environmental responsibility trainer resource · unchanged and its sources and publisher are...

Environmental Responsibility Trainer Resource

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBIL IT Y TRAINER RESOURCE i

©TAFE NSW and NSW EPA June 2003.

This work was produced in partnership between the NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA) and TAFE NSW, Primary Industries and Natural Resources Division.

This material may be copied and used without permission for educational purposes, provided the meaning is unchanged and its sources and publisher are acknowledged. This permission does not extend to the making of copies for use outside the immediate training environment for which they are made, nor the making of copies for hire or resale to third parties.

Copies of this resource are available from:

TAFE NSW Primary Industries and Natural Resources Division

Level 1 60–62 McNamara Street ORANGE 2800

Ph 02 6393 6900 Fax 02 6362 8082

TAFE NSW: Project Manager – Fiona Martin; NSW EPA: Project Manager – Frouke de Reuver; Writer – Fiona Martin; Desktop Publisher – Belinda Gersbach

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBIL IT Y TRAINER RESOURCE i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

USING THIS TR AINER GUIDE

1 Introduction1 About the module2 Assessment4 Suggested delivery structure5 Completion of worksheets7 Worksheet 1 – some quick questions8 Worksheet 2 – your workplace activities9 Worksheet 3a – water pollution and your workplace10 Worksheet 3a – water pollution and your workplace11 Worksheet 3b – air pollution and your workplace12 Worksheet 3b – air pollution and your workplace13 Worksheet 3c – land pollution and your workplace14 Worksheet 3c – land pollution and your workplace15 Worksheet 3d – noise pollution and your workplace16 Worksheet 3d – noise pollution and your workplace17 Worksheet 4 – resource conservation and your workplace18 Worksheet 4 – resource conservation and your workplace19 Worksheet 5 – waste avoidance and your workplace20 Worksheet 5 – waste avoidance and your workplace

POLLUTION

21 Key learning outcomes21 What is pollution?23 Government’s role in reduction of pollution25 The Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997

WATER POLLUTION

27 What is water pollution?27 Major water pollutants28 Major sources of water pollution28 Effects of water pollution29 General strategies to reduce water pollution30 Relevant legislation

AIR POLLUTION

31 What is air pollution?31 Major air pollutants32 Major sources of air pollution32 Effects of air pollution33 General strategies to reduce air pollution33 Relevant legislation

L AND POLLUTION

34 What is land pollution?34 Major land pollutants34 Major sources of land pollution or contamination35 Effects of land pollution and contamination35 General strategies to reduce land pollution and contamination36 Relevant legislation

NOISE POLLUTION

37 What is noise pollution?37 Major sources of noise37 Effects of noise pollution38 General strategies to reduce noise pollution39 Relevant legislation

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBIL IT Y TRAINER RESOURCE ii

USING THIS TRAINER GUIDE

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBIL IT Y TRAINER RESOURCE 1

THE LINK BET WEEN RESOURCE CONSUMPTION AND WASTE GENER ATION

40 Key learning outcomes40 What are resources?41 What is waste?

RESOURCES

43 Major resource categories44 Resource consumption in Australia

WASTE

50 Major waste types

RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND WASTE AVOIDANCE

54 Strategies to conserve resources and minimise waste

C ASE STUDY 1

56 Birkenhead Quays Apartments recycling

C ASE STUDY 2

57 Roads and Traffic Authority recycling asphalt

58 References and useful information

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBIL IT Y TRAINER RESOURCE ii



USING THIS TR AINER GUIDE

Introduction

This Trainer Guide has been produced jointly by TAFE NSW and the NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA) to assist teachers in the presentation of material in module 5599DA Environmental Responsibility. It was developed through a partnership project between the EPA Education and Community Programs and Legal Branch and the Primary Industries and Natural Resources Division of TAFE NSW.

This Trainer Guide provides information on some of the pertinent environmental issues and an overview of relevant environmental legislation. It also provides a range of teaching resources and suggested activities including case studies and worksheets. It is intended to be a tool for trainers only, and not prescriptive. The module syllabus should also be consulted to determine that delivery conforms to its requirements.

This Trainer Guide is designed to be used in conjunction with the accompanying Learner Guide.

About the module

The purpose of this module, 5599DA Environmental Responsibility, is to provide the learner with the skills and knowledge required to reduce the potential detrimental effect of work practices on the environment, equipping them to minimise the level of potential environmental pollution generated by work activities and to implement resource conservation and waste avoidance practices in work activities.

It has two learning outcomes:

1. minimise the potential level of environmental pollution generated by work activities

2. implement resource conservation and waste minimisation practices in work activities.

This module is designed to be contextualised to fulfil the needs of the learner group and may be delivered at a wide range of levels, from base grade/operator level workers to managers and proprietors. The mode of delivery should be adapted to suit the group.

This module is also designed to service a wide variety of industries and vocational areas. The module is included in a wide range of courses covering the following sectors:

• Aboriginal cultural site conservation

• mining

• seafood and fishing industries

• conservation earthworks

• horse industry

• forest and forest products





• weed control

• Landcare and the environment industry.

Consequently, this Trainer Guide is broad in its scope to allow customisation to a particular industry or group of learners.

If the module is delivered as part of a vocational course the group could be mixed. It is likely, but not necessary, that delivery in this situation will be off-job. The module should then be contextualised to the individual learner’s work practices.

Assessment

The assessment criteria against each learning outcome are listed below, along with the recommended assessment method.

LEARNING OUTCOME ASSESSMENT CRITERIA RECOMMENDED ASSESSMENT METHOD

Minimise the level of environmental pollution generated by work activities

Determine the nature of the environment in which work activities take place

Worksheet 1 (introduction)

Identify work practices which present a threat to the environment

Worksheet 2 (work activities) – with additional class discussion about which practices present the greatest potential environmental threats

Determine the nature and level of such environmental threats

Worksheet 3a (water)

Worksheet 3b (air)

Worksheet 3c (land)

Worksheet 3d (noise)

Teacher to discuss how the level of threats might be determined

Determine the potential effect on the environment of the identified threats


Worksheet 3b (air)

Worksheet 3c (land)


Develop appropriate strategies to reduce work- generated pollution to a practical minimum level


Worksheet 3b (air)

Worksheet 3c (land)






LEARNING OUTCOME ASSESSMENT CRITERIA RECOMMENDED ASSESSMENT METHOD

Implement resource conservation and waste minimisation practices in work activities.

Develop strategies to reduce the consumption of resources in work activities

Worksheet 4 (resources)

Identify the nature of the resources used in the performance of work activities


Determine the primary source of these resources


Describe the impact of resource depletion on the environment and society

Trainer to discuss in class. Learners may present orally or discuss in groups.

Develop appropriate strategies to minimise the production of waste in work activities.

Worksheet 5 (waste)

Assessment of this module will require individual learners to develop strategies to reduce the potential detrimental effects of their work practices on the environment. The proposed strategies must:

• relate to the learner’s work environment, their status and work responsibilities (for example, it is not practical to expect operator level workers to exert influence on the economic policies of their organisation, but this might be a realistic strategy for a manager)

• identify the learner’s work-based environment problems

• be practical and able to be implemented by the learner.

The course delivery should provide an awareness of relevant environmental legislation but this should be tailored to the level of job responsibility of participants.

Assessment may be conducted either at the conclusion of the module or at appropriate stages of the delivery. The type of assessment and duration must be appropriate to the learner’s level. It is recommended that the completion of the worksheets provided in this guide form an integral part of the assessment of this module. Assignment work may be presented in written format, delivered orally, visually or in combination as appropriate.





If the module is delivered to a sole workplace learner group it is preferable that it be conducted in the workplace and that the examples and strategies discussed are relevant to their work situation. It is not essential that learners in a group are employed in the same industry, however it is critical that they are all working at roughly equivalent levels in order to maintain the relevance of the module.

Suggested delivery structure

This module is nominally 10 hours. The needs of the particular learner group will dictate how this should be structured. This Trainer Guide has been broken into a number of sections to provide the teacher with a flexible resource. If the teacher wishes to teach the module in its entirety then all material may be presented. Teachers may find, however, that they require only one or two parts to support their teaching of another environmental module. Similarly, for some industry sectors, content in some parts will be more relevant than that in others. The teacher will need to vary the level of content and the number of hours accordingly.

If the module is to be presented in full, suggested teaching times for the various sections are shown below.

SECTION SUGGESTED TEACHING TIME RESOURCES PROVIDED

Introduction to the course 30 minutes interactive lecture + worksheet

Worksheet 1

Identifying activities in the workplace with potential environmental impacts

30 minutes interactive lecture + worksheet

Worksheet 2

Water pollution and the workplace

Interactive lecture + worksheet (1 hour)

Worksheet 3a

Air pollution and the workplace


Worksheet 3b

Land pollution and the workplace


Worksheet 3c

Noise pollution and the workplace


Worksheet 3d

Resources & waste – the link Interactive lecture (30 minutes) -

Introduction to resource conservation and application in the workplace

Interactive lecture + worksheet (2 hours)

Worksheet 4

Introduction to waste minimisation and application in the workplace

Interactive lecture + worksheet (2 hours)

Worksheet 5

Discussion and closure 30 minutes -





Completion of worksheets

Blank copies of the worksheets, as well as copies with an example of how to fill them in, are provided for trainers to photocopy. It is suggested that multiple spare copies of each worksheet be taken to the workshop to cater both for mistakes and drafts, as well as learners who make lengthy lists. It is recommended that the trainer work through one or two selected activities before getting the participants to work through more activities, either individually or in groups. It is essential that the activities selected relate directly to the activities performed on-the-job by the participants.

The activities provided are a guide only and do not preclude the trainer from including other relevant activities.

The suggested steps involved in completion of these worksheets follow.

Step 1

Early in the module, give the learners a copy of Worksheet 1 to complete to encourage them to think broadly about the issues they will be covering in the course. Answers will be unique to each learner, but may be the subject of brief discussion.

Step 2

Get the learners to brainstorm a list of activities they conduct as part of their job. This should be done on Worksheet 2. It is preferable to get them to think of things on their own, and then discuss as a group to ensure that people have not missed out on things. This will be particularly relevant if the workshop has people mostly from the same industry sector.

Write the list of activities on a whiteboard or overhead transparency. If this list is particularly long (say 15 or more activities), encourage the learners to prioritise a list of several activities which are likely to have the most scope for environmental impact. This might involve some class discussion as to how these activities were prioritised.

Step 3

For each of the prioritised activities, get each learner to write each activity on a separate copy of Worksheets 3a, 3b, 3c and 3d and then complete these worksheets. You may like to work them through an example on the whiteboard or overhead to show them how to approach this task.

The first column of Worksheets 3a, 3b, 3c and 3d requires people to think of all the possible types of pollution which might result from the particular activity. The second column requires the environmental impacts of this pollution to be considered, that is, what physically happens as a result of the pollution. The third column requires consideration of strategies. Learners should be encouraged to brainstorm and think creatively. Any strategies should be put down if relevant. Finally, the learner needs to evaluate the strategy as it relates to them in terms of whether it is easy or more difficult to implement or whether it will rely on input from others (for example requiring significant funds allocation or employing contractors).


ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBIL IT Y TRAINER RESOURCE 6 ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBIL IT Y TRAINER RESOURCE 7

Once students have completed their worksheets, there may be a class discussion and sharing of strategies. The difficulties in prioritising strategies should be discussed, such as, how potential environmental risks may be balanced against the cost and ease of implementing solutions. For example, if a major potential environmental impact can be fixed relatively easily and cheaply, this might be targeted first. Explain how such an activity is a basic form of risk management. Point out that it is rarely economically feasible for all the suggested strategies to be incorporated at once. In this case, decisions need to be made about priorities and planning about how to implement strategies. There is no one correct way to prioritise and plan for environmental risks.

It may be appropriate to complete Worksheets 3a–3d after the presentation on different types of pollution. Alternatively, the trainer may prefer that worksheets be completed in stages, with discussion of the relevant pollution media in between.

Step 4

For each of the prioritised activities, get each learner to write each activity on a separate copy of Worksheet 4 and then complete the appropriate sections. You may like to work them through an example on the whiteboard or overhead to show them how to approach this task.

Firstly, all the resources used to complete an activity should be brainstormed and listed in column 1. Then, for each of the resources, their original source (i.e. how they were obtained) should be listed in column 2. Whether or not they are renewable should also be considered. Next, strategies to reduce consumption should be considered. These could be less wasteful practices, material substitution, or the abolition of some activities altogether. Again, encourage learners to be creative and list strategies in column 3. These strategies are then evaluated for ease of implementation by the learner, as for Worksheets 3a–3d, in the last columns.

Once students have completed their worksheets, there may be class discussion and sharing of strategies. Again, discuss the prioritisation of strategies with learners.

Step 5

For each of the prioritised activities, get each learner to write each activity on a separate copy of Worksheet 5. Then get them to fill in the appropriate sections of Worksheet 5 for each activity. You may like to work them through an example on the whiteboard or overhead to show them how to approach this task.

Column 1 requires students to brainstorm and list any wastes created in the conduct of various activities. The second column requires them to think about how they might minimise the amount of waste created and requiring disposal. This might be through reuse, recycling or avoidance of creation. Encourage learners to be creative. The final columns are for evaluation of the ease of implementation of the strategies.

Once students have completed their worksheets, there may be class discussion and sharing of strategies. Again, discuss the prioritisation of strategies with learners.



Worksheet 1 – some quick questions

Name ________________________________________________________________________

I think it is important to protect the environment because:

Have you ever received any environmental training? YES / NO

If yes, how long ago? ________________________________________________________________

Please indicate which of the following environmental issues are relevant to your industry and/or company’s operations.

¨ water conservation

¨ recycling (including reuse of resources)

¨ emissions to the atmosphere

¨ discharges to or impacts on waterways

¨ use, transport or disposal of hazardous substances

¨ disposal of solid wastes

¨ land contamination

¨ noise, odour, dust or vibration

¨ other (state) _________________________________________________________________

Would you say your industry and/or company’s environmental performance has improved in the last three years?

Yes – why?

No

Not sure


Worksheet 2 – your work place ac tivit ies

Your name ________________________________________________________________________

Your work role and industry ___________________________________________________________

Think about all the activities you perform in your work and make a list.

1 11

2 12

3 13

4 14

5 15

6 16

7 17

8 18

9 19

10 20

Some of these activities will be the subject of the following worksheets.


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POLLUTION

Key learning outcomes

In this section, we will be answering the following questions:

• What is pollution and what types of pollution are there?

• How is it produced?

• What are the main sources?

• What are the potential effects?

• Is pollution produced in my workplace/industry sector, and what can I do about it if it is?

What is pollution?

Pollution may be defined as a substance found in greater than natural concentration in the environment as a result of human activity. While it may not always be obvious, these greater than natural concentrations generally have a detrimental effect upon the environment or something of value in the environment. The substance causing the pollution, whether a chemical or form of energy, is known as a pollutant.

Some cases of pollution are clear-cut. For example, toxic solvents leaching from an illegal waste dump into waterways or water supplies are pollutants in any person’s view. However, some examples depend very much on the individual’s perspective: for example, loud music is perceived as enjoyable by some people but as noise pollution by others. Defining acceptable levels or concentrations of pollution is therefore difficult and subject to much scientific debate.

Pollution often results from industrial activities associated with the extraction, processing and use of resources (for example, mining gold or burning coal). However, pollutants can also enter the environment naturally, such as through volcanic eruptions. Most pollution from human activities occurs in or near urban and industrialised areas. Industrialised agriculture is also a major source of pollution. Some pollutants contaminate the area where they are produced, while others may be transported elsewhere by wind or water.

The degree of environmental harm resulting from pollution depends on:

• the properties of the pollutant (such as its chemical properties, toxicity etc)

• the concentration or intensity of the pollutant

• the persistence of the pollutant, that is, how long the pollutant remains in the environment. Some substances are broken down into less harmful substances quite quickly in the environment. Others, particularly human made chemicals, may persist for many years.

Pollution is undesirable for many reasons, including:

• damage to the environment and ecosystems (for example, harm to plants which provide habitat and food to other species)

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• harm to the health of humans and other organisms through exposure, whether short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic)

• damage to property and infrastructure (for example, damage to buildings from acid rain)

• potential for nuisance — such as from odour or noise from nearby facilities.

Try and think of some examples where pollution has resulted in these problems.

The Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO Act), the key piece of environmental legislation in NSW, categorises pollution into four types:

• water pollution

• air pollution

• noise pollution

• land pollution.

Each of these are described in more detail below, along with their potential impacts. For further reading, see the New South Wales State of the Environment 2000, www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe.

Pollution does not have to have actually occurred. The threat of it is also treated as significant by the legislation.

Pollution incidents which cause or threaten material harm to the environment are required by law to be reported to the appropriate regulatory authority (usually the EPA or the local council). Material harm to the environment includes actual or potential harm to the health or safety of human beings or ecosystems that is not trivial, or results in actual or potential loss or property damage exceeding $10 000. This requirement applies to the person carrying on the activity in the course of which the incident occurs, or the employee or contractor carrying on the activity (if the employer cannot be notified) and the occupier of the premises where the incident occurred. For more information about reporting pollution, see the relevant page on the EPA website www.epa.nsw.gov.au/mao/index1.htm

A pollution incident is defined in the POEO Act as ‘an incident or set of circumstances during or as a consequence of which there is, has been or is likely to be a leak, spill or other escape of a substance, as a result of which pollution has occurred, is occurring or is likely to occur. It includes an incident or set of circumstances in which waste has been placed or disposed of on premises unlawfully, but it does not include an incident or set of circumstances involving only emission of any noise or odour’.

The best approach to pollution is to prevent it rather than try to control it once it has entered the environment and caused harm. (For example, think of the costs of cleaning up major oil slicks once they have spread along coastlines.)

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/mao/index1.htm

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Government’s role in reduction of pollution

Government at the federal, state and local level uses a combination of the following tools to reduce pollution:

• economic incentives — such as licence fees or environmental levies

• education — to develop awareness, knowledge and skills to improve behaviour

• regulation — through legislation, impose standards, control activities and impose sanctions.

A short description of each of these is given below, but only legislation will be dealt with in depth in this module.

Economics

The NSW EPA discusses economic tools in the document Environmental Success Stories: New Initiatives in Cleaner Production and Pollution Prevention (2000). This is available at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cleaner_production/case-04.htm or by calling 131 555.

A successful new economic tool has been the introduction of the load-based licensing scheme. The EPA introduced load-based licensing scheme in July 1999 under the Protection of the Environment Operations (General) Regulation 1998. Load-based licensing links licence fees to pollutant loads emitted, and good or improved environmental performance is rewarded with lower fees. The scheme is proving to be successful in providing economic incentives for industry to improve its environmental performance. Information on load-based licensing, including training materials, is available at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/licensing/lbl/index.htm

Other information on environmental economics is available at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/publications/environmental.htm

If you are interested in economic incentives, the Environmental Economics Units of Environment Australia website has additional information at, www.ea.gov.au/pcd/economics/index.html. A comprehensive paper entitled Environmental Incentives: Australian Experience with Economic Instruments for Environmental Management (David James, 1997) is available in pdf format at www.ea.gov.au/pcd/economics/incentives/pubs/incentives.pdf.

Education

For information on NSW’s first, innovative Environmental Education Plan, Learning for Sustainabilty, see www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cee. Learning for Sustainability is a three year plan developed by the NSW Council on Environmental Education to provide a strategic framework for the development of environmental education in this state. It brings together the education contributions of key stakeholders such as state and local government, industry, universities, education and training providers and non-government organisations. The Plan identifies outcomes that focus on improving coordination, access to programs across the state and building the capacity of the environmental education system to address sustainability needs.

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cleaner_production/case-04.htm

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/licensing/lbl/index.htm

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/publications/environmental.htm

www.ea.gov.au/pcd/economics/index.html

www.ea.gov.au/pcd/economics/incentives/pubs/incentives.pdf

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cee

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For more information about community education, the publication What We Need Is…A Community Education Project produced by the NSW Environment Protection Authority and the Department of Land and Water Conservation in 1997 is a good introduction. It is available on the internet at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/community/

For information and resources regarding industry environmental education, see the Solutions to Pollution series of booklets for a range of industries (including automotive, construction, retail food, foundry, composites, printers, marinas, shopping centres etc). These are available through the Pollution Line on 131 555 or on the EPA’s website at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/small_business/index.htm

The EPA’s Annual Report 2000–01 also has further information about education tools and resources (see Cleaner Production pp 62–64).

Environment Australia has numerous resources and case studies on its website — see especially the Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production site at www.ea.gov.au/industry/eecp/index.html. For more information on cleaner production see www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cleaner_production.

Legislation

There are many environmental laws which affect the people of NSW. The majority of these are NSW laws although some are federal laws. Local government has been given environmental powers under NSW legislation, and have their own development and planning policies and plans which can be used to impose environmental controls.

While it is not necessary to know about all of the environmental laws, you do need to be aware that causing pollution is an offence. The penalties can be serious. Wilful environmental damage can result in fines of up to $1 million for corporations, and $250 000 forindividuals as well as up to 7 seven years in jail. Less serious environmental offences may receive fines of up to $250 000 for corporations and $120 000 for individuals, with additional fines each day after that if pollution continues. Minor offences can result in penalty notices (also known as on-the-spot fines), similar to a speeding ticket, from the EPA, local council or a number of other regulatory authorities.

Clean-up notices, prevention notices and noise notices or directives can also be issued by the EPA and councils to regulate activities that cause or may cause pollution, or to require the clean up of pollution.

Most of the time, you don’t need to have intended to cause environmental harm to be prosecuted if something goes wrong. It is also no excuse to say you didn’t know about the environmental laws. A good rule of thumb is that if it can pollute the environment, it is probably against the law. For example, while washing your car on the side of the road, if the soapy wash water goes into the gutter it would generally be illegal and you can be fined.

Depending on the offence and the surrounding circumstances, employers, the occupier of the premises, contractors, directors of corporation, the owner of the waste as well as the industries who actually caused the pollution may be prosecuted for the offence.

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/community/

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/small_business/index.htm

www.ea.gov.au/industry/eecp/index.html

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cleaner_production

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HYPOTHETICAL (BASED ON A SIMILAR INCIDENT IN NSW )

Jo has recently started driving trucks containing liquid waste. One evening, her supervisor tells her to dump the waste down a stormwater drain to save on disposal costs. In the process of doing this she is caught by two council officers.

The case is taken to court. Jo pleads that she is not guilty of an offence as she was simply following her employer’s instructions. The judge finds that Jo, her supervisor and the company that employs them are guilty of water pollution and are each fined individually.

In relation to prosecutions, due diligence may be taken into account. To illustrate how due diligence can be demonstrated, consider the example of a pollution incident resulting from toxic chemicals leaking from a drum at a particular site. In this case, the company responsible may need to prove that the drum had been stored securely (in a bunded and sealed area), that staff had been trained in handling the material safely, that emergency situations such as spills or fires had been prepared for (for example, by installing spill kits or fire extinguishers nearby) and that auditing and maintenance (such as checking for and repairing leaks) had been conducted. The company would also need to demonstrate that it acted quickly as soon as the problem was detected. Proof that such actions had been taken would help to significantly lessen any fines and the risk of prosecution.

In order to be able to show ‘due diligence’, understanding where there is potential for environmental impacts from work activities is essential. This then allows for measures to be put in place to reduce the environmental risk of activities.

The Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997

The key piece of legislation governing pollution in NSW is the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO Act). This legislation was designed to streamline environmental legislation in NSW and replaced the following legislation:

• Clean Air Act 1961

• Clean Waters Act 1970

• Pollution Control Act 1970

• Noise Control Act 1975

• Environmental Offences and Penalties Act 1989

The POEO Act sets the maximum penalties for various offences and gives the EPA and local government the power to prosecute or fine people for environmental pollution. If a person is prosecuted for allegedly committing an offence, a judge will determine in court whether the person is guilty and if so what the penalty will be, after hearing from the prosecutor and the defence.

The POEO Act lists the activities that need to be licensed by the EPA (see Schedule 1). These activities have significant environmental impacts, (such as mines, chemical industries, intensive livestock and processing industries and logging operations). Load-based licensing (LBL) links licence fees to the load of pollutants discharged

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into the environment by the licensed activity and the sensitivities of the receiving environment. As the pollutant load is reduced, so is the LBL fee. Generally, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) do not require environment protection licences, so local councils are usually responsible for regulating these SMEs that do not have a licence from the EPA. However, they may require a trade waste permit, issued by the local water authority, to discharge wastewater to sewer, or a Dangerous Goods Licence, issued by WorkCover NSW, to store certain quantities of dangerous goods. For more information about dangerous goods licensing see the WorkCover NSW website at www.workcover.nsw.gov.au.

NSW Environment Protection Licences are issued with a number of conditions which may include requirements for emissions limits, operating hours, pollution monitoring, environmental auditing and pollution reduction programs.

The EPA and local councils have powers to enter premises in order to investigate matters arising under the POEO Act and issue clean-up and prevention notices in relation to suspected pollution incidents or activities carried on in an environmentally unsatisfactory manner.

For further information about the POEO Act, see the NSW EPA website at www.epa.nsw.gov.au or obtain a copy of the joint TAFE NSW/EPA resource New Pollution Laws and the Workplace (copies can be ordered for $30 including postage from PrintWest, ph (02) 6391 5662.) For information about licensing, call the EPA Pollution Line on 131 555.

www.workcover.nsw.gov.au

www.epa.nsw.gov.au

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WATER POLLUTION

What is water pollution?

It is an offence under the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO Act) to pollute waters. The definition of water pollution under the Act includes ‘introducing into or onto waters any matter, whether solid, liquid or gaseous, so that the physical, chemical or biological condition of the waters is changed’. Placing things in locations where they can result in water pollution (such as if it rains or if the substance is likely to fall, be blown or percolate) is also considered to be water pollution. ‘Waters’ include rivers, creeks, the ocean, drains, channels, gutters, water mains or pipes, wetlands, ponds, unconfined surface water, dams, and tidal waters (whether water is actually present in these at the time or not). It also includes underground or artesian water.

This is a very broad definition. Can you think of some examples of things you do which would be classed as water pollution? For example, throwing cigarette butts into the gutter, tipping oil down the sink, washing a vehicle on concrete and letting the soapy water enter the drain, are all examples of water pollution.

Each water body has a local catchment that is often part of a larger (regional) catchment. A catchment is a geographic area from which all surface water flows to a common point, that is, a catch area of a river or stream. All activities in that catchment, including industrial, agricultural and domestic activities, have the potential to affect the water body. For this reason water pollution is a major focus of environmental regulation and management strategies. Catchment management is a broad scale process which aims to improve water quality by focusing on activities throughout the catchment in a coordinated way and recognising the impacts on other parties and the environment.

Protection of water quality is even more important in Australia because, as an arid continent, water is scarce.

Major water pollutants

Water pollutants vary widely but may include:

• litter

• wash water and detergents

• oils and greases

• rubber from tyres

• sediment (from soil erosion)

• pesticides

• fertilisers

• industrial chemicals

• animal carcasses

• green waste, such as grass clippings and leaves

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• food scraps

• pathogens (such as bacteria) from faeces

• gases

• water of a different temperature (thermal pollution, which can impact on aquatic ecosystems).

What other examples can you think of?

Major sources of water pollution

In natural cycles, water moves in a cycle between the atmosphere, the land and the ocean. Water reaching the land through rainfall is typically either intercepted by trees and grasses, percolates through the soil to the groundwater or runs off into surface water systems. Human practices have dramatically altered these cycles. In urban areas, with more paved surfaces such as roads and buildings, water is not absorbed and instead flows into gutters, drains and channels and is ‘fast-tracked’ into our water courses. This stormwater transports and dissolves a range of contaminants as it flows, including heavy metals, organic chemicals, nutrients and pathogens (eg bacteria), pesticides, oils and greases, rubber etc into creeks, lakes or the ocean. In addition, practices such as irrigation and clearing of native vegetation mean that more water reaches the groundwater, resulting in rising water tables which may carry dissolved salts from deeper in the earth and cause salinity.

Water pollution is sometimes described in terms of its source.

Point sources, or ‘end-of-pipe’ sources are those where there is an easily identifiable source or known specific point of release. Examples include:

• sewage treatment plants

• factories/industrial plants

• mines

• landfills

• intensive agriculture

• construction sites.

Diffuse sources, also known as non-source pollution, usually refers to multiple small sources of pollution spread over a wide area (eg catchment runoff of sediments from land use).

Effects of water pollution

The effects of water pollution may include:

• making water unsuitable for drinking for people or animals, and causing health problems if consumed (which may have immediate, or acute, effects, or may cause chronic problems over a lengthy period of consumption)

• making water unsuitable for food production

• direct harm to aquatic life, both animals and vegetation (through toxic chemicals, excess sediment, thermal pollution etc)

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• indirect harm to aquatic life (eg by resulting in toxic blue-green algae from excess nutrients in the water)

• making water unsuitable for irrigation

• interference with amenity and recreation (eg water is not safe to swim in)

• diminished aesthetics (eg water is discoloured or muddy)

• making water unfit for other uses, such as industrial use, washing etc.

General strategies to reduce water pollution

Measures to control point source pollution may include:

• cleaner production — substituting practices or materials that have the potential to cause environmental harm, with more environmentally-friendly practices or materials

• reuse of effluent — such as using semi-treated sewage for irrigation of golf courses and parks etc, or using ‘greywater’ from houses (from the kitchen, laundry and shower but not toilet) to water gardens

• conducting industrial or commercial activities so that they do not allow pollutants to enter water systems (for example, cleaning spills immediately and sweeping rather than hosing floors, minimising the amount of cleaning products entering drains, etc)

• installing water treatment devices — such as grates or grills to screen solids; filters; grease traps; oil/water separators; flocculation units; vehicle wash bays and bunded maintenance areas with separate water collection; sewage treatment plants; ‘first-flush’ systems (which collect a specified amount of the initial runoff, which is usually most contaminated, for treatment) etc

• disposing of wastes appropriately (not down drains)

• not allowing soil, sand, grass clippings or garden refuse in gutters, drains and waterways

• preventative maintenance of pollution control equipment to minimise the potential for water pollution to occur.

Measures to control diffuse source pollution may include:

• conducting activities to minimise pollution from runoff — for example, using the minimum possible amount of fertilisers or pesticides and not applying substances during or close to rainfall

• controlling soil erosion — such as through vegetation management (particularly along streams, ridges and on slopes), use of grassed swales and vegetation buffer strips, minimal soil disturbances etc

• construction of artificial wetlands and reed bed filtration systems.

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Relevant legislation

The water pollution offence under the POEO Act is simpler than the air, noise and waste management offences. This is because the Act prohibits pollution of waters unless the activity is licensed, and the conditions of that licence controlling water pollution have been complied with. For example, if you see sediment and dirty runoff from a building site entering the stormwater system, it is probable that the person responsible for the activity causing the runoff is committing an offence.

The EPA controls many major point sources of water pollution through licensing. If an activity pollutes waters, or operates at a scale as outlined in Schedule 1 of the POEO Act, an environment protection licence may be applied for through the EPA. If granted, the conditions attached to the licence (which regulate and limit the pollution) must be followed or the licence holder can be prosecuted.

Most small businesses do not have a licence under the POEO Act. In these circumstances, strict on-site control measures (such as erosion and sediment control measures) should be adopted in order to avoid prosecution for water pollution.

For more information about water pollution, see the information on the EPA website: www.epa.nsw.gov.au/water/

Water pollution and your workplace

Give the students Worksheet 3a to complete.!

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/water/

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AIR POLLUTION

What is air pollution?

Air pollution is defined in the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO Act) as ‘the emission into the air of any air impurity. Air impurities can be defined as including smoke, dust (including flyash), cinders, solid particles of any kind, gases, fumes, mists, odours and radioactive substances’.

An offensive odour as defined in the POEO Act is one, that is by reason of its strength, nature, duration, character or quality, or the time at which it is emitted or any other circumstances, is harmful to (or is likely to be harmful to) or interferes unreasonably with (or is likely to interfere unreasonably with) the comfort of a person outside the premises from which the odour is emitted.

Air pollution is difficult to manage because it is influenced by weather, including factors such as wind, sunlight, topography etc, that mix and transport air. Thus, areas suffering from air pollution may not have actually caused it. As an example, Western Sydney can experience poor air quality when pollutants generated in the rest of Sydney are transported to the west by air movements throughout the day.

Major air pollutants

Significant air pollutants include:

• oxides of sulfur, nitrogen and carbon and related compounds

• organic compounds, such as hydrocarbons (fuel vapour and solvents)

• acid gases including sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid

• particulate matter, such as smoke and dust

• metals and metal oxides and related compounds including those of lead, cadmium, copper and iron

• fluorides

• ozone

• odours

• radioactive substances.

Secondary pollutants are formed by reactions between ‘precursor’ pollutants and can have a major impact on air quality, especially in large Australian cities. For example, photochemical smog, whose main component is ozone, is formed when oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons react in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. Motor vehicles are a major source of both oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons (eg unburnt or evaporated fuels).

Many air pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, cannot be seen and are odourless. Thus, their detection can be difficult until the adverse impacts are experienced.

For more information about air impurities, see the information on the EPA website, www.epa.nsw.gov.au/air

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/air

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Major sources of air pollution

Major sources of air pollution include:

• motor vehicles (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons etc)

• coal-fired power stations (fly ash, carbon dioxide etc)

• chemical plants (volatiles, odour, carbon dioxide etc)

• fires — bush fires, backyard burning and solid fuel heaters in the home (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, smoke etc)

• land clearing (dust)

• agriculture (dust from overgrazing, odours from intensive agriculture, methane from livestock)

• waste management facilities (odours)

• mining and processing (dust from crushing, drilling etc)

• indoor facilities (volatilisation of construction materials etc).

What other examples can you think of?

Effects of air pollution

The effects of air pollution include:

• health effects (such as asthma, coughing, respiratory problems, eye irritation, chronic infections, cancer). These effects may be acute (short-term) or chronic (built up over a long period)

• nuisance/aesthetics (such as dust, odour)

• damage to plants by leaf damage or impaired growth (caused by gaseous pollutants such as fluoride or excessive dust)

• visibility impacts (eg white haze from photochemical smog or brown haze from particle pollution)

• the enhanced greenhouse effect — where a build up of gases including carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are trapping heat and resulting in global warming

• stratospheric ozone depletion — where certain chemicals made by humans (particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)) break down ozone molecules when they reach the stratosphere. When enough ozone molecules are broken down, this results in a thinning of the ozone layer, which allows more ultra-violet radiation to reach the earth. Above Antarctica, where the ozone layer is very thin, it is commonly referred to as an ozone ‘hole’. Ozone is produced continually through natural processes such as lightning and volcanoes, so if chemicals, such as CFCs, no longer enter the atmosphere, the ozone layer should eventually be restored.

• acid rain (formed when sulfur and nitrogen oxides react with water vapour in the atmosphere and produce sulfuric and nitric acids, which may damage vegetation and built and natural structures).

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General strategies to reduce air pollution

The types of strategies which can be employed to reduce air pollution include:

• installation of air treatment devices — which may include combinations of exhaust systems, filters, scrubbers, catalytic converters etc

• managing materials to avoid wind-blown air pollution — such as by covering stockpiles with a tarpaulin or storing in enclosed facilities, wetting dirt roads or stockpiles, revegetating disturbed areas etc

• conducting operations in such a way as to minimise air pollution exacerbated by weather conditions — for example, not operating during dry and windy conditions

• cleaner production approaches — such as changing the type of fuel used to minimise generation of pollutants (for example, switching from coal to natural gas), or phasing out the use of environmentally harmful substances (such as CFCs)

• keeping vehicles and equipment maintained in a proper and efficient manner

• minimising use of vehicles — for example, using public transport or alternatives, such as bicycles.

For more detailed information about air pollution, refer to the information on the EPA website, www.epa.nsw.gov.au/air/


Under the POEO Act, it is an offence if an occupier of non-residential premises causes air pollution because of a failure to maintain and operate plant or deal with materials in a proper and efficient manner. Materials include raw materials, manufactured materials, by-products or waste materials. For example, stockpiles of raw material should not be blown around excessively by wind. It is also an offence to emit certain air impurities at non-residential premises in excess of the limits set out in the Clean Air (Plant and Equipment) Regulation 1997. The POEO (Control and Burning) Regulation 2000 prohibits burning in the open air or incinerators in certain local council areas, and prohibits the burning of certain articles (including tyres, paint and solvent containers, and certain treated timbers) without an approval. It is an offence to emit offensive odours from premises at which scheduled activities are carried on unless permitted under an environment protection licence.

The EPA has the power to prohibit burning in the open air or in incinerators when it considers that weather conditions may contribute to air pollution, and the power to demand cessation of other fires which are causing health risks or discomfort.

For licensed activities, air pollutant emission limits may be specified as licence conditions determined by the EPA.

Air pollution and your workplace

Give the students Worksheet 3b to complete.!

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/air/

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POLLUTION


L AND POLLUTION

What is land pollution?

Under the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997(POEO Act), land pollution is defined ‘as the degradation of land because of the disposal of waste on the land’. Waste is defined in the POEO Act as including any substance (solid, liquid or gaseous) that is discharged, emitted or deposited in the environment in such a way that it alters the environment; or any discarded, rejected, unwanted, surplus or abandoned substance, including those intended for sale, recycling, reprocessing, recovery or purification by a separate operation from that which produced the substance.

Major land pollutants

Significant common land pollutants include:

• pesticides

• metals

• hydrocarbons

• organochlorines other than pesticides

• asbestos

• domestic or commercial waste.

Major sources of land pollution or contamination

Although contaminated sites may occur anywhere, they are typically clustered in areas which have been used for heavy industry or chemically intensive agriculture. They may also include residential properties, for example, from flaking of lead-based paints or excessive pesticide use.

Land contamination from various sites may have happened unknowingly, with the problem only detected much later.

Examples of practices which have resulted in land contamination include:

• agricultural and horticultural activities

• cattle tick dip sites

• chemicals manufacturing and blending

• defence sites

• drum recyclers

• dry cleaning establishments

• electrical manufacturing

• gas works

• landfill sites

• metal processing works

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• mining and extractive industries

• power stations

• railway yards

• service stations

• smelting and refining

• wood preservation premises.

This list does not include many other activities with potential to result in contamination. It is important to note that land contamination is not an inherent outcome of any of these land uses, but rather an outcome of the standards of environmental management applied.

Effects of land pollution and contamination

Effects of land pollution and contamination can include:

• contamination of groundwater and other water resources which may render them unfit to drink and may harm plants, animals and humans

• contamination of food and produce — caused by uptake of chemicals, such as pesticides and heavy metals by plants and animals. Because they are difficult to break down, these substances may also accumulate in the environment, including in organisms in the food chain.

• health impacts from exposure to toxic substances — through contact with the soil or from vapours

• economic impacts from land devaluation and from land being rendered unsuitable for certain uses such as residential housing.

It is difficult to estimate the total number of contaminated sites in NSW. At 16 June 2003, there were approximately 143 contaminated sites in NSW that were subject to regulatory action under the Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 (CLM Act). Of course this does not represent all known contaminated sites, since not all contaminated sites are regulated under the CLM Act. For example, the State of the Environment 2000 Report identified 1,657 cattle tick dip sites, 221 landfill sites and 185 unexploded ordinance sites in NSW. The number of sites with minor contamination would be much greater than those regulated by the EPA.

For more information about land contamination, refer to Section 4.6 of the State of the Environment 2000 Report, available at the following website www.epa.nsw.gov.au/index

General strategies to reduce land pollution and contamination

It is much easier to prevent land pollution than to manage it once it has occurred. Prevention strategies which can be employed include:

• barriers to prevent substances from entering the soil even when there is leakage — for example ‘bunded’ and paved areas for storing chemicals or double liners on tanks

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/index

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• minimising the use of hazardous chemicals or substituting them with less hazardous alternatives or substances which break down more quickly in the environment

• rapid response in the event of a spill, with use of spill clean-up kits and other products to prevent the contamination from spreading.

For sites which have already been contaminated, remediation may be required. This may involve various techniques, such as:

• removing contaminated soil and disposing of it safely, such as in a secure landfill

• ‘bioremediation’ of soil, where certain bacteria, water and oxygen are added at a site to facilitate natural breakdown of hazardous chemicals. This option is less common since the types of contaminants and conditions at a site are not always conducive to bioremediation, and it can be very expensive

• installation of wells around the contamination, with regular pumping of contaminated groundwater to prevent the contaminants from spreading further into the groundwater. This groundwater must then be handled and treated appropriately, which can be an expensive option.


In NSW, the management of contaminated land is shared by the EPA, Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources and local councils. Under the CLM Act, the EPA regulates contaminated sites that pose a significant risk of harm to human health and/or the environment. Under the CLM Act, a person who becomes aware that the person’s activities have contaminated the land so as to present a significant risk of harm must, as soon as practicable after becoming aware of the contamination, notify the EPA. The owner of the land must also notify the EPA after becoming aware of contamination that presents a significant risk of harm. Under the POEO Act, pollution incidents which cause or threaten material harm to the environment must be reported to the appropriate regulatory authority (see ‘What is pollution’ at p.4). Other sites that pose less risk are managed by planning authorities (typically local councils) through their land use planning processes.

Under the POEO Act it is an offence to transport waste to a place that cannot lawfully be used as a waste facility for that waste. Both the transporter and the owner of the waste may be prosecuted. However, the owner will not be guilty if the owner can prove that the offence was due to causes over which the owner has no control, the owner took reasonable precautions and exercised due diligence to prevent the offence.

It is also an offence under the POEO Act for an owner or occupier of land to permit it to be used as an unlawful waste facility.

For more information about land pollution, see the information on the EPA website, www.epa.nsw.gov.au/land/

Land pollution and your workplace

Give the students Worksheet 3c to complete.!

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/land/

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POLLUTION


NOISE POLLUTION

What is noise pollution?

Noise is produced by fluctuations in air pressure, and includes sound and vibration.

Noise pollution is defined under the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO Act) as ‘the emission of offensive noise, which means noise that by reason of its level, nature, character or quality, or the time at which it is made, or any other circumstances, is harmful (or is likely to be harmful) to or interferes unreasonably (or is likely to interfere unreasonably) with the comfort or repose of a person outside the premises from which the noise is emitted’. The POEO (Noise Control) Regulation 2000 sets certain limits on noise emissions from motor vehicles, vessels and domestic use of certain equipment.

There is an unavoidably subjective quality to the definition of noise pollution. The impacts of noise depend both on the noise level and its characteristics and how it is perceived by the person affected.

It is important for anyone resolving disputes over noise pollution to realise that what is music to one person might be offensive noise to another. In responding to noise complaints, an authorised officer will take the approach of what a ‘reasonable person’ would consider offensive.

Major sources of noise

Noise sources can be divided into industrial, transportation and neighbourhood noise:

• industrial noise sources include factories, businesses, extractive industries, construction, agricultural and other industries

• transportation noise sources include air, road, rail and shipping activities

• neighbourhood noise includes the use of noisy articles, vehicles and vessels. It also includes barking dogs and music.

Effects of noise pollution

Noise affects people in a number of ways. Noise can cause annoyance, interfere with speech and other listening activities or disturb sleep. Noise can become irritating if it intrudes into our activities and we hear it against our wishes. Our ability to concentrate and work efficiently can also be impaired by noise. Prolonged exposure to loud noise can also result in increased heart rate, anxiety, hearing loss and other health effects. Hearing loss is caused by the destruction of microscopic hair cells in the ear that transmit sound.

Our sensitivity to noise depends upon a range of factors including the type of noise, the activity being disturbed and feelings associated with the noise (such as fear). Properties of the noise (such as the volume, level, frequency and other characteristics) will also determine noise sensitivity. Other relevant factors include potential for dispersion (whether enclosed or open air), absorption of noise by the immediate environs (eg carpets), distance from noise source, tones and impulses of the noise source and cumulative noise effect at receiver from other noise sources.

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General strategies to reduce noise pollution

There are a number of simple strategies which can help reduce noise pollution, as well as more complex solutions which may require input from acousticians. These are summarised below:

STRATEGY EXAMPLES

Avoiding noise through good planning

• Noise should be considered during the design and planning of activities that have a potential for noise. Noise issues will need to be balanced against a range of other factors such as solar access, privacy and security.

• Where possible, noisy activities should be spatially separated from noise-sensitive areas (for example, don’t build a noisy factory in an established residential area).

• Natural topographical features which can be used to screen noise impacts should be considered when planning land use.

• Using intervening structures such as multi-level buildings to act as barriers.• Appropriate building design to minimise noise impacts, such as location

and size of windows, roof design, construction techniques (double-glazing, concrete slab floors, solid core doors etc).

• Purchasing equipment with lower noise output.• Sensitive choice of placement of noisy equipment within the building.

Controlling the source of noise (after the noisy activities have been established)

• Installation of noise control equipment, such as exhaust silencers, mufflers etc.

• Replacing existing noisy equipment with less noisy alternatives and making low noise generation a priority when selecting new machinery and equipment.

• Operating only within legal times, which may be specified in regulations, licences or notices issued under the POEO Act or in development consent conditions.

• If times are not specified under the legislation, conducting noisy activities in times when they will cause least disturbance, typically during the daytime.

Minimising the noise from reaching people (changing transmission path)

• Put in place barriers, such as walls, earth mounding, fences, or trees and shrubs to ensure that no ‘line-of-sight’ exists between the noise source and potentially affected persons.

• Placing noisy equipment as far away as practical from others.

Dealing with noise at the receiver end (typically the least desirable strategy)

• Ensuring the building is well-sealed, has solid doors, double-glazed windows etc.

• Fitting mechanical ventilation or air conditioning so that windows can be kept closed.

• Advising neighbours of noisy activities so that they can make alternative arrangements.

• Provision of hearing protection (eg ear muff/ear plugs etc).• Insulation of residences.

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Factors to be weighed up when deciding which noise minimisation strategies to employ include costs, security, space available, shade, impact on views/aesthetics. Professional advice may be needed from acoustical engineers or council for more technical solutions.


Under the POEO Act, local councils are largely responsible for the management of noise in relation to non-scheduled activities, with local police also involved in neighbourhood noise matters.

The EPA controls noise for licensed premises through appropriate licence conditions. Councils can control noise by imposing noise level conditions determined by council as part of development consent, through the planning legislation. The POEO (Noise Control) Regulation 2000 addresses most residential noise situations that pose problems, including times of use of noisy articles (such as lawn mowers and stereos) and the approach to be used for alarms, noisy vehicles and noisy vessels. The Regulation limits the time of day that some noise types can be heard in residential buildings.

Most council-regulated potentially noisy activities are not the subject of specific limits or controls. It is an offence under the POEO Act if noise is emitted from premises because of the occupier’s failure to maintain or operate plant, or to deal with materials in a proper and efficient manner. Noise control notices or noise abatement directives may also be issued requiring emissions to cease or be reduced in circumstances (for example, if offensive noise is being emitted from certain premises). It is an offence not to comply with the Notice or Direction. Nuisance dogs and cats are covered by the Companion Animals Act 1998.

Transportation noise is handled by various agencies, with aircraft noise exclusively a Commonwealth Government responsibility with the exception of aircraft on the ground at private or local council-operated airports. Rail noise and noise from the construction of freeways and tollways is generally regulated by licences issued by the EPA. Noise from traffic on roads is managed by the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) and councils. The maximum penalty for noise offences under the POEO Act is $60,000 for corporations and $30,000 for individuals, plus daily penalties for continuing offences.

For more information about noise, see the information on the EPA website: www.epa.nsw.gov.au/noise/

Noise pollution and your workplace

Give the students Worksheet 3d to complete.!

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/noise/

RESOURCES AND WASTE


RESOURCES AND WASTE


THE LINK BET WEEN RESOURCE CONSUMPTION AND WASTE GENER ATION

Key learning outcomes

In this section we will be answering the following questions:

• What are resources?

• What is waste?

• How are resources used?

• What are the potential effects of resource consumption?

• What are the potential effects of waste generation?

• What can I do to reduce resource consumption and minimise waste in my workplace/industry sector?

• What about sustainable development?

What are resources?

What does the word ‘resource’ mean to you?

A simple definition is, anything we get from the physical environment to meet our needs and wants. All forms of life use resources to survive.

! The value of a resource depends upon a number of factors. Try and list some examples.

A resource may be considered valuable by a range of people but for different reasons. Consider a forest. Some value it mostly for its timber to provide building materials and pulp for paper production. Some value it for its recreational facilities. Others value it for its wilderness qualities. Animals ‘value it’ for the habitat it provides. Forests also protect water catchments, provide oxygen and act as carbon sinks. Thus, balancing competing uses of the forest may be a challenging task.

Usefulness (to make products, for survival), scarcity (eg precious metals, water in a drought), cultural values (eg beliefs about medicinal properties) etc

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What is waste?

At first thought, waste is the stuff we throw in our bins. Think a bit more broadly about this.

Answers to this question will vary widely. There is no one correct answer.

There are many definitions given for waste, and how we define it affects how we approach its management. A useful way to think about waste is anything that has a negative value to its owner at a particular time and place.

Such a broad definition demonstrates that what is someone’s ‘trash’ may be another person’s ‘treasure’ (think of garage sales). Further, what is considered waste material at one time may prove useful in the future (consider how often it happens that when you throw something out you find you want it a few weeks later). Discarded materials may still have value either as recyclable material (eg used aluminium cans) or for their energy content (eg waste oil may fuel furnaces).

It is very important to understand that ‘resources’ and ‘waste’ are inextricably linked, as all wastes may be viewed as potential resources, and resource use has the potential to create waste.

Our modern society consumes enormous quantities of resources and is incredibly wasteful. The NSW State of the Environment 2000 Report (p. 15) discusses ‘ecological footprints’, which are a measure of the productive land and water required to produce all the resources consumed and to assimilate all wastes produced by a particular population. Estimates of the ecological footprints of different countries show Australia to be among the top five consuming nations in the world.

What are some of the reasons for our wasteful behaviour?

! Economic wealth, modern industrial practices which make resource extraction and processing simpler, convenience, consumeristic society, advertising/marketing etc

Historically, many things which we would consider ‘waste’ today were not thought of in this way because replacements were either not available or affordable, or simply because it was considered too wasteful to throw away something which was perfectly usable. Today, objects such as pens, razors, watches and even cameras are throwaway objects, whereas in the past, they lasted a lifetime. Nowadays, when many electronic appliances, such as video recorders or toasters, break, it is often cheaper to buy a new one and throw the broken one away rather than have it repaired.

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Humans are resourceful during times of economic hardship. (Consider the word itself: resourceful). Until only a few decades ago in Australia, it was common practice to make patchwork quilts from scraps of fabrics, patch clothing to extend its life, use baskets or reusable string or cloth bags for shopping, and many other similar activities. This was an economic necessity, rather than a desire to act in an environmentally-responsible way. Today, we need to focus more on the environmental impacts, as well as the social equity issues, of our consumption practices.

We need to think more about sustainability or ecologically sustainable development (ESD). Broadly speaking, sustainability relates to environmentally sound economic growth. Legislative initiatives, strategies, action plans, policies and programs that incorporate ESD principles have been instigated at all institutional levels from the United Nations, national government, business organisations, corporations, and networks of community groups.

The core objectives of the National Strategy for ESD signed in December 1992 by State, Territory and Commonwealth governments are:

• to ensure a path of economic wellbeing that safeguards the welfare of future generations, often referred to as ‘intergenerational equity’

• to enhance the individual and community wellbeing within and between generations, often referred to as ‘intragenerational equity’

• to conserve and protect biological diversity and essential ecological processes and life-support systems.

The most fundamental aspect of these objectives, consistent with national and international views, is that the present generation needs to ensure the health, diversity and productivity of the environment for the benefit of future generations. Put simply, each generation is expected to leave intact the necessary environmental conditions for the next generation (Pearce 1997).

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


RESOURCES

Major resource categories

Resources include freely available natural substances such as air, water, wild plants, solar energy and fertile soil. Other resources such as oil, metals, groundwater and agricultural crops require human effort and technical ingenuity to extract and process.

A renewable resource is defined in the State of the Environment 2000 Report as a ‘natural resource that is naturally replenished, but whose continued supply depends, in many cases, on proper management (eg trees, fresh water, fish)’.

To illustrate this, trees are theoretically renewable, as we can plant more when we use others. However, because they grow at a finite rate, they need to be harvested in accordance with the time it will take to grow new ones. Harvesting timber without replanting is not renewable in the long term. Likewise, groundwater is potentially renewable, as water is replenished through rainfall. However, if the water is being used at a rate greater than recharge (as is happening in some parts of Australia), then it ceases to be a renewable resource. The sun is probably one of the few resources which is truly renewable as on a human time scale this resource is essentially inexhaustible.

! List some examples of renewable resources.

When we use a renewable resource at a rate which exceeds its natural replacement rate, we begin to shrink the available supply and cause environmental degradation. This may also make the resource unusable for our desired purpose. For example, if we overwork the soil by ploughing, grazing, application of chemicals etc, it will lose fertility and may not be fit for growing crops.

Non-renewable resources are those that have been formed over massive periods of time and that exist in finite quantities in the earth’s crust and cannot be recreated. Consequently, these resources can theoretically be completely used up. In reality, it is more likely that at some point it is no longer economically viable to continue to exploit what is left of a resource when the cost of doing so exceeds its economic value.

Non-renewable resources include:

• energy resources such as coal, oil, natural gas, uranium — which after use for their energy content cannot be recycled

Surface water, groundwater, air, trees, other plants, solar power, wind power etc

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• metallic mineral resources such as iron, copper and aluminium — can usually be recycled

• non-metallic resources such as phosphates, silicates, lime, sand, clay and gravel — often too costly or difficult to recycle after use.

Both renewable and non-renewable materials are converted into many everyday items. Some are converted into disposable objects designed to be thrown away soon after use. Others may be used continuously for an extended period or may have their life prolonged by recycling.

Resource consumption in AustraliaWater

Enormous quantities of water are used for drinking water supplies, irrigation and industrial production. In industrial activities, it may be used as a raw material or for temperature regulation, such as to cool machinery. The water may be derived from natural water courses, collected on-site, or from groundwater. According to the State of the Environment 2000 Report there are several thousand dams and weirs on rivers throughout NSW.

Groundwater is also used to satisfy water demand, particularly during times of drought when rivers run low or dry. Groundwater is an important source of water for some towns and industries in NSW and can have taken millions of years to accumulate.

Agriculture is the major user of water in NSW, particularly for irrigation. Irrigation is used to produce a range of commercial crops which could not be grown without the additional water. These crops include cotton, rice and most horticultural production. In general, water conservation has been a low priority in the past in the irrigation/agriculture industry. Associated with wasteful water use in irrigation, has been a rising of the water table, which has lead to waterlogging and salinity in many areas. Irrigation salinity is a major issue across the Murray-Darling Basin. Water use in NSW and the ACT between 1993–1997 is shown in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Water use in NSW and ACT, 1993–1997

INDUSTRY SECTORWATER USE (ML)

1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97

Agriculture 5,307,250 6,132,685 5,708,509 7,181,459

Forestry and fishing 2,266 2,322 2,056 2,302

Mining 59,778 59,580 50,757 48,790

Manufacturing 173,587 165,101 171,352 176,160

Electricity and gas 2,674,192 2,766,181 2,202,486 2,362,716

Water supply 503,508 540,642 514,208 552,750

Household 576,060 563,445 535,609 580,423

Other 142,545 149,258 134,292 150,736

TOTAL 9,439,186 10,379,214 9,319,269 11,055,336

Source: SOE (2000) Report, NSW EPA — figures derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics data

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


Minerals and Energy

Our modern society uses enormous quantities of minerals and energy for industrial and manufacturing processes. Energy is also used for transportation of people and products, and heating and cooling.

An illustration of the quantities of minerals produced in Australia in 1998–99 is illustrated in Table 2 below. It should be noted that much of this is exported.

Table 2: Mineral production and quantity — 1998–99

MINERAL OR FOSSIL FUEL UNITS QUANTITY

Metallic minerals

Bauxite ,000t 58,005

Copper concentrate a ,000t 1,835

Gold bullion kg 310,378

Iron ore b ,000t 162,224

Lead concentrate ,000t 927

Mineral sands

Beneficiated ilmenite ,000t 557

Ilmenite concentrate ,000t 2,035

Leucoxene concentrate ,000t 38

Rutile concentrate ,000t 240

Zircon concentrate ,000t 325

Zinc concentrate c ,000t 376

Other metallic minerals n.a n.a

Coal

Bituminous coal ,000t 208,176

Semi-anthracite coal ,000t 3,564

Sub-bituminous coal ,000t 20,844

Lignite ,000t 65,880

Oil and gas

Crude oil d ml 30,306

Natural gas e gl 30,352

Propane ml 1,509

Butane ml 1,993a includes precipitate, b commodity codes 507, 513, 515 and 520 (iron ore pellets), c includes lead-zinc concentrate,d includes condensate, e includes ethane and liquefied natural gas.Source: ABS – Australia’s Environment: Issues and Trends 2001.

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


Energy consumption in Australia has increased dramatically since the 1970s. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2001) states that the total amount of energy consumed per annum in Australia was 4,810 petajoules (PJ, or J x 1015) in 1997–98, a rise of 61% from 2,985 PJ in 1977–78. This trend, which reflects the growth of both the Australian population and the economy, is shown in Figure 1.

The ABS data (ABS, 2001) also shows that over the same period, the amount of energy used per capita increased by 24%, from 209 gigajoules (GJ, or J x 109) per person in 1977–78 to 258 GJ in 1997–98. Australia’s energy consumption per capita is above the average for OECD countries. In 1995–96, based on International Energy Agency methodology, Australia’s total energy consumption was estimated at 230 GJ per capita, compared with an OECD average of 192 GJ. By way of contrast, two of the less affluent OECD countries, Mexico and Turkey, consumed only 61 GJ and 44 GJ per capita respectively (ABS, 2001).

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Can you suggest some reasons why energy consumption is so high in Australia?

!

The materials consumed for energy have also changed over the last 20 years. The relative proportions of different fuel sources is illustrated in Figure 2.

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Source: ABS (2001)

Source: ABS (2001)

Energy sources seen as abundant by many, energy is easily accessible, large country with vast distances to travel between towns, wealthy country, varying climate (hot in some areas, cold in others), large industrial and manufacturing base, less energy efficient equipment used compared to other developed countries etc

RESOURCES AND WASTE


RESOURCES AND WASTE


Timber

The quantity of timber removed from forests has also increased steadily in the past fifty years or so, as illustrated in Figure 3.

However, while softwood removal has been steadily increasing since 1945, the volume of hardwood timber removed has been decreasing since the early 1980s. In 1996–97 the volume of softwood removed was greater than that of hardwood, a result of more timber coming from plantations than from native forests (ABS, 2001).

Effects of resource consumption

Non-renewable resources are often obtained through mining and typically require processing after extraction to remove impurities and convert them into usable forms. The extraction and processing often requires enormous amounts of energy and may result in land disturbance, erosion, water, air, land and noise pollution. Subsequent use of these resources (such as petrol in a car) may result in additional pollution and environmental impacts. Therefore, the greatest environmental threat from high resource use is not necessarily the exhaustion of resources, but possibly the environmental damage caused by their extraction, processing and use.

Wasteful use of water depletes the amount of water available to natural processes which in turn significantly affects aquatic ecosystems. To supply water reliably, numerous large dams have been built to store water and release it as required. The consequent reduced flow as water is by-passed from the natural waterway for other uses, has major impacts on the river systems and their ecosystems. Water may be required in greatest quantities at times when river flow is naturally at its lowest (for example, irrigation water is required most during the hot and dry summer months). This creates additional disruption to natural processes. Further, the reduced water flow means that the river or creek is even less able to dilute and flush the pollutants which enter it, resulting in additional environmental stresses which may result in ecological problems such as algal blooms and fish kills. In addition, the release of cold water from the bottom of large reservoirs reduces the temperature of downstream waterways and can have a significant impact on the ecology. Warmed water which is later returned to the waterway may also have an adverse impact on ecosystems.

Over-extraction of groundwater, that is, at a rate which exceeds natural replenishment from rainfall, results in a lowering of the groundwater table. This may result in a drop in base flow into rivers, and can also result in settling or consolidation of the soil. It is for this reason that Venice is ‘sinking’. Extraction of groundwater surrounding the city has resulted in consolidation of the soil in the region.

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Source: ABS (2001)

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


Energy use, in addition to depletion of typically non-renewable resources, also poses potential for environmental impacts during its extraction. The use of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as by-products.

Extraction of other resources not only depletes the resource but may cause various environmental impacts. For example, environmental impacts from metalliferous mining include disturbance of topsoil and biodiversity, water use, production of tailings which can generate acid mine drainage, and water pollution.

Waste generation is another significant impact from much resource extraction, processing and use. The more wastefully we use resources, the more by-products we have to dispose of safely.

Social issues resulting from resource use also require consideration, as they have a direct and indirect impact on the environment. These include unfair distribution of resources and the resultant social divisions and infrastructure required to maintain these distribution patterns.

Resource legislation

Resource use is often not controlled by legislation, but more often through economics. Major relevant legislation is mentioned only briefly here.

Mining activities are covered by a range of Acts and Regulations, the most significant including the Mining Act 1992, Offshore Minerals Act 1999, Coal Acquisition Act 1981, Coal Mines Regulation Act 1982, Petroleum (Onshore) Act 1991 and Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1982. Further information can be found at www.minerals.nsw.gov.au/about/legis.htm

Water use is primarily controlled in NSW by the Water Management Act 2000. This is a comprehensive piece of legislation which covers water management from catchments to the sea (to the three nautical mile limit), including groundwater, estuaries and rivers. Under the new Act, which has an emphasis on community-based planning, water for environmental needs is specifically catered for. Further information can be found at www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/care/water/wml/pdfs/watermanagementact2000_booklet2.pdf

Forestry in NSW is controlled by the Forestry Act 1916 — which requires that anyone engaged in taking of timber, products or forest materials on State forests or other Crown-timber lands must hold a licence (subject to certain exceptions). To apply for a licence, a person must be able to demonstrate competence in areas including environmental management, forest soil and water protection, cultural heritage management, occupational health and safety and first aid. Other relevant legislation includes the Carbon Rights Legislation Amendment Act 1998, which allows for carbon trading, and the Plantations and Reafforestation Act 1999.

The Forestry and National Park Estate Act 1998 allows appropriate forestry operations (such as logging) to be carried out on State forests or other Crown-timber lands that are covered by a forest agreement. Forest agreements are made between the Ministers administering the Protection of the Environment Operations Administration Act 1991,

www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/care/water/wml/pdfs/watermanagementact2000_booklet2.pdf

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National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974, Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979, Forestry Act 1916, and, where appropriate, Fisheries Management Act 1994. This applies where a region has been the subject of a regional forest assessment carried out by or on behalf of the Resource and Conservation Assessment Council (RACAC). A forest agreement is reviewed every five years.

The Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997, the main legislative tool in NSW for managing native vegetation provides for:

• the Native Vegetation Advisory Council, which developed the Native Vegetation Conservation Strategy and will advise on the implementation of the strategy, which will set the framework for the management of native vegetation in NSW

• the Native Vegetation Management Fund, which was established to provide financial support to landholders in protecting and managing native vegetation on their properties

• clearing approvals, which must be obtained for the clearing of most native vegetation (although exemptions do exist)

• Regional Vegetation Management Plans (RVMPs): These provide a comprehensive strategy for managing native vegetation in a regional context, using bioregional assessment and planning. RVMPs aim to ensure that activities within each region are planned and managed in an integrated manner to ensure the protection of biodiversity while incorporating the needs of industry and human communities. RVMPs identify areas of high conservation value that are to be maintained, and areas of native vegetation that can be cleared without the need to apply for a Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources licence. An RVMP is developed by a community-based regional vegetation committee comprising members of the public, interest groups and agency representatives.

The Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 is the main legislative tool for the protection of all threatened plant and animal species in NSW. The major feature of the Act is the integration of the conservation of threatened species into development control processes under the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979.

Resource conservation may also be encouraged through economic measures, that is, through making it more expensive to obtain or use resources. Sometimes this happens because of increasing demand or scarcity. In some instances, relatively minor changes of costs can influence behaviour. Economic measures can include levies or taxes on certain resources, for example taxing raw materials but not recycled materials to encourage increased purchase of recycled goods.

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


WASTE

A broad definition of waste was provided earlier in this section. The Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 (POEO Act) defines waste to include any substance (solid, liquid or gaseous) that is discharged, emitted or deposited in the environment in such a way that it alters the environment. Under the Act, waste also includes any discarded, rejected, unwanted, surplus or abandoned substance, whether or not it is intended for sale or for recycling, reprocessing, recovery or purification by a separate operation from that which produced the substance. Additional substances may be prescribed as waste in the legislation. This definition of waste reflects the environmental protection focus of this Act. While a recyclable or reusable material does have value, it nonetheless has the potential to cause environmental impacts such as pollution if inappropriately managed.

Major waste types

Waste is categorised by the Environmental Guidelines: Assessment, Classification & Management of Liquid and Non-liquid Wastes (Waste Guidelines) (EPA, 1999) as:

• non-liquid — does not flow, has no free liquids, can be heaped and is spadeable (see the Waste Guidelines for a full technical definition)

• liquid — all other waste that is not gaseous.

Non-liquid wastes are classified into four classes based on their potential to release chemical contaminants into the environment through the production of leachates:

• inert — least likely to release contaminants. This category includes virgin excavated natural material (eg clay, gravel, sand, soil and rock); building and demolition waste (eg bricks, concrete, paper, plastics, glass, metal and timber); asphalt waste (eg from road construction and water proofing works) and tyres.

• solid — higher environmental risk – includes municipal (domestic) waste, manure, lead-contaminated waste from residential premises or educational institutions, food waste, vegetative waste from agriculture and horticulture, non-chemical waste from manufacturing and services (eg metal, timber, paper, ceramics, plastics etc)

• industrial — can contain contaminants up to four times the level in solid waste — includes wastes such as stabilised asbestos, asbestos fibre and dust waste, certain non-liquid radioactive waste containing low level radioactive substances

• hazardous — requires treatment to render safe prior to disposal – includes dangerous goods (such as explosives, toxic and corrosive substances), pharmaceuticals and poisons, clinical waste, certain radioactive waste, declared chemicals and quarantine waste.

The determination of the class of a non-liquid waste requires specialised chemical testing. However, a number of common waste types are pre-classified in Schedule 1, Part 3 of the POEO Act. These are summarised in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the Waste Guidelines.

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


Liquid wastes are classified into five classes based on their potential to release chemical contaminants:

• hazardous — classified as hazardous in Schedule 1, Part 3 of the POEO Act — includes dangerous goods (such as explosives, flammable liquids, toxic and corrosive substances), pharmaceuticals and poisons, clinical waste, certain radioactive waste, declared chemicals, quarantine waste

• group A — non-aqueous liquid waste such as oils and solvents; and controlled aqueous liquid waste which have concentrations of chemicals which exceed maximum guidelines prescribed in the Waste Guidelines

• group B — liquid food waste and grease-trap waste from food preparation or manufacture

• group C — liquid waste from human waste storage facilities or waste treatment devices such as sewage

• non-controlled aqueous liquids — liquids not covered above (usually not subject to waste licensing but may come under the water pollution provisions of the POEO Act).

The determination of the class of a liquid waste requires specialised chemical testing. However, a number of common waste types are pre-classified in Schedule 1, Part 3 of the POEO Act. These are summarised in Tables 4 and 5 of the Waste Guidelines. These guidelines are available at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/waste/guidelines.htm

Waste generation

Non-liquid waste is often categorised in three streams, which are produced in roughly equal quantities:

1. Municipal — consisting of household domestic waste set aside for kerbside collection or delivered by the householder directly to the waste facility; other types of domestic waste (for example clean-up and residential garden waste); or local council generated waste (for example waste from street sweeping, litter bins and parks).

2. Commercial and industrial (C&I) — including inert, solid, industrial or hazardous wastes generated by businesses and industries (for example shopping centres, restaurants and offices) and institutions (for example schools, hospitals and government agencies). Other waste generators covered by this category include agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, manufacturing, electricity, gas and water, wholesale and retail trade, transport and storage, communications, finance, property, business, public administration, community services and recreation.

3. Construction and demolition (C&D) — material resulting from the demolition, erection, construction, refurbishment, alteration or repair of buildings or infrastructure development such as roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, railways and airports, and which is not mixed with any other type of waste and does not contain any asbestos waste.

Liquid waste is usually produced in the C&I sector. This category includes wastes, such as paints, dyes, glues, acids, alkalis, oil, oil sludges, solvents and other organic

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/waste/guidelines.htm

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and inorganic liquids. It is not always economically feasible to treat these wastes on-site, and liquid waste storage, treatment and disposal can be expensive. ‘Trade wastewater’, which is to be disposed of on site to sewer in accordance with a trade waste agreement with the appropriate authority (Sydney Water, Hunter Water or the local council) is not regulated under the POEO Act as liquid waste.

Some facts about waste generation in NSW are provided in the State of the Environment 2000 Report (see www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe). These include:

• The total waste disposed in the Sydney Metropolitan Area in 1998 was slightly over 4 million tonnes. This equates to 1,132 kg of waste for each person, but takes into account municipal, C&I and C&D waste.

• Production of municipal waste has decreased by 22% between 1990 and 1998, from 491 kg/person in 1990 to 383 kg/person in 1998.

• Production of C&I waste decreased by between 25–30% between 1990 and 1998 when economic growth was factored in.

• The amount of C&D waste relative to the amount of building and construction work taking place between 1990 to 1998 increased by 14%, however, this result may be influenced by a reduction in illegal dumping and more reliable data collection.

• Between 1990 and 1998, the amount of material diverted from landfill by kerbside recycling more than doubled.

Effects of waste generation

Australia faces a significant challenge managing its waste as it is the second highest producer of domestic waste per capita among OECD nations. (State of the Environment 2000 Report, p. 67). Surveys of the community and industry indicate that waste ranks highly as an issue of environmental concern (State of the Environment 2000 Report, p. 67).

The burden of dealing with the waste we generate is staggering. The more waste we generate, the more difficult and expensive it becomes to manage it, including collection, transportation and disposal costs.

Until only the last couple of hundred years or so, waste was managed by dropping it wherever it was generated. This led to major public health issues as cities became more congested. Solid waste was then disposed of in rubbish dumps, which were often poorly managed and had a range of environmental problems including odour, leachate, uncontrolled burning and vermin (such as rats) and insects.

Although our landfills today are managed better than they used to be, it is still complicated and costly to minimise the environmental impacts from their operation. Landfills have the potential to contaminate groundwater and surface water with leachate which has percolated through the waste, or with sediment running off disturbed areas. They also have the potential to pollute air through emissions of methane, odour and dust, and degrade the land through disturbance to soil and vegetation.

Further, existing landfills are rapidly filling up, and it is extremely difficult to locate sites for new landfills. This has been a problem in Sydney in recent times, with

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe

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locations as far away as Goulburn and the Hunter Valley being considered to take Sydney’s waste. This raises the issue of whether the residents in one location should be the recipients of waste generated in another location.

However, the lack of landfill space and its negative effects are not the only problem with waste production. Conservation of resources is also an important consideration.

Liquid waste is often difficult and expensive to treat properly, particularly for small quantities. Historically, liquid waste was often disposed of into aquatic environments which resulted in serious water pollution. For example, sewage when untreated contributes nutrients, suspended solids and organic material to waterways which is harmful to aquatic life.


The Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2001 (WARR Act) repeals the Waste Minimisation and Management Act 1995 and makes a number of changes to the waste management structures and directions in NSW. The new Act established Resource NSW, which replaced the NSW Waste Boards and the State Waste Advisory Council as one single body responsible for developing and implementing a comprehensive waste strategy for the whole of NSW. It introduced into legislation the concept of ‘extended producer responsibility’ (EPR), whereby producers are made responsible for environmental impacts resulting from use of their products (for example, paint manufacturers). The first EPR Priority Statement will be released in late 2003. The new Act also amends the waste hierarchy to better reflect ecologically sustainable development principles ‘to ensure that resource management options are considered against a hierarchy of the following order:(i) avoidance of unnecessary resource consumption,(ii) resource recovery (including reuse, reprocessing, recycling and energy recovery),(iii) disposal’.

Certain waste activities require licensing under the POEO Act depending on the type of waste, its source, where it is disposed of and the amount produced. In general, activities that may have a significant environmental impact require a licence from the EPA, such as larger landfills or landfills in environmentally sensitive areas; large waste processing, storage or transfer facilities; generators, transporters of, and treatment or disposal facilities for, more environmentally harmful wastes. The purpose of such licences is to ensure that appropriate controls apply to handling, storage, treatment and disposal of waste which will prevent environmental harm and control pollution.

Councils regulate and manage most other waste management activities including illegal dumping (in conjunction with the NSW Government), littering and smaller waste management activities. They also have responsibility for most domestic waste collection, including kerbside collection of domestic waste, recyclable materials and green (garden) waste.

Industry Waste Reduction Plans (IWRPs) were developed for the used packaging, dairy, beverage and tyre industries, under the Waste Minimisation and Management Act. The EPR under the WARR Act replaces the IWRP scheme (the Used Packaging IWRP will continue in operation until 1 July 2004 unless revoked earlier). The emphasis of the EPR scheme will be on the management of problem wastes, where they exist in large volumes or high toxicities.

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND WASTE AVOIDANCE

Strategies to conserve resources and minimise waste

The overall business approach to minimising resource use, waste generation and the production of pollution at source is known as ‘cleaner production’. Cleaner production, when incorporated into the operating systems of businesses not only improves environmental performance, but increases efficiency, reduces costs, provides flexibility and the opportunity to gain a competitive advantage.

It is difficult to minimise resource use and waste generation without an accurate picture of what is being used and what waste is being created. This can be discovered by conducting an audit of resource use and waste generation. This simply means keeping track of what materials are being used (such as through purchasing records), what waste is being created (looking at all processes or targeting one) and whether the waste is being disposed of, reused or recycled.

Cleaner production does not always have to involve major and expensive changes to technology or processes. Many cleaner production approaches involve common sense, simple ‘housekeeping’. Cleaner production can be achieved through the following:

Materials substitution — substituting raw materials with those that create less environmental impact. This can apply across the entire life cycle of the process, that is, the raw materials should be considered right through to production and use of a product and ultimate disposal or management. The sorts of questions which should be considered include:

• how were the raw materials used in production or operations obtained and what are the environmental impacts? For example, could hardwoods from rainforests be replaced with plantation timber to minimise the impacts to forests and potential loss of biodiversity?

• what impacts are the raw materials having during production? For example, can less toxic alternatives be substituted for hazardous substances used for cleaning?

• what impacts are the materials having during use of the final product? For example, by removing lead from paints and making them water-based they are safer to handle and less likely to cause soil contamination from flaking paint.

• what impacts are the materials having during subsequent disposal of the product? For example, can the ingredients in detergent be altered to minimise the amount of phosphorus which can ultimately cause algal blooms in our rivers?

Change process or technology — this may be done to make the process more efficient, use less raw materials and energy, and produce less waste and pollution. Examples include installation of pollution control technology (eg air scrubbers), installation of water saving devices, replacing the need for chemical solvents by using mechanical cleaning devices, etc.

For more information on cleaner production, see www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cleaner_production.

Extended producer responsibility — is a relatively new concept which gives effect to the environmental objective that producers of goods should be ultimately responsible for their disposal. This then provides a clear incentive to minimise unnecessary packaging

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/cleaner_production

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


waste and to design and develop more durable products with components that can be cost-effectively repaired and which may be easier to recycle. Currently, consumers pay for disposal costs themselves and may have little choice for a given product in terms of its ultimate potential to create waste.

Improved housekeeping — such as avoiding and fixing leaks or spills, improving maintenance and monitoring of operations.

Waste avoidance and resource recovery — the goal of proper waste management is to avoid waste generation (and thus conserve resources), and to dispose of any waste which cannot be avoided, reused or recycled in an environmentally responsible way. Waste management is constantly evolving as new technologies, practices, strategies, public perception and legislative requirements continue to develop. Waste management is often discussed in terms of a hierarchy of options, with preference given to waste avoidance at the source, and then (in order of most to least desirable), reuse, recycling and reprocessing, including composting and resource recovery, with correct disposal as a last resort.

In NSW, this hierarchy was included in the Waste Minimisation and Management Act 1995, however, in the new Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2001 it is recognised that this hierarchy can be too rigid for judging competing waste management options and does not provide adequate consideration of the principles of ecologically sustainable development. Consequently, the waste hierarchy has been amended to a resource management hierarchy as follows:

• avoiding unnecessary resource consumption

• recovering resources (including reuse, reprocessing, recycling, energy recovery)

• disposal — as a last resort.

Hazardous waste may not be disposed of in landfills in NSW unless it has been treated to reclassify it as industrial, solid or inert waste. In general, hazardous waste should be collected and disposed of by a licensed waste contractor. Hazardous wastes are monitored by a tracking system to ensure they are appropriately handled.

Options for other industrial or commercial waste include:

• reusing materials if possible, eg washing rags to reuse

• separating waste streams to facilitate recycling, such as scrap metal or paper

• pesticides — use up according to label directions if still registered for use

• pesticide containers — triple rinse and puncture prior to disposal

• solvent/oil-based paints — for small amounts, leave the lid off until the product dries out, then dispose of at landfill (if the paint contains no lead). For larger amounts, contact a licensed waste contractor

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


• water-based paints — a product can now be purchased from hardware stores which solidifies the paint when stirred in. The paint can then be disposed of at landfill. See the NSW EPA resource Paint Clean – Environmental Information for Painters (December 2001) or www.epa.nsw.gov.au/small-business/painters/

• improved measurements and ordering of raw materials to minimise unused quantities.

If in doubt, contact your local council for advice or, for more complex disposal issues or waste in Sydney, contact the Waste Recycling and Processing Corporation (formerly Waste Service NSW) on 1300 651 116. You could also contact Resource NSW on www.resource.nsw.gov.au

C ASE STUDY 1

Birkenhead Quays Apartments recycling

The Birkenhead Quays Apartments, a $45 million redevelopment project, included a trial site for a pilot recycling program, with plans for future expansion. The goal of this project was to reduce waste to landfill by 60 per cent by reducing waste at the source and making sub-contractors responsible for their waste. Consultants were used to develop a tailored waste avoidance program and waste action plans were developed with each sub-contractor and were strictly enforced and carried financial penalties for non-compliance.

Examples of activities included brick layers returning off-cuts to suppliers for recycling into aggregate, or electricians ensuring goods were not over-packaged. Other initiatives included: a stockpile area where similar waste materials were grouped; separate skips for different wastes; a training program for all new sub-contractors.

As a consequence, 77 per cent of materials from the site were recycled and only 23 per cent were sent to landfill. The pay back of the program has been remarkable, with the project anticipated to be completed 60 per cent under budget. Further, products such as timber from formwork were donated to the community, building goodwill.

Source: http://onsite.rmit.edu.au/case/case004.htm

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/small-business/painters/

www.resource.nsw.gov.au

http://onsite.rmit.edu.au/case/case004.htm

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RESOURCES AND WASTE


C ASE STUDY 2

Roads and Traffic Authority recycling asphalt

An innovative approach by the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) has seen recycled asphalt product substituted for new road-base materials. In 1998–99 around 80,000 tonnes of recycled asphalt product was generated as a by-product of road construction and 40% of this waste was recycled. The RTA proposed that, in 1999–2000, of the 100,000 tonnes of recycled asphalt product expected to be generated, 30,000 tonnes will be recycled, while the rest will be stockpiled for future reuse.

Source: State of the Environment 2000 Report, p. 74.

Resource consumption and waste generation in your workplace

Provide the students with copies of Worksheets 4 (resources) and 5 (waste) to complete during the workshop.

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REFERENCES AND USEFUL INFORMATION


References and useful information

ABS 2001, Australia’s Environment: Issues and Trends, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra

Environment Australia 2003, Cleaner Production and Eco-Efficiency, Environment Australia, Canberra, viewed 9 May 2003, www.ea.gov.au/industry/eecp

Environment Protection Authority (EPA) Pollution Line, Phone: 131 555 www.epa.nsw.gov.au

EPA 1997, Industry and the environment, EPA Social Research Series, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA, Solutions to Pollution, Environmental Information series (various industries) NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney [available at www.epa.nsw.gov.au/small_business], viewed 9 May 2003

EPA 1999, Environmental Guidelines Assessment, Classification & Management of Liquid & Non-Liquid Wastes, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA 2000, Environmental Success Stories, New Initiatives in Cleaner Production and Pollution Prevention, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA 2000, What we need is … A Community Education Project, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA 2000, Who Cares about the Environment 2000? EPA Social Research Series, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA 2000, New South Wales State of the Environment Report 2000, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA 2002, Environmental Successes: Cleaner Production in Industry, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA 2002, EPA Annual Report 2001–02, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

EPA 2003, Paint Clean Environmental Information for Painters, NSW Environment Protection Authority, Sydney

James, D. 1997, Environmental Incentives: Australian Experience with Economic Instruments for Environmental Management, Environment Australia, Canberra [available at www.ea.gov.au/pcd/economics/incentives/pubs/incentives.pdf ], viewed 9 May 2003

Pearce, D. 1997, Substitution and sustainability: some reflections on Georgescu-Roegen, Ecological Economics, vol.22, no.1

Resource NSW 2003, Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Strategy 2003, Resource NSW Parramatta

www.ea.gov.au/industry/eecp

www.epa.nsw.gov.au

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/small_business

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/small_business

www.ea.gov.au/pcd/economics/incentives/pubs/incentives.pdf

REFERENCES AND USEFUL INFORMATION


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