in most systems:

13. Define positive feedback loop and negative feedback loop:14. Explain how positive feedback loops and negative feedback loops can be coupled

to maintain stability.

15. Define homeostasis:

16. Discuss the concept of “delay” as it often applies to a complex system(s) in the field of environmental science.

17. Explain what is meant by a “threshold level”:

18. Explain the concept of “leverage”:

19. Give an example of a synergistic interaction in environmental science.

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20. Explain how full-cost pricing could likely reduce some types of pollution.

21. How many naturally-occurring elements are there? 22. How many different elements have been synthesized in the lab?

23. Contrast inorganic and organic compounds, and provide two examples of each.

24. Briefly describe the nature of the pH scale:

25. A solution which has a pH of 9 is how many times more alkaline than a solution which has a pH of 4? __________

26. Distinguish between high-quality matter and low-quality matter:

27. Define Entropy:

28. What does material efficiency or resource productivity refer to?

29. Define Energy:

30. Contrast high-quality energy and low-quality energy:31. Describe the Law of Conservation of Matter:

32. Identify the three factors that determine how severe the harmful effects of a pollutant will possibly be:

33. Provide two examples of pollutants classified in each of the following categories:

(a) Degradable/Biodegradable (b) Slowly Degradable

(c) Non-degradable

34. Assume that your Aunt Greta, who is a nuclear physicist, gives you one kilogram of Uranium-234 as a graduation present. (You had been dropping subtle hints for years). U-234 has a half-life of 250,000 years.

(a) How many grams of U-234 will remain after 250,000 years?

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(b) How many grams of U-234 will remain after 750,000 years?

(c) How many grams of U-234 will remain after one million years? Important Terminology:

1. Experimental Design 2. Controlled Experiment3. Hypothesis4. Independent Variable5. Dependent Variable6. Control7. Reproducibility8. Sample Size9. Double-Blind Experiment10. Placebo11. Theory vs. Law12. Inductive Reasoning13. Deductive Reasoning14. System: Inputs, Flows, Throughputs, Stores/Accumulations/Sinks, Outputs 15. Positive Feedback loops16. Negative Feedback Loops17. Delays18. Synergy19. Homeostasis20. Discontinuities21. Chaos22. Matter 23. Elements24. Compounds25. Mixtures26. Atoms27. Ions28. Molecules29. Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, Electrons30. Nucleus31. Atomic Number32. Mass Number33. Isotopes34. Radioisotopes & Half-life35. Ionizing & Non-ionizing Radiation 36. Low-level and High-Level Radioactive isotopes/materials37. Safe-Storage time for radioactive isotopes/wastes: rule of 10 half-lives

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38. Concentration39. pH and the pH scale; Acids and Bases40. Chemical Formulas: see the attached page41. Bonds: Ionic, Covalent, Hydrogen42. Organic and Inorganic Compounds43. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons44. Chlorofluorocarbons45. Monomers and Polymers46. Carbohydrates, Proteins, Amino Acids47. Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides48. DNA, Genes, Chromosomes49. Genome50. Gene Mutations51. Matter Quality: High vs. Low52. Entropy53. Material Efficiency (Resource Productivity)54. Energy: Potential vs. Kinetic55. Electromagnetic Radiation56. Heat vs. Temperature57. High- and Low-Quality Energy58. Physical vs. Chemical Changes59. Law of Conservation of Matter60. Circle of Poison61. Persistence62. Degradable, Biodegradable63. Nuclear Change: Fusion vs. Fission64. Critical Mass65. Chain Reaction66. Gamma Rays67. Alpha Particles 68. Beta Particles69. Genetic vs. Somatic Change70. Electromagnetic Fields (E.M.F.s)71. Radiocarbon Dating72. Tracers73. The First and Second Laws of Energy74. Energy Efficiency (Energy Productivity)75. High-Throughput Economies76. Sinks, Reserves, Accumulations77. Matter-Recycling Economies78. Low-throughput Economies

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Chapter 28: Environmental Economics

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1. “The Commons”; “A” Commons2. Externalities3. Full-Cost Pricing: the internalization of external costs4. Public Service Functions of Nature5. Ecosystem Services6. Landscape Aesthetics7. Nature Valuation8. Risk-Benefit Analysis: Ex. DDT9. Marginal Costs: in environmental economics, the cost to reduce one additional

unit of a type of degradation; for example, a specific air pollutant such as mercury from combusting coal at a coal-fired power plant

10. Economic Policy Instruments: (please see information below) 11. Fishing Resources and Policy Instruments12. U.S. Fisheries case study: Seeking Sustainability? Jobs/Economics/Food/ Fish

Populations/........

Information regarding #10. Policy Instruments (above) Source: The World Health Organization http://www.who.int/heli/economics/econinstruments

The common element of all economic instruments is that they effect change or influence behavior through their impact on market signals. Economic instruments are a means of considering "external costs," i.e. costs to the public incurred during production, exchange or transport of various goods and services, so as to convey more accurate market signals. Those external costs may include natural resource depletion, environmental degradation, health impacts, social impacts, etc. Economic instruments facilitate the implementation of Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration, commonly known as the "Polluter Pays Principle." The article states: "National Authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter, should in principle, bear the cost of pollution with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment."

Methods: Economic Instruments can be designed in a variety of ways, and for a variety of applications, including the following: Increasing prices of goods and services that damage health and environment, as

well as increasing financial returns in the case of more sustainable approaches that foster more environmentally- friendly production and consumption patterns.

Reduction of compliance costs by providing flexibility to polluters or users of natural resources to chose the most cost-efficient and environmentally-effective measures.

Incentives for investments in innovation and improved environmental technology so that both environmental and financial benefits are generated.

Allocation of property rights and responsibilities of firms, groups or individuals in a manner so that they have both the incentive and the power to act in a more environmentally- responsible manner.

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The raising of revenues to achieve environment and health objectives via tax policies.

Relevance to policy-making

Economic instruments are often contrasted to "command and control" policy approaches that determine pollution reduction targets and define allowable control technologies via laws or regulations. In reality, however, command and control policy and economic instruments frequently operate in tandem. A government may set limits on permitted pollution levels for a region or a country in order to meet a certain health or environment objective. Market-oriented approaches such as tradable permits might then be used to allocate the allowable emissions in an efficient manner. Tax breaks or other financial incentives might be offered to groups, individuals or industries investing in cleaner technologies.

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Systems of Change: The Big Picture Chapter 3Environmental Science AP

Instructor: Ben Smith

Big Ideas and Supporting Material related to Ch.3:

1. The Amboseli National Reserve case study

2. Systems and Feedback: System defined; Positive & Negative Feedback Loops

3. Exponential Growth

4. Doubling Time

5. Rule of 70 (again)

6. “Sustainable Growth”: Is this an oxymoronic phrase?

7. Environmental Unity

8. Uniformitarianism

9. James Hutton: Early Rock Star

10. Steady State

11. Average Residence Time (A.R.T.)

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12. Earth as a living system

13. Biota

14. Biosphere15. Ecosystems

16. Gaia Hypothesis

17. Lag Time; Delay

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Human Population: Growth, Demographics, & Carrying Capacity : Chapter 4

Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith Peninsula High School

1. “If the human population continues to grow rapidly, it will ultimately overwhelm the environment. That is why human population growth is a major theme of this textbook.” Page 57 Botkin & Keller- Given this quote early in chapter 4, what should be done to address this theme?- If asked to choose one other “theme” mentioned in chapter 1 that is most critical in somehow addressing or dealing with human population growth as a challenge, which one would you select and why?

2. “The human population, the quality of life, and the human carrying capacity of Earth”: page 66, 4.7, B& K

- Please be familiar with the following:

A. Human population and Logistic Growth: B. The “Packing Problem” approach: ... 50 billion ... ? ?

C. The “Deep Ecology” movement:

3. Describe the Prophecy of Malthus: A Closer Look 4.3, p. 67

4. How Many People Can Earth Support? Identify the six factors considered in attempting to answer this question in the Critical Thinking Issue on page 71.

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5. Would you add any other factors to this list in determining Earth’s human carrying capacity?

6. Please write the basic equation for calculating population change and be able to apply it:

7. ZPG stands for:

8. What is crude birth rate and what makes this value “crude”?

9. What is crude death rate and what makes this value “crude”?

10. Calculate the annual rate of population change for each of the following: Annual Rate Pop. Change(%)

A. Globally: crude birth rate is 22; crude death rate is 9 = _____ B. MDCs: crude birth rate is 11; crude death rate is 10 = _____ C. LDCs : crude birth rate is 25; crude death rate is 9 = _____ D. Africa : crude birth rate is 38; crude death rate is 14 = _____ E. Latin America: crude birth rate is 24; crude death rate is 6 = _____ F. Oceania: crude birth rate is 18; crude death rate is 7 = _____ G. United States: crude birth rate is 15; crude death rate is 9 = _____ H. Europe: crude birth rate is 10; crude death rate is 11 = _____

11. Determine the rate of population change for a country which begins a year with 1 million people and has 1675 births, 450 deaths, 325 immigrants, and 150 emigrantsin a given year: _____ .

12. Globally, over the last 100 years, which have dropped more dramatically, birth ratesor death rates? Provide three significant reasons for this:

13. In 1963, the global growth rate was 2.2%; in 2000, global growth rate was 1.35%. Currently, globally growth rate is approximately ____ %.

14. Given the global growth rate in year 2000, doubling time = _____.

15. Given a starting population of 7.2 billion people and using the global growth rate of 1.1%, how many people would be added to the planet in a given year? ___________.

16. Given a starting population of 310 million in a nation and a growth rate of 1.0%, how many people will be added to this country in a given year? ____________.

17. Identify the five most populous nations: ___________, __________, ___________, ______________, and ________________. (as of Sept. 2012)

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18. How does replacement-level fertility differ from total fertility rate?

19. Does TFR tend to be higher in developing or developed countries? ______________. TFRs for: Developing nations: ____ Developed nations: ____ Global: ___

20. Describe two likely reasons or factors which contribute to TFRs being higher in thecategory of countries identified in #19 above:

21. Why is replacement-level fertility not equal to 2.0?

22. On which continent is TFR the highest? __________.

23. Describe the demographic transition model? What is this model used for? Be familiar with the following: the major stages of this model, the changes in population, birth rate, and death rate which occur, and the major factors which help bring about the changes in these three (pop, B.R, & D.R.).

24. When was the so-called baby boom in the United States? _____________.

25. When was the so-called echo boom in the United States? _____________.

26. Be familiar with the major factors affecting birth rates and fertility rates:

27. Describe two potential effects of advances in medicine on the demographic transition:

28. The rapid growth of the world’s population over the last 100 years is primarily the result of __________________________________.

29. Provide three fundamental reasons which briefly explain how this change (from the answer to #28 above) has come about: ___________________________________ ,__________________________________ , ______________________________

30. Name the two most useful indicators of overall health of people in a country or region:___________________________ and _____________________________.

31. Of the factors/indicators in #30 above, which one is considered the single most important? ______________________.

32. Explain why population age structure diagrams are important in making population growth estimates. Identify the three age categories and the four general types of age structure diagrams:

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33. Comparison of key demographic indicators in a: -highly developed, -moderately developed, and -less developed country:

34. Approximately what percent of the world’s people live in populations that are stablein terms of the rate of growth? _____ These populations are primarily in: _____________ .

35. Be familiar with the “Immigration in the United States” case study, in short:

36. Please present an argument in support of:

A. Slowing population growth:

B. Not slowing population growth:

37. Briefly summarize Garrett Hardin’s perspective on human population growth and carrying capacity.

38. Case studies in brief: A. Thailand: be familiar with the factors which contributed to the success of

Thailand’s population growth rate reduction: (3.2% to 1.6% from 1971 to 1986, then down to 1.0% by year 2000.)

B. India:

C. China:

39. United Nations Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, Egypt, 1994: Population Plan(goals/policies/actions/recommendations):

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Study Outline: Chapters 5, 6, & 9 Environmental Science AP

Biogeochemical Cycles: “Global Recycling Program” Ch. 5 1. Describe/characterize each of the following:

(a) Lithosphere (b) Hydrosphere (c) Atmosphere (Troposphere, Stratosphere)(d) Ecosphere/Biosphere (e) Cryosphere

2. Distinguish between open and closed systems:Identify four biogeochemical cycles:

3. Biogeochemical Cycles: (a) Major types of: Atmospheric, Sedimentary, Hydrologic (b) Specific chemical cycles: N, C, H2O, P, S

4. Why is it necessary that biogeochemical cycles exist? Explain:

Hydrologic Cycle:

5. Briefly describe the seven main processes involved in the hydrologic cycle: Evaporation, Transpiration, Condensation, Precipitation, Infiltration, Percolation, Surface Runoff

6. Name the two driving forces behind the water cycle:7. Relate precipitation and condensation nuclei:8. Relate the following terms: groundwater, aquifer, and water table:9. Describe three significant anthropogenic interventions in the hydrologic cycle:10. Why is the water cycle vital to the biosphere?(Describe three specific functions

performed by or made possible by water.)11. Absolute and Relative Humidity12. Condensation Nuclei13. Dew Point

Carbon Cycle:

14. Provide three specific ways in which carbon is essential for biota to function:15. Carbon dioxide comprises approximately what percent of tropospheric gases?16. How is this relative amount(%) of CO2 so important in contributing to the earth’s

“natural thermostat”? (e.g., relative to the amount of water vapor in the troposphere.)17. Identify the two processes which have the greatest influence on tropospheric

concentrations of carbon dioxide on a monthly or yearly basis. Explain:18. Name the two largest sinks(storage areas) for carbon; briefly explain how these

areas have become such substantial carbon sinks.19. Though you may have commented on this above, relate “new carbon” stores to the

formation of “old carbon” stores.Page 1 of 3 Chapter 5 Biogeochemical Cycles

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20. Carbon Cycle: Carbon Dioxide, Glucose, Calcium Carbonate, Carbonate ions, Bicarbonate ions, Calcium ions

21. “Global Warming”

22. Discuss how oceans play a major role in regulating CO2 levels in the troposhpere.Include in your discussion the formation of the following ions or compounds: CO3

2- , HCO3- , Ca2+ , CaCO3

23. Describe the two major human interventions in the carbon cycle: 24. Discuss three specific ramifications of increased tropospheric temperature as a result

of an increase in tropospheric CO2 concentration. 25. Duke’s F.A.C.E. Project: be familiar w/ (as well as other similar experiments):

26. Comment on the type of feedback loop(s) (the relationship) that would likely be involved in a scenario in which tropospheric concentrations of CO2 increase and the amount of snowpack and glacier size/area.

27. The Carbon-Silicate Cycle:

Nitrogen Cycle:

28. Why is the nitrogen cycle significant to biota?29. Identify the two major ways that nitrogen is “fixed”; 30. Describe what takes place in each of the following processes or steps of the N-Cycle:

(include a description of the events and chemical transformations occurring in each step:)(a) Nitrogen Fixation:(b) Nitrification:(c) Assimilation:(d) Ammonification:(e) Denitrification:

31. Nitrogen Cycle: N-Fixation (Cyanobacteria and Rhizobium) Nitrification Assimilation Ammonification Denitrification

32. Identify the major sinks for nitrogen: 33. Describe five anthropogenic interventions in the nitrogen cycle 34. Acid Deposition: Nitric Acid (HNO3)

Phosphorus Cycle:

35. How, specifically, is phosphorus important to biota?36. Explain why phosphorus cycles relatively slowly:37. Identify the largest sinks for phosphorus:38. Phosphorus is typically found in what ionic form?39. Explain why the addition of phosphate compounds to aquatic areas typically has

a dramatic effect on biological productivity.40. Comment on how human activities have influenced the phosphorus cycle regarding

each of the following:(a) Mining phosphate rock:

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(b) Deforestation(especially tropical):(c) Animal wastes from Livestock Feedlots:(d) Commercial phosphate Fertilizers in Agricultural areas:(e) Discharge of Municipal Sewage/Wastewater Treatment Facilities:

Sulfur Cycle:

41. How, specifically, is sulfur significant to biota?42. Identify the two largest storage areas for sulfur:43. Comment on a major natural source of each of the following sulfur compounds:

(a) H2S (b) SO2 (c) SO42- (d) CH3SCH3 (dimethyl sulfide, or DMS)

44. How can fluctuating DMS emissions affect cloud cover in a given region?45. Illustrate the chemical transformations(reactions) which occur when SO2 reacts with O2

and H2O in the troposphere to eventually become sulfuric acid: 46. Identify the three major human activities influencing the sulfur cycle:47. Sulfur Cycle: associated acid deposition (SO2 + O2 SO3 + H2O H2SO4)

The Rock Cycle:

48. Describe the forces and processes involved in the rock cycle. 49. The three rock types/categories and an example of each 50. Mechanical and Chemical Weathering: briefly describe51. Plate Tectonics: brief description

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Ecosystems and Ecosystem Management: Chapter 6 Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

1. Identify the five major “levels of organization of matter” within the field of ecology:

2. Describe three fundamental characteristics of ecosystems.

3. What are the two basic principles of Ecosystem Sustainability? Hints are certainly not needed, but just for the record:

(a) Energy Source = ________ ; (b) Is Earth a “Closed” or an “Open” system for matter? Still _________.

4. Distinguish between the following: Population, Community, Ecosystem

5. What is meant by “ecosystem services or ecological services”? Identify seven examples:

6. Food Chains and Food Webs:

7. Trophic levels; Trophic structure

8. Keystone Species: (definition/description)

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9. Comment on the efforts by men and women to “replace” or mimic ecological services in terms of the relative ease or difficulty in achieving similar outcomes to those delivered or accomplished by nature.

10. Describe what abiotic ecosystem components are; include three examples:

11. Identify two physical factors and two chemical factors that generally markedly influence ecosystem health/function.

12. Briefly describe the famous Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study: 13. Ecosystem Borders: briefly comment on the significance of these areas 14. Succession:

15. Field Research, Remote Sensing, GIS, Systems Analysis16. Ecological (Ecosystems) Services17. What is GIS and how does it assist environmental scientists in expanding the knowledge

and understanding of ecosystems?18. Describe systems analysis:

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Biological Productivity and Energy Flow: Chapter 9 Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

1. Laws of Thermodynamics2. Identify and distinguish between seven types of consumers.3. Contrast detritus feeders and decomposers:4. Which consumer type feeds at every trophic level; Briefly explain:5. Food Chains and Food Webs6. Biomass7. Ecological Efficiency8. Ecological Pyramids:

(a) Pyramid of Energy Flow (b) Pyramid of Biomass (c) Pyramid of Numbers

9. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)10. Net Primary Productivity (NPP)11. Briefly describe the events which take place in/on Earth’s Sun to release large

amounts of energy.

12. About 34% of the solar energy reaching the troposphere is reflected: (a) how is this “reflection” generally accomplished? (b) What natural dynamic changes/events might increase albedo (reflectivity)? (c)What anthropogenic(human-caused) events or changes might increase albedo? (d)What anthropogenic changes or events might decrease albedo?

13. Write the chemical equation for photosynthesis:14. Write the chemical equation for cellular respiration:

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15. Compare and contrast terrestrial producers and aquatic producers:16. What other category of producers exists besides the photosynthetic producers?

17. Identify two locations/environments where you might find such non-photosyntheticproducers.

18. What is the fundamental difference between food chains and food webs?19. In food chains and food webs, what specifically is indicated by the arrows?20. Identify the three basic types of Ecological Pyramids:21. Which of these three can never appear as an inverted pyramid?

(which of the three must always appear as a “classic” pyramid with a wide base)22. Name the two types of ecological pyramids which may appear inverted; explain:23. Approximately what percent of the kilocalories found in the “preceding” or lower

trophic level actually become incorporated into the tissues of organisms in the trophiclevel directly above it?

24. What happens to the remainder of the kilocalories (those kcals which do not make it into the biomass of the consumer organisms feeding on the trophic levelbelow them.)

25. If there are 1,000,000 kilocalories in the producer level of an energy pyramid, how kilocalories will be incorporated into the bodies of the: (a) Primary Consumers? (b) Secondary Consumers? (c) Tertiary Consumers?

26. Define Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):

27. Define Net Primary Productivity (NPP):

28. Explain why GPP is always greater than NPP in a given ecosystem, biome, or aquatic life zone, or when looking at the planet as a whole.

29. Which of the two, GPP or NPP, represents the number of kilocalories that areavailable for use by consumers?

30. What is the upper limit determining earth’s carrying capacity (K) for all consumerspecies? (note: Solar input is not what we are after here, although, clearly, ultravioletlight is essential in order to drive earth’s systems.)

31. Identify typical units for expressing Net Primary Productivity:

24

Biological Diversity: Chapter 7 Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

1. Four Processes leading to Evolution: a. Mutation B. Natural Selection c. Migration d. Genetic Drift2. Genetic Drift: Changes in gene frequency in a population due simply to chance, NOT to mutation, selection, or migration. - - Significance with SMALL populations - -3. Natural Selection: Four Primary Characteristics: a. Heritable Traits c. Differential Reproduction b. Environmental variation d. Environment Influences Survival & Reproduction4. Biological Diversity a. Genetic b. Habitat c. Species5. Species Diversity a. Richness = Total # of Species b. Evenness = Relative Abundance c. Dominance6. Earliest Known Fossils: approximately 3.5 billion years old Botkin & Keller’s statement: “ Life has always changed the environment on a global scale.” P. 122 right column 7. “Innovations” required for Life on land:8. Number of Species on Earth: Named = _______ ; Estimate of Total existing = ______. (1.5 mill.) (10-100 mill.)9. Species Interactions: Types10. Table 7.1 Species Plants: around 500,000 Animals: 870,000 – 1,870,000 Class Insecta: 11. Competitive Exclusion Principle: Garret Hardin’s quote from P. 129 left column - - “Complete competitors cannot coexist” - - Example: American Gray Squirrel and British Red Squirrel12. Habitat and Niche: Basic Definitions: Habitat = “Address” of a critter ; Niche = “Occupation” of a critter13. Hutchinsonian Niche:14. Fundamental Niche:15. Realized Niche: - - Which tends to be greater, Fundamental or realized Niche, and WHY?16. Practical Application: “Saving” Listed (E/T = Endangered/Threatened) Species: - - Habitat, - - Niche, - - Species 17. Symbionts: Example: Ruminants - - Obligate Symbionts18. Environmental Factors that influence Biodiversity: Geology, Soil, Topography, Moisture, Temperature, Aspect, Slope,

25

Watershed Dynamics, Latitude, 19. Factors which Increase and Factors which Decrease Biodiversity: Table 7.2, P.133

Biogeography: Chapter 8 Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

1. Wallace’s Realms: Biogeographical Regions: - Based on fundamental features of __?__. (animals)2. Wallace’s Realms are now sometimes called ____ _____ and are regions inhabited by a characteristic set of taxa. Taxa = __?__ (level of classification, such as class, order, family)3. Biotic Provinces can be thought of as “evolutionary units”, with the environment determining the evolution of organisms which are often similar in form & function, but not necessarily in ___?___. (Ancestral origins, genetic similarity) 4. #3 above forms the “Rule of Climatic Similarity” and leads to the “Biome Concept”: Example: Euphorbs from East and South Africa ........ Spurge Family Saguaro from North America ....................... Cactus Family Joshua Tree from North America .................. Agave Family

5. Biotic Province: “Based on Who is related to Whom”

6. Biome: Based on Niches and Habitats

7. Climate: Two most Important factors determining climate = ____ and ______. 8. Divergent Evolution: Example: Ostrich from Africa Rhea from South America Emu from Australia Common Ancestor, but Evolved ___?___

9. Convergent Evolution: (Not to be confused with Coevolution) Example: Shark and Dolphin Bat and Raven

10. Continental Drift: Significance of Plate Tectonics regarding Evolution

11. Island Biogeography: Species Diversity on “Islands”: Distance from Mainland/Source Population and Island Size

12. Characteristics of Successful Invader Species: discussed with Cane Toads video a. Generalists c. High Dispersal Rate e. High Reproductive Rate b. Long-lived d. High Genetic variability

13. Characteristics of Ecosystems vulnerable to Invasive Species: a. Similar habitat to invader c. Absence of Predators b. Low diversity of native species d. Absence of Fire

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14. Pelagic =

15. Benthic =16. Ocean Zones: Euphotic, Bathyal, Abyssal

17. Significance of Oceans and Ocean Currents: - Coastal Areas: Long-term Weather (ex. Southern California vs. St. Louis) - Currents: (Ex. Gulf Stream, Warming Influence on Northern Europe: about 10 degrees F warmer due to Gulf Stream) - El Nino: Trade Winds(East to West) Weakened/Suppressed, therefore Cold-Nutrient-Rich Upwellings do not occur – Decreasing productivity - Do upwellings occur in the Open Ocean? ....................... Yes; - - therefore, the N.P.P. would be markedly greater in such Open Ocean Upwelling Areas, as opposed to the relatively low N.P.P. of the Open Ocean in General.

18. Biomes and Aquatic Life Zones: Prominent Characteristics/Features of Each: Ex. A. Permafrost B. Conifers C. Dark, Rich, Fertile Soil D. Cold, Cloudless Nights Prime for Star-Gazing!

19. A few Aquatic Life Zone Items: A. Wetlands: Inland and Coastal ........ How & Why these areas are important?

1. Economically: Ex. Reduction of Flooding and Erosion by the Absorption of Stormwater and slowly releasing it; Absorbing stream and lake overflows, Providing valuable natural products such as fish, shellfish, blueberries, cranberries, timber, wild rice, and medicines derived from wetland soils, plants, and habitats, Improvement of Water Quality by filtering, diluting, and degrading toxic wastes, excess nutrients, sediments, and other potential pollutants.

- - - and - - -

2. Ecologically: Ex. Carbon Dioxide Uptake and storage within plant communities and soils, and the cycling of other nutrients Cycling, food and habitat for fish, migratory waterfowl, shorebirds, and a variety of other wildlife, including approximately one-third of the endangered and threatened species in the United States

20. The major cause of reduced/declining inland wetland area, overall, in the United States, is due to ____________.

21. Lake Zones: Describe/locate each: Littoral, Limnetic, Profundal, Benthic Which two lake zones would typically contain greater decomposer bacteria levels?

27

22. Oligotrophic vs. Eutrophic Lakes: Comparison

23. How does an Oligotrophic Lake become a Eutrophic Lake?24. Dissolved Oxygen Levels may vary due to what five major factors?

25. Aquatic vs. Terrestrial Environments: Significant differences regarding critters found in each type of environment and the major abiotic factors which influence biota in each.

26. D.O. Levels: below 5 ppm considered poor for most aquatic aerobic organisms

27. Climatograms = Climate Graphs: Temperature and Precipitation plotted over Time; frequently displayed as a “trio”, with “polar, temperate, & tropical” Rep. shown

28. Rainshadow Effect: Windward and Leeward Sides; Ex. Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Owens Valley.

29. Estuaries: High N.P.P. - - How/Why? Salinity and Temperature: Both vary significantly over time(24 hour cycle & year)

30. Units: Turbidity, N-Nitrate, Dissolved Oxygen

___________________________ ___________________________

Wildlife, Fisheries, and Endangered Species:Exploitation, Management, and Conservation

Environmental Science AP Chapter 14 Study GuidePeninsula High School Instructor: Ben Smith

Comprehensive Points:

1. Why conserve and preserve species? Identify the eight justifications (P.263 in Ch. 14 and P.13 in Ch.1) for saving a species.

28

2. The phrase “To Save a Species” may put the “Saving” focus on one of four distinct levels or in four different contexts. Briefly describe each of these four.

3. Contrast a logistic growth curve with an exponential growth curve.

4. Briefly explain why/how carrying capacity changes.

5. Define maximum sustainable yield.

6. Explain the flaws with each of the following assumptions as they pertain to attempts at applying science to the conservation and management of wildlife and fisheries:

A. The population of a given species can be represented by a single number (its total size).

B. Undisturbed by human activities, a population would grow to a fixed size, called the carrying capacity.

C. The environment is constant, except for human-induced changes.

7. Define minimum viable population.

8. Briefly explain why/how carrying capacity changes.

9. What are the two major reasons for the endangered status of the Grizzly Bear in the United States?

10. Given a grizzly bear density of 4 grizzlies per 100 square miles, estimate the grizzly population in a geographic range of comprised of 82,915,200 hectares. (Note: 1 hectare = 2.47 acres; 1 square mile = 640 acres)

11. What are the two main reasons for the North American Bison being driven to near extinction?

12. Discuss the possible advantage(s) of approaching wildlife management from the “ecological community & ecosystem level” vs. the “single species level.

13. Propose two ways of trying to prevent a tragedy of an open resource commons.

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14. Briefly describe what an “open resource” is.

15. In what way are (even) developed countries still hunter-gatherers?

16. In what way(s) have humans “domesticated” this (from #16 above)?

Fisheries Cluster (w/ additional fisheries & aquatic items throughout this study guide):

17. The major threats to global fisheries include:

18. Briefly describe “scientific-based management of fish”:

19. Identify five major ocean-bottom fish which are thought to be on the brink of extinction.

20. What is bycatch?

21. Describe one potential advantage and one potential disadvantage of the aquatic biota-harvesting technique known as bottom trawling:

22. State the Primary and Secondary goals of the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. -Primary:

-Secondary:

23. Explain why coastal zones contain the most productive fisheries.

24. Explain the following statement: “Commercial fish species are being mined, not sustained.”

25. Describe four anthropogenic stressors on the largest estuary in the United States.

26. Briefly describe each of the following fish/aquatic species harvesting methods:

A. Trawling B. Long-lining

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C. Purse-Seining

D. Drift-Netting

27. Contrast fish farming and fish ranching: Identify two species that are commonly farmed and two species that might be ranched. Be familiar with the term anadromous.

28. Describe two specific concerns regarding the extensively maricultured Atlantic Salmon.

29. What is the Red List?

30. According to the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973, define: A. Endangered:

B. Threatened:

31. How have local and global extinction rates changed since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution?

32. Based on Figure 14.15, the majority of the extinctions since 1860 are due to the loss of many organisms in which “group”?33. How many mass extinctions are recorded in the geologic record?34. Briefly describe the four “causes of extinction”, or “risk categories”, as they are

sometimes called.

35. Briefly describe the four main ways in which humans may cause extinction.

36. By far, the two major anthropogenic causes of species decline are: #1 Cause = _________________________; #2 Cause = ___________________

37. Identify three “success stories” regarding species once endangered which are now much improved in terms of numbers/health.

38. Which two U.S. agencies are charged with listing species as endangered or threatened?

39. Be familiar with the Kirtland’s Warbler case study regarding environmental change.

40. Describe how Michigan jack-pine stands represent an ecological island.

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41. (Review Item): Be familiar with the fundamentals of the Theory of Island Biogeography, first proposed by Robert MacArthur and E.O Wilson in the 1960s.

42. Habitat requirements and the use of spatial relationships to preserve/conservespecies:

43. Be familiar with the passenger pigeon case study.

44. (Review Item): What is the “best guess” of the total number of species on Earth?

45. Identify the life-forms in the U.S. with the highest level of risk.

46. Contrast the “ecosystem protection approach” and the “species-by-speciesprotection approach”. The essence of this item number is more than eluded to in a previous item in this document.

47. Define a “rare” species.

48. What, specifically, does the “species-area relationship” suggest?

49. Be familiar with the E/T species mentioned in class.

50. Describe four characteristics of extinction-prone species.

51. Contrast background extinction and mass extinction.

52. When was the most recent mass extinction?

53. Why do some biologists/environmental scientists suggest that there is a “new mass extinction”?

54. Provide five examples of “nature’s pharmacy” (plants which provide chemicals used in health care, hygiene, etc., such as the previously noted neem tree):

55. Describe the term “biophilia”.

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56. Discuss the role of habitat loss, habitat degradation, and habitat fragmentation interms of the general health of wild species.

57. Discuss the influence of nonnative species on native plant and animal reductions/extinctions.

58. Name four introduced species that are generally considered to be beneficial.

59. Name four introduced species which are generally considered to be harmful or detrimental.

60. Describe three likely mechanisms or avenues for accidentally introducing a species to a new area.

61. Identify the three biome types in the U.S.A. which have been disturbed to the greatest extent.

62. Why have the numbers of migratory birds declined?

63. Describe kudzu/the kudzu case study.

64. (Review item): Describe seven characteristics of successful invader species (nonnative) species.

65. (Review item): Describe six characteristics of ecosystems vulnerable to invader species.

66. Comment on the role which commercial hunting plays in the management of species. Include three examples of commercially-hunted species.

67. Identify four species in North America (or elsewhere) which have been the target in eradication efforts; briefly describe why these species were/are viewed as pests.

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68. What is the CITES Treaty?

69. What does the Convention on Biological Diversity call for from signatory nations?

70. (Review item): Describe the Lacey Act. Who was the U.S. President when it was signed into law?

71. Describe the E.S.A. Who was the U.S. President when it was signed into law?

72. How has the number of (U.S.) species on the E/T list changed from 1973-today?

73. The addition or removal of a species from the E/T list is, by law, supposed to be based only on ______________________, not on ________________________ or ________________________ considerations.

74. The majority of U.S. species listed are: (Plants or Animals?)75. (Review item): Identify the “Top Six Biodiversity Hot Spots” in the U.S.A.

76. How can private land owners be encouraged to protect E/T species? Include a description of the following:

A. Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs)

B. Safe Harbor Agreements (SHAs)

C. Candidate Conservation Agreements (CCAs)

77. Be familiar with the National Academy of Sciences recommendations for making the ESA more scientifically sound and more effective:

78. Because of limited funds, relatively limited information and few trained personnel, it is possible that not all E/T species will be “saved”. Given this, which species should be the focus, at least initially? Explain:

34

79. Describe four approaches to protecting species from further decline: Note: these approaches or measures are not necessarily mutually exclusive.

80. What is the focus of wildlife management? (Thank you for not merely going with the “manage wildlife” response).

81. Provide three supporting statements for sport hunting.

82. (Review item): What is an endemic species?

83. Provide two examples of poaching.

84. Describe the founder effect.

85. (Review item): Describe a demographic bottleneck.

86. Describe a TED.

87. Describe three reasons why sea turtles are E/T.

88. What is the IWC and what is the primary goal of this body?

89. What is an ITQ.

90. Describe two proposals which might enhance the Columbia River’s (could be applied to other dammed rivers) salmon populations.

Wildlife, Fisheries, and Endangered SpeciesPlease be familiar with ALL items on the Chapter 14 Study Guide, including the brief responses to #s 43-90 below:

35

43. Passenger Pigeon case study: 1800’sMost abundant bird in U.S.A.; in 1900, last

wild passenger pigeon killed; 1914Martha died in the Cincinnati Zoo; hunting, habitat

loss, feathers, bones, entrée, easy to kill/“stool pigeon”

44. Ten- fourteen million.

45. Flowering plants and Freshwater aquatic species:

46. Focus on “The Whole” vs. “Some of the Biotic Parts”

47. Never abundant: many island species, African violets, some orchids

48. - On avg., a 90% loss of habitat causes the extinction of about 50% of the species

living in that habitat

49. E/T Species: a few examples—Mountain Gorilla, Florida Manatee, Black lace

Cactus, Symphonia, Grizzly Bear, Hawksbill Sea Turtle, Loggerhead Sea Turtle, Black

Rhino, Florida Panther, Giant Panda, Oahu Tree Snail, Swallowtail Butterfly, Utah

Prairie Dog, California Condor, Devils Hole Pupfish, Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly, Ghost

Bat, Northern Spotted Owl, Black Footed Ferret, Arabian Oryx, Snow Leopard, West

Virginia Spring Salamander, Eastern Indigo Snake, Pine Barrens Tree Frog, Mojave

Desert Tortoise, Kirtland’s Warblers, White Top Pitcher Plant, Whooping Crane, …….

50. Low repro. rate(K-strategists), Specialized Niche, Narrow distribution, Feed at high

trophic levels, Fixed migratory patterns, Rare, Commercially Valuable, Large territories

51. Background ext: small number of species lost to ext. Mass ext: “typically” 25-70%

species lost

52. 65 m.y.a.

53. Due to the rate of habitat alteration/degradationloss of species

54. Neem tree(India)toothpaste, fungicide, spermicide; Pacific Yew(PNW-

USA)ovarian cancer; Foxglove(Europe)digitalis for heart failure; Rauvolfia(SE

Asia)high b.p.medicine; Rosy Periwinkle(Madagascar)Hodgkin’s disease,

lymphocytic leukemia; Cinchona(SA)quinine for malaria treatment

55. Famous biologist E.O. Wilson suggests that because of the millions and

millions(billions) of years of biological connections leading to the evolution of the human

species, we have an inherent affinity for the natural world; one of E.O.Wilson’s more

well-known books is titled Biophilia, (1984).

56. Habitat Loss, degradation, reduction, fragmentation: resources, territory, food chains,

36

food webs, migrations, wildlife corridors, edge effect

57. Nonnatives/introduced species = the second leading cause of species decline (behind

habitat loss)

58. Rice, Wheat, Corn, Cattle

59. Purple Loosestrife, Knapweed, Kudzu, Water hyacinth, Nutria, Argentine fire ant

60. Hitchhikers on imported products, aircraft stowaways, in bilge water

61. Temperate Broadleaf Forests, Temperate Evergreen Forests, Temperate Grasslands

62. Tropical forest logging, Fragmentation of their summer forest & grassland habitats in

North America, deaths from collisions with TV, Radio, Phone, and other Towers(approx.

4 million migrating songbirds)

63. Introduced in the SE USA to control erosion in the 1930’s; prolific growersoon

became invasiveengulfing native vegetation

64. High reprod. output, Pioneer Species, High dispersal rate, Release growth-inhibiting

chemicals, Generalists, High Genetic variability

65. Similar climate to habitat of invader, Absence of predators on invading species, Early

successional species, Low diversity of native species, Absence of fire, Disturbed by

human activities

66. Numbers/Population Size(s), Habitat/Resources: Deer, Elk, Duck, …..

67. Gray Wolf (livestock), Coyote, Prairie Dogs(grazing competitors w/ cattle), Bison,

Carolina Parakeet(Crops), …

68. Convention on (the) International Trade in(of) Endangered Species: 1975 agreement;

152 signatory nations; approximately 30,000 species whose international trade is

monitored & regulated(w/ some species trading banned); enforcement difficult; violators

often faced w/ small fine; exemption

69. Legally binds signatory nations to reversing the global decline of biological diversity

(US is not a signatory nation of the CBD, which came out of the 1992 Rio Earth

Summit); nations are to adopt national biodiversity protection strategies and action, estab.

Nationwide systems of protected areas, restoring degraded habitats, conserving E/T

species & ecosystems, ecologically sustainable resource use, safe use/application of

biotech. Products, equitable sharing of biodiversity benefits(e.g., new medicines)

70. Animal(-parts)(-Birds esp. across state linesPermit; Animal(biota)Trade; 1900

37

71. E/T or potentially strong candidates for E/T species; 1973

72. Increased, ---from about 92 in 1973 to (approx.) 1,322 today (as of 12/10/09)

73. Biological basis, not on an economical or political basis

74. Plants (roughly 750 as of 11/01/11)

75. Hawaii, S.F. Bay area, Death Valley, Southern California, Southern Appalachians,

Florida Panhandle

76. HCPs: a 1982 amendment to the ESA; allows the Secretary of the Interior to use

HCPs to strike a compromise between private landowner interests and the interests of E/T

wildlife with the goal of not reducing the recovery chances of protected species;

landowners, developers, loggers, etc. are allowed to alter some critical habitat on private

land in exchange for taking steps to protect that species; protective measure might

include estab. a preserve or relocating the species; plans based on scientific data. In

1999, the USFWS approved two new approaches which strive to better protect E/T

species on private land: SHAs: landowners Voluntarily agree to take steps to restore,

improve, or maintain habitat for E/T species on their land; in return, landowners get tech

help from conservation agencies, gov’t assurances that the land, water, and other natural

resources involved will not face future restrictions; CCAs: landowners agree to take

specific steps to help conserve a species which is declining but is not yet listed as E/T; no

additional restrictions can be placed on the landowner if the species is listed

77. Be familiar with the National Academy of Sciences recommendations for making

the ESA more scientifically sound and more effective:

A. Increase funding

B. Develop Recovery Plans more quickly

C. Develop guidelines to avoid provisions that are scientifically or

economically unsound and that spell out which actions are likely to hinder

recovery.

D. Establish a Core Area (survival habitat) as a temporary emergency measure

when a species is first listed that could support the species for at least 25-

50 years.

78. My ears are open…-Bacteria? -Plants? –Decomposers in general? -Keystoners?

38

–Herbivores? -Most Photogenic? ...

79. Preserved areas (Refuge areas, National/International/State/Provincial Parks, etc.),

Captive breeding, Egg Pulling, Zoos, Surrogate Moms/Embryo transfer, …

80. Manipulating wildlife populations and their habitats for their welfare and for human

benefit; sustainable yield via laws, quotas, pop. management plans, improvement of

wildlife habitat, international treaties to protect migrating game species

81. Protection of habitat by controlling pop. size (absence of historical predator), health

of species population(herd culling of weak/sick), “maintenance of ecosystem

dynamics” …to some extent

82. Found nowhere else; species found in only one location

83. Snow leopards (Nepal, India), Elk (Rocky Mountains), Elephants, …….

84. The limited genetic diversity of a few individuals founding a population may not be

enough to sustain the population

85. Occurs when only a few individuals survive to perpetuate a population after a

catastrophe; the marbles-in-a-bottle analogy.

86. Turtle Exclusion Device: “trap door”, escape exit in fishing net

87. Degradation of beach habitat, egg poaching (exactly), increased uses as food,

medicinal ingredients, jewelry, bycatch

88. International Whaling Commission: established in 1946 to regulate the whaling

industry by setting annual quotas; has been unable to stop the decline of most

commercially hunted whale species to the point of commercial extinction, although

the Commission has spearheaded a number of success stories regarding the

population size of several whale species.

89. Individual Transfer Quota(s): each fishing vessel owner is given a specified

percentage of the total allowable catch (TAC) for a fishery in a given year

90. -Building hatcheries upstream of the dams and releasing juveniles from these

hatcheries to under-populated streams(so they will return to them to reproduce),

-Building fish ladders to allows some adult salmon to bypass dams during their

upstream migration,

-Using trucks and barges to transport juvenile wild salmon around dams,

-Turning off turbines to allow juveniles to swim through dam (turbine chamber)

39

during heavy downstream migration,

-Releasing extra water from dams to help wash juvenile salmon downstream at a

(faster) rate closer to their natural migration rate

-Putting more stream areas off-limits for hydropower development,

-Reducing silt/soil erosion from logging roads located above salmon spawning

streams

___________________ __________________

Ecological Restoration Chapter 10Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

1. What does Ecological Restoration mean?

2. What are the possible goals of ecological restoration?

3. How do ecosystems restore themselves?

4. What role do disturbances play in the persistence of ecosystems/in succession?

5. Briefly describe the intermediate disturbance hypothesis:

6. Be familiar with the Tigris-Euphrates Marshlands case study:

7. Describe the three major tenets of the “Balance of Nature” paradigm and be familiar with the Equilibrium Model of Succession:

40

8. Briefly describe the “older” view of succession:

9. What labels have gradually come in to use in place of or used in conjunction with “climax community”?

10. Define Inertia as it applies to an ecosystem:

11. Define Resilience as it applies to an ecosystem:

12. Compare the inertia and resilience of a grassland with the inertia and resilience of a tropical forest:

13. The selection of goals for restoration largely comes down to ____ ____.14. Be familiar with the boundary waters case study:

15. Briefly describe what the Wilderness Act attempts to do:

16. The anthropologist Paul S. Martin describes the “only truly natural time” how?

17. Be familiar with the Kissimmee River case study:

18. This type of ecosystem once occupied more land in the United States than any other kind of ecosystem:

19. What are the two basic types of restoration for this ecosystem type (referenced in #18 above)?

20. Briefly describe the conditions in which Primary Succession occurs:

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21. Briefly describe the conditions in which Secondary Succession occurs:22. Be familiar with the major ecosystem structure and/or function characteristics

listed below in both Early (Immature) Successional Stages(S.S.) and Late (Mature) Successional Stages:

Characteristic: Early S.S. Late S.S.

1. Plant Size ...........................__________________ __________________ 2. Species Diversity .............. __________________ __________________ 3. Trophic Structure .............. __________________ __________________ 4. Ecological Niches ............. __________________ __________________ 5. Community Organization... __________________ __________________ 6. Biomass ............................. __________________ __________________ 7. NPP .................................. __________________ __________________ 8. Food Chains/Food Webs .. __________________ __________________ 9. Efficiency of Nutrient Cycling/Recycling ........ __________________ __________________ 10. Efficiency of Energy Use .. _________________ __________________

23. Patterns in Dune Succession, Bog Succession, and “Old-Field” Succession: Be familiar with the basic processes and significant players (biotic and abiotic) regarding succession in Dunes, Bogs, “Old-Fields”.

24. Comment on the relative rates of primary succession in Polar vs. Tropical areas:

25. What possible advantage(s) might there be in being a small perennial plant vs. a small annual plant, regarding succession?

26. Describe facilitation:

27. Describe interference:

28. Describe chronic patchiness:

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29. What is the general message of the precautionary principle?

30. Be familiar with the concept of: a “mature community” and a “mosaic of vegetation patches”

Forests, Parks, and Landscapes Chapter 13Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

-- Items to be familiar with --

1. Describe five ways in which forests are economically significant and five ways in which forests are ecologically significant.Economically Ecologically_________________

A. ___________________________ A. ___________________________

B. ______________________________ B.____________________________

C._____________________________ C.____________________________

D._____________________________ D.____________________________

E.______________________________ E.____________________________

2. Botkin and Keller state that “Our society is of two minds about wildland fires.” Briefly explain what they are referring to.

3. What is silviculture?

4. Approximately what percent of Earth’s surface is forest-covered? 5. Using the figure from the beginning of the twenty-first century, this works out to be about ____ hectares or ____ acres per person. 6. Identify the “Top Ten Forest-Rich” nations:

7. Approximately what percent of U.S. land is public land?

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8. Identify six types/categories of public lands in the United States and brieflyprovide the management approach/types of activities permitted for each. Also have a sense of the approximate number of public land areas/units in each category.

A. _________________________________________________________

B. _________________________________________________________

C. _________________________________________________________

D. _________________________________________________________

E. _________________________________________________________

F. _________________________________________________________

9. Distinguish between the following: A. Old growth forests:

B. Second growth forests:

C. Tree Farms or Tree Plantations:

10. Contrast even-and uneven-aged forest management: be familiar with the advantages and disadvantages of each.

11. Briefly describe each of the following tree harvesting methods:D. “Selective cutting”:

E. Shelterwood cutting:

F. Seed-tree cutting:

G. Clear cutting:

H. Strip cutting:

I. Whole-Tree harvesting.

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12. Describe the three main factors influencing forest productivity:

13. Describe site quality:

14. Describe four benefits of periodic surface fires.

National Forests:15. Be familiar with the following regarding U.S. National Forests:

A. The percentage of the nation that is forested (area):B. Use of National Forest lands for grazing/raising livestock:C. Economic value of mineral resources, oil, and natural gas mined annually:D. Percentage of the nation’s protected wilderness areas contained in national

forests.

16. National Forests are supposed to be managed based on these Two Principles: A. ___________________________

B. ___________________________ 17. Briefly describe the trend in overall timber harvesting from national forests between 1930 and 1990 and identify three factors which contributed to this trend.

18. If a reduction in the number of trees harvested in the United States is a goal, propose three ways that would potentially help meet this goal.

19. Be familiar with proposed improvements in U.S. National Forest management:

20. In short, what is the goal of the sagebrush rebellion?

21. Be familiar with the major goals and suggestions made by the Wise-Use*Movement (*the more recent version of this paradigm.)

22. Describe the takings and property rights movement; the county movement.

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23. What is regulatory taking?

24. Who has eminent domain? What does this refer to?

25. Be familiar with the “Livestock and U.S. Public Rangeland” case study.

26. Describe what a “conservation easement” is?

Tropical Forests: 27. Tropical forests cover approximately what percent of earth’s land area?28. Which type of tropical forest has been most severely altered by human activities?29. Be familiar with the Madagascar case study.30. Provide two examples of (potential) cultural extinction: (two which may very well be closer to this “dead-end point” than others.)

31. Describe three significant and underlying causes of most tropical deforestation.

32. It is said that the process of altering a forest, be it tropical, temperate, or a higher latitude forest, often begins with this: please include a brief explanation:

33. Describe four mechanisms or approaches to reducing tropical forest deforestation:

34. Briefly describe the “fuel wood”, or fuelwood, crisis:

35. Be familiar with the Costa Rica case study:

36. The neem tree (the “dream neem”, to some) has numerous potential applications. Identify four of these potential uses:

National Parks:37. Many ecologists question whether some U.S. National Parks can actually

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be managed/should be managed under the principle of natural regulation. Explain:

38. Describe four major challenges faced by most of the world’s national parks, including NPs in the U.S.A.

39. Provide four suggestions for improving national park management in the U.S.

Additional Items:

40. What ecological principle(s) and goals should be utilized in establishing and managing nature reserves?

41. Be familiar with the Global Biodiversity Hot-Spots mentioned in class.

42. What is Gap Analysis?

43. What is “wilderness”, as it is defined in the Wilderness Act of 1964?

44. The Wilderness Society estimates that a wilderness area should consist of an area at least this size: 45. What does the word “untrammeled” mean? Why did Howard Zahniser choose this word?

46. Why preserve wilderness? –Present an argument in support of preserving wilderness.

47. Identify one or more potential drawbacks to preserving wilderness.

48. Identify the basic steps in ecological restoration:

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49. Present an argument in support of ecological restoration:

50. Present an argument opposed to ecological restoration efforts:

Forestry Summary: Noteworthy forestry information to be familiar with; includes a number of items not referenced in the preceding pages, as well as many repeat concepts. 51.

(a) Describe three ways in which forests are ecologically important:(b) Describe three ways in which forests are economically important:(c) What are the major types of forests?(d) In what regions of the world is deforestation occurring at the greatest rate? (e) In what specific tropical regions of the world is tropical deforestation

occurring at the greatest rate? (f) What are the major types of forest management? Describe the major

characteristics of each of the following:1. Short- versus Long-Rotation Cycles2. Even-Aged Management and Uneven-Aged Management

(Industrial Forestry) (g) What are the major tree harvesting methods? Describe the major

characteristics of each of the following:1. Selective Cutting2. Shelterwood Cutting3. Seed-Tree Cutting4. Clear-Cutting5. Strip-Cutting6. Whole-Tree Harvesting

(h) Discuss the effects of pathogens, insects, and other introduced species on forests:

(i) Describe an approach for protecting forests from over-harvesting and other damage, while maintaining the manufacturing/consumer need/demand for forest products.

(j) Propose two methods of meeting economic needs (jobs & goods) and preserving the integrity of forest areas (Biodiversity & Ecological Dynamics).(k) Describe three specific ways to reduce the need to harvest trees:(l) Fire Ecology :

1. Describe the significant effects of fire on Forested areas.2. Discuss the ecological significance of fires in forested areas.3. Describe each: Surface fires, Ground Fires, and Crown Fires:4. Fire Management Policies: Pros and Cons of each:

a. “Let-it-Burn” Policy (*unless fire threatens human life, Park facilities, private property, or endangered wildlife.)

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b. Fire Suppression: all fires are put out as quickly as possible.(m)Air Pollution and Climate Change: Potential Threats to Forest Health

1. acid deposition: Coal Combustion SO2 + O2 SO3 + H2O H2SO4

2. Increasing Tropospheric O3 Levels3. Synergistic effects of Multiple Air, Water, and Soil Pollutants4. Potentially Shifting Climate Belts; particularly in mid-latitude regions

Climate Belts would likely shift toward earth’s poles;(100-150 kilometers = 60-90 miles for every one C or 1.8 F;this would equate to approximately 150 meters = 500 feet)

(n) What are the two principles on which U.S. Forests are managed?(o) Describe the “fuelwood crisis”; Where is it occurring; Propose a remedy for

this environmental challenge/problem:(p) Discuss the major causes of tropical deforestation:(q) Describe four approaches which could potentially reduce tropical

deforestation: (r) Describe the major ecological principles and goals that stand out in

establishing and managing sustainable nature reserves (both forested reserves and others):

Important terminology, concepts, and other items:

1. Multiple-Use Lands

2. National Forest System

3. National Resource Lands

4. Bureau of Land Management

5. Moderately-Restricted Use lands

6. National Wildlife Refuges

7. Restricted-Use Lands

8. National Park System

9. National Wilderness Preservation System

10. Sagebrush Rebellion

11. Wise-Use Movement

12. Takings and Property Rights Movement

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13. Regulatory and Physical Taking

14. Eminent Domain

15. Stand (of trees)

16. Forest Productivity

17. Saw Timber

18. Board-Foot

19. Even- and Uneven-aged Management

20. Rotation Cycles; Rotation Time

21. Industrial Forestry

22. Plantation Forestry

23. Dominant trees

24. Codominant trees

25. Intermediate trees

26. Suppressed trees

27. Site Quality

28. Selective Cutting

29. Shelterwood Cutting

30. Seed-Tree Cutting

31. Clear-Cutting and Strip-Cutting

32. Thinning

33. Sustainable Forestry

34. Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest

35. H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest

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36. Certified Timber/Forestry

37. Indirect Deforestation

38. Fuelwood Crisis

39. Community Forestry

40. Bark Beetles, Spruce Budworm, Gypsy Moth, Hemlock, Wooly Adelgid41. Surface Fires, Crown Fires, Ground Fires

42. Sustainable Yield and Multiple-Use

43. Kenaf

44. Neem Tree

45. Conservation Easements

46. Debt-for-Nature Swaps

47. Natural Regulation

48. Species-Area Curve

49. Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

50. Theory of Island Biogeography: Ecological Islands/Habitat Islands

51. Edge Effect

52. Minimum Safe Population Size; Minimum Viable Population

53. Wildlife Corridors

54. Buffer Zones

55. Gap Analysis

56. Wilderness Recovery Areas

57. 1964 Wilderness Act

58. Ecological restoration

59. Public Service Functions; Ecosystem Services

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60. Artificial Ecosystems

61. Wangari Maathai

62. Chico Mendes

63. Howard Zahniser

64. Aldo Leopold

65. Henry David Thoreau: Wilderness and Wildness

66. The “Managing Wilderness Paradox”

67. The Scientific Study of Wilderness; Research Preserves

68. Wendell Berry

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Agriculture and the EnvironmentChapter 12 Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

1. Be familiar with the potential environmental challenges or problems that result from agriculture:

A. Soil erosion:B. Sediment transport:C. Sediment deposition in downstream areas:D. On-site pollution from overuse and secondary effects of fertilizers and

pesticides:E. Off-site pollution of other ecosystems , of soils, water, and air:F. Deforestation:G. Desertification:H. Degradation of Aquifers:I. Salinization:J. Accumulation of toxic metals:K. Accumulation of toxic organic compounds:L. Loss of Biodiversity:

2. George Perkins Marsh: within his most famous book, --the “dirt” of Vermont and the “dirt” of Italy:

3. The “American Dust Bowl”: the significance of this event -The Prairie, the Plow, and the Physical & Chemical Changes which took place on thousands of acres of land in the 1930’s:

4. Soil Profiles and Soil Horizons:

5. Be familiar with Soil Horizons O, A, B, and C, as well as Horizon E just beneath Horizon A; also be familiar with what lies below Horizon C:

6. Identify the four basic soil particle types, ranking these four from smallest to biggest.

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7. Which of these soil particle types is the most likely to become waterlogged?

8. If you were asked to “design” or create a soil type which would be quite versatile for successfully growing a variety of crops, what soil combination/what percentage of each soil particle type would you select to be a part of your created combination? (Ex: X % ____, X % ____, X% ____etc.) --Note: 0% could be a choice.

9. Soil Texture Triangle:

10. Identify the major factors which determine what a given soil is like.

11. Briefly define or describe Soil Porosity and Soil Permeability:

12. Describe, (in a response that is more developed than a one-word answer, thank you), the rate of soil formation.

13. Be familiar with the Haber-Bosch Process and the role that this process played/ continues to play in the Green Revolutions and in overall crop production around the world.

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14. I apologize if the following sounds like a question from your favorite country song, -but where does eroded soil go? -With at least one discrete statement which includes some type of quantifiable data, offer a response here to support the assertion that the “eroded soil receiving area/location”(not that the eroded soil will necessarily “stop” here) will potentially bring about one or more negative impacts. (p. 221-222)

15. Describe three ways to reduce soil erosion before planting, while the crop is growing, and after harvest.

16. Annuals and Perennials: advantages and disadvantages of each

17. First Generation Pesticides:

18. Second Generation Pesticides:

19. The DDT case study:

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20. Broad-spectrum and Narrow-spectrum pesticides:

21. Biological control of pests:A. Natural predators:B. Biopesticides:C. Bioengineering:D. Birth control:E. Pheromones:F. Hormones:

22. Botanicals: Ex: Rotenone, Pyrethrum, Camphor

23. The “perfect pesticide”: characteristics

24. The “ultimate pest”: characteristics

25. Pest resurgence:

26. Pesticide mobility:

27. “Circle of poison”:

28. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt or BT)

29. Chlorinated hydrocarbons:

30. Organophosphates:

31. Carbamates:

32. Briefly describe the “pesticide treadmill”:

33. Cosmetic spraying: Why is this done?

34. FIFRA: What does this law require?

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35. Describe bioaccumulation (bioconcentration):

36. Descibe bioamplification (biomagnification):

37. The “terminator gene”:

38. Grazing on rangelands and rangeland management:

39. Desertification:

40. Should rice be grown in a dry climate?

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Natural Disasters & Catastrophes: Chapter 16-and-

Urban Environments: Chapter 29Environmental Science AP Instructor: Ben Smith

[-Definitely some overlap & repetition within & between these two chapters-]

Natural Disasters: Chapter 16

1. Describe how natural hazards can be viewed as natural processes with natural service functions:

2. Describe two examples of natural ecosystems providing protection for human-built systems against forces of nature:

3. Describe two recently discussed (within the past 6 months) adjustments or preparatory and preventive measures regarding natural (perhaps influenced by human activity, perhaps not; -- time and further study may provide greater insight) hazards:

4. Present a short discussion explaining why former disasters are now becoming catastrophes.

5. Common denominators of vastly destructive natural events/processes: commonalities ...?

6. Hurricane Katrina Case Study

7. Subsidence: description of and major causes of:

8. Levees; Natural Levees

9. Overbank deposition of sediment

10. Embankments

11. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: Please describe

12. Earthquakes, Volcanic Activity, Landslides, Hurricanes, Tsunami, Wildfires, Tornadoes, Floods, Heat Waves, Drought

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13. Land Use Transformations and Natural Hazards Urban Environments: Chapter 29

1. Describe how cities can be viewed as ecosystems.

2. How do location and site conditions determine the success, importance, and longevity of a given city?

3. Describe three ways in which cities often change their environments and influence surrounding environments. Please be familiar with several ways in which design and planning might minimize some of these impacts.

4. How can cities be designed or redesigned to promote biological conservation?

5. Restoring New Orleans Case Study

6. “Urban area” defined

7. Briefly explain how cities/urban area can be viewed as “Systems”:

8. Describe the major contributing factors to urban growth:

9. Describe three major global urbanization patterns:

10. Percentage of the world’s folks who live in urban areas:

11. “Megacities” defined:

12. Urban Growth in Developing vs. Developed nations

13. How cities may alter environmental conditions:

14. Describe the Urban Heat Island Effect:

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15. How might the Urban Heat Island Effect be minimized?

16. Describe how trees and other vegetation can enhance urban environments.

17. Describe “site’ and “situation” as they apply to cities/towns:

18. Describe the “Fall Line”:

19. Lewis Mumford’s quote on regarding cities: P.629 rt. Column

20. Describe two potential “City Planning Dangers”:

21. Classic (historically) Spatial patterns of Urban Development:

a. Concentric Circle

b. Sector City

c. Multiple-Nuclei

22. Briefly describe three resource challenges of large cities.

23. Ecological Land Use Planning, “Smart Growth”, Making Urban areas more sustainable:

24. Preserving Urban Open Space

25. Urban Sprawl, Suburban Sprawl: Contributing factors

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26. The advantages and disadvantages of urban life:

27. Urban Resources and Environmental Challenges:A. Life Span, I.M.R., Medical care

B. Land Area

C. Overall Resource Use

D. Water:

E. Waste Production/”Throughputs”

F. RecyclingG. Self-Sufficiency

H. Density-dependent population control factors

I. Microclimates:

J. “Metabolism”

28. Crime and the Environment

29. Transportation in Urban areas

30. Greenbelts

31. LEED; LEED-certified buildings, homes, and other structures

32. USGBC: United States Green Building Council

33. Noteworthy ideas, approaches, and concepts from the Design e2 dvd segments viewed in class/asked to be familiar with:

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