ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

OF USED TYRES IN THE RSA

by

AUBREY ROBERT PHALE

A mini-dissertation submitted in part-fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER ARTIUM

in

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: DR P.J. WOLFAARDT

JANUARY 2005

ABSTRACT

Waste management has always been a delegated responsibility, undertaken on behalf of the

public by authorities, industry and specialist waste management contractors. In South Africa,

there are neither regulations nor measures to deal with the accumulation of used tyres or to

control the disposal thereof. Municipalities for example, have no plans in place to deal with

used tyres generated and some landfills refuse to dispose of used tyres. As a result, used tyres

have been disposed haphazardly, at times stockpiled and burnt and thereby present an

environmental problem.

This research investigates discarded tyres as an aspect of solid waste, as well as options that

may be taken for their disposal. The research points to the current waste tyre disposal

problems. These disposal problems are a result of the chemical composition of tyres, their

size and shape. It was found that although there has been a proliferation of environmental

legislation, no regulation ensures that discarded tyres are systematically collected for

appropriate disposal.

Given the undesirable consequences of inappropriate waste tyre disposal, three

recommendations are made:

An integrated national waste management policy, in which a workable public

participation is formalised, will determine the future of used tyre management including

the management of discarded tyres. This requires an attractive incentive to collect and

appropriately dispose of used tyres. Allowance has to be made for entrepreneurs to

determine the most efficient and less expensive way of used tyre disposal to achieve

environmentally desirable outcomes. Non-subsidised markets are therefore

recommended.

There are possibilities of using used tyres that are discarded as raw materials in other

industries. Technologies that take advantage of the fuel value and steel in used tyres

should be explored and encouraged. Discarded tyres can also be used for some

constructions or in the manufacture of some new products.

♦ South Africa may have to consider legislation for the collection, transfer and reprocessing

of used tyres.

The rate of waste tyre generation is also an outcome of tyre design. The possibility of

producing tyres that are environmentally friendly should be explored. Discussions are taking

place within the tyre manufacturing industries in South Africa to formulate and implement

sustainable plans that will address the problems of waste tyre disposal.

ii

OPSOMMING

Afvalbestuur was nog altyd 'n oordraagbare verantwoordelikheid wat deur die owerheid,

industrie en spesialis afvalbestuurkontrakteurs namens die publiek onderneem is.

In Suid-Afrika is daar geen regulasies of maatreels om die opgaring of wegdoening van

gebruikte buitebande te beheer nie. Munisipaliteite byvoordbeeld, het geen bestuursplanne in

plek om van gebruikte buitebande ontslae te raak the en sommige stortingsterreine weier om

dit te doen. As gevolg hiervan word daar lukraak van buitebande ontslae geraak deur

ophoping en dit aan die brand te steek wat omgewingsprobleme tot gevolg het.

Hierdie navorsing ondersoek gebruikte buitebande as in aspek van vaste afval, asook die

opsies wat geneem kan word vir die wegdoen daarvan. Dit vestig die aandag op huidige

probleme gekoppel aan die wegdoening van gebruikte buitebande. Hierdie probleme word

veroorsaak deur die chemiese samestelling asook die grootte en vorm van buitebande.

Alhoewel daar voldoende omgewingswetgewing is, is daar geen regulasie wat verseker dat

gebruikte buitebande planmatig versamel en op 'n paslike wyse daarvan ontslae geraak word

the.

Gegewe die ongewenste uitwerking (gevolg) van verkeerde metodes van wegdoening van

gebruikte buitebande, word drie aanbevelings gemaak:

'n GeIntegreerde nasionale afvalbestuursbeleid waarin 'n werkbare publieke deelname

geformaliseer is, sal die toekoms van die bestuur van afvalbuitebande bepaal. Dit verg 'n

aanloklike aansporing om gebruikte bande te versamel en dit dan op 'n geskikte wyse tot

niet te maak. Toegewings moet gemaak word vir entrepreneurs om die mees effektiewe

metode te bepaal om van die bande ontslae te raak en sodoende die gewenste

omgewingsuitkomste te bereik. Nie-gesubsidieerde markte word daarom aanbeveel.

Gebruikte buitebande kan as grondstof in ander industries benut word. Tegnologie wat

voordeel trek uit die brandstof- en staalwaarde in gebruikte buitebande moet nagevors en

iii

aangemoedig word. Buitebande kan ook in sekere konstruksies of in die vervaardiging

van nuwe produkte gebruik word.

• Die Suid-Afrikaanse owerheid sal moontlik wetgewing moet instel vir die versameling en

berging, vervoer en verwerking van gebruikte buitebande.

Die tempo waarteen afval buitebande genereer word, is die gevolg van buitebandontwerp.

Die moontlikheid om omgewingsvriendelike buitebande te vervaardig, moet ondersoek word.

Samesprekings vind huidig tussen vervaardigers in die buitebandindustrie in Suid-Afrika

plaas om volhoubare planne te formuleer en implementeer wat die probleme aangaande die

wegdoening van afvalbuitebande sal aanspreek.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to all individuals and institutions who

in various ways made their contribution to the successful completion of this study.

A very special thanks to Dr P.J. Woolfaardt, my committed supervisor for his mentorship,

encouragement, insight, guidance and support during the arduous task of completing this

study. I thank you very much.

Mr Etienne Human for allowing me to access some of the vital information from the

South African Tyre Manufactures Conference (SATMC).

My family and friends, specifically:

My wife Doreen and daughters Phalang and Tiyang, for their ever present enduring

support and patience during this project. My son Reetsang; just in time. I love you all.

My mother, Nteme who through her advice laid the foundation of my character.

To Kgomotso my beloved sister and her family, thank you for all the support.

Above all, to God be the Glory.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

LIST OF TABLES .viii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..ix

ABBREVIATIONS xi

CHAPTER 1

ORIENTATION AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE WASTE PROBLEM .1

1.2 THE PROBLEM OF WASTE IN THE ENVIRONMENT ..3

1.2.1 Types and sources of waste 5

1.2.2 Used tyres within solid waste stream 8

1.2.3 Used tyres within solid waste management .10

1.3 MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 13

1.4 STUDY AREA 15

1.5 METHODOLOGY 16

CHAPTER 2

LITERARY BACKGROUND

2.1 LEGISLATION CONTROLLING WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE RSA...18

2.1.1 The Constitution, 1996 ( Act 108 of 1996) .20

2.1.2 Environment Conservation Act, 1987 ( Act 73 of 1989) 20

2.1.3 National Water Act ( Act 36 of 1998) 21

2.1.4 Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act ( Act 45 of 1965) 22

2.1.5 Transboundry Movement of waste 22

2.2 WHAT MAKES TYRES AN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM? .23

2.2.1 Properties of tyres .23

2.2.2 Life-span of tyres 25

2.2.3 Potential risk to the environment 26

vi

2.2.4 Used tyres as part of solid waste

CHAPTER 3

DATA COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION

27

3.1 INTRODUCTION 30

3.2 SOURCE AREAS AND GENERATION OF USED TYRES 31

3.3 QUANTITIES OF TYRES AND THEIR DISPOSAL METHODS .35

CHAPTER 4

OPTIONS TOWARDS WASTE TYRE DISPOSAL

4.1 INTRODUCTION 38

4.2 SOURCE REDUCTION .40

4.3 RETREADING 41

4.4 MATERIAL RECOVERY .43

4.4.1 Cryogenic technology 46

4.4.2 Tyre Shredding 47

4.4.3 Pyrolisis 47

4.5 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCE .48

4.6 PHYSICALLY TRANSFORMED TYRE RE-USE 50

4.7 LANDFILLING .51

CHAPTER 5

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 INTRODUCTION 54

5.2 LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY .54

5.3 RECCOMENDATIONS 55

5.3.1 Effective legislation and waste management policy .55

5.3.2 Stricter commercial measures and use of economics instruments.....56

5.3.3 Industrial Ecology 58

5.4 CONCLUSION 60

REFERENCES 62

APPENDIX .67

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Basic RSA code for special or notifiable wastes 7

Table 2. Physical properties of passenger car and truck tyres 24

Table 3. Estimate of used tyres in the RSA .33

Table 4. Estimate of tyres disposed and accumulated in the veld in the RSA .34

Table 5. Quantities of tyres entering the market annually .35

Table 6. Summary of responses to the questionnaire ..36

Table 7. Approximate number of units retreaded annually in South Africa 43

Table 8. Average composition of a tyre .44

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Schematic representation of sources and classification of waste 6

Figure 2. The interrelationships between the functional elements in a solid waste

management system .12

Figure 3. Flow diagram of the study .17

Figure 4. Average composition in weight % of used passenger car tyres .24

Figure 5. Schematic representation of the life-span of tyres ..25

Figure 6. Reuse, recycling and disposal alternatives for scrap tyres .39

viii

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Casing or carcass: Laminated ply structure of a tyre

Crumb: Finely granulated vulcanised rubber obtained by grinding or buffing

rubber goods. Tread crumb is obtained by buffing the tread material

off a tyre during preparation for retreading.

Environment: The surroundings within which human exist and that are made up of

The land, water and atmosphere of the earth;

Micro-organisms, plant and animal life;

Any part or combination of (i) and (ii) and the interrelationships

among and between them; and

The physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and

conditions of the above mentioned that influence human health and

well-being.

Cryogenic: A technology which uses liquid nitrogen or commercial refrigeration to

reduce rubber in size at very low temperature to embrittle it so that it

can be processed in a hammermill or granulator

Pyrolysis: The thermal decomposition of rubber in the absence of oxygen, which

chemically breaks the tyre into its original components of oil, gas and

char

Reclaim: A sheeted, devulcanised polymeric material obtained by treating

vulcanised rubber. 'For example, Tyre Reclaim is made from tyres.

Recycling: Any process by which material or products which can no longer be

used for their original purpose are converted or transformed into new

products or raw materials for the original purpose or for other purposes

excluding the processing for use as derived fuel.

Retreading:

Generic term for used tyre reconditioning which covers replacement of

tread rubber only ("shoulder to shoulder retreading', "top capping" or

"recapping"), or replacement of tread and sidewall rubber ("bead to

bead remoulding").

ix

Waste:

Waste tyre:

Worn tyre:

Used tyre:

Vulcanisation:

A worn tyre, which is unsuitable for retreading and therefore

unsuitable for its originally intended use.

Development: Meeting the needs for economic, social and industrial

development of the present without compromising the future by

reducing consumption, preventing waste, reusing and recycling and

recovery.

See worn tyre

A chemical reaction, usually involving sulphur, whereby rubber

compound is changed to a tough resilient and durable material. The

cross- linking of rubber molecule chains under heat and pressure.

Any substance having no perceived use for the organism or system that

produces it (CSIR, 1991). Any substance or object which the holder

discards, intends to discards or is required to discard.

A scrap tyre for which no use is found in reclaiming, or any other

process designed to make some use of the tyre material. Also used

interchangeably as scrap tyre in the general vocabulary.

A tyre which has been removed from a vehicle after some use, and

which is no longer safe to continue using for that purpose.

Scrap tyre:

Sustainable

ABBREVIATIONS

DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

NEMA National Environmental Management Act

NWA National Water Act

RSA Republic of South Africa

SATMC South African Tyre Manufactures Conference

xi

CHAPTER 1.

ORIENTATION AND REASERCH OBJECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE WASTE PROBLEM

Rapid population growth, along with increasing productivity and consumption, has

aggravated waste production and accumulation. The accumulation of waste creates various

problems. These problems are worsened when waste accumulates at incorrect sites.

According to Chiras (2001:v), to solve environmental problems and ensure sustainable

living, we must rethink and restructure basic human systems, which include waste

management. Garbage control is also of concern to those interested in building a

sustainable future (Chiras, 2001:579). For this reason, the need for environmentally

acceptable waste disposal has also become a priority in South Africa.

Tons of discarded tyres are an environmental dilemma in South Africa as they pollute the

environment due to improper disposal methods. Apart from this, large quantities of faulty

tyre casings end up as second-hand tyres on vehicles and this contributes to the road

accidents caused by tyre failures. The number of discarded tyre piles continues to grow

and presents greater environmental, safety and aesthetic problems due to lack of clear

options for their disposal.

Discarded tyres are disposed as part of the general waste stream but they have unique

properties that make this waste type, a significant and unique challenge. In South Africa,

recycling measures are encouraged to deal with among others, plastic bags, beverage cans

and paper due to their polluting impact. Similar measures need to be extended to other

polluting waste types including used tyres.

There are two factors causing waste minimization and management to receive increased

attention in South Africa. These are the awareness, concern and involvement by the

general public in waste management issues, as well as growing awareness of

1

environmental issues in those countries to which South Africa will wish to export more

and more of its products in the future.

In South Africa, the following problems of waste handling and disposal are experienced:

Scarcity of land available for the disposal of solid waste. The location of disposal sites

on the outskirts of towns and cities, results in added costs to waste disposal due to

transportation costs that increase with distance.

Urban sprawl also results in waste disposal sites being located within residential or

industrial land-use zones. This further pushes disposal sites to outlying land and results

in increased costs in the transportation of waste to disposal sites.

The problem of increasing waste disposal costs results in waste dumping. Dumping on

the other hand worsens the problem of pollution.

Traditionally, the term pollution has been connotative with waste. Since disposal of waste

can result in pollution, the two subjects cannot be considered separately. Waste is

associated with dirt, nuisance, and lack of value and cost of disposal. Waste is defined as

that which is superfluous, left over and no longer serving a purpose. Scraps, residues, by-

products, effluents, are terms often used synonymously with waste but which have

different meanings according to the originating industry. Generally, all productions end up

with a product and a residue, all of which have a limit to their usefulness. According to

Judais (1986:01), when that limit is reached, these items are then termed waste. Such

waste is more often a resource out of place (Parker 1974, in Judais 1986:01). Waste is

simply a material that has completed its purpose for a particular use.

In terms of Environment Conservation Act, 1987 (Act 73 of 1989), waste is defined as,

"any matter, whether gaseous, liquid or solid or any combination thereof which is from

time to time designated by the Minister by notice in the Gazette as an undesirable or

superfluous by-product, emission, residue or remainder of any process or activity". In

Section 1 of the Environment Conservation Act, the Minister of Environmental Affairs

and Tourism identifies waste to be any undesirable or superfluous by-product, emission,

2

residue or remainder of any process or activity, any matter, gaseous, liquid or solid or any

combination thereof, originating from any residential, commercial or industrial area which

is discarded by any person; or

is accumulated or stored by any person with the purpose of eventually discarding

it, with or without prior treatment connected with the discarding thereof; or

is stored by any person with the purpose of recycling, re-using or extracting a

usable product from such matter,

This legalistic definition is meant to cover any conceivable waste product in the RSA.

In the RSA, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry is streamlining waste

management and has come up with a series of documents that sets national standard for

waste management. This series of documents is known as "The Minimum Requirements",

and defines waste as, " an undesirable or superfluous by-product, emission or residue of

any process or activity which has been discarded, accumulated or stored with the purpose

of discarding or processing."

Waste may be generated from domestic, municipal, commercial and industrial sources.

Waste that has not been properly disposed of can result in pollution. Whereas waste may

be defined as a material that is considered by the producers to have no value, pollution on

the other hand refers to any change in the natural environment, including any

contamination of air, water or land, and excessive noise. Pollution is the release of any

unnatural and obnoxious substance into the environment.

1.2 THE PROBLEM OF WASTE IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Waste products and pollution are the unpleasant price usually paid for urbanization and

industrial development (Barrow, 1995: 249). Waste varies in size, form, origin and

physical composition. It is often placed into three categories; solid, liquid and gaseous.

The problem of waste is worsened by the increasing usage of material that is non-

biodegradable such as plastic, metal as well as glass bottles. Similarly, discarded tyres,

3

the subject of this research, are non-biodegradable and add to the problem of waste

accumulation and waste disposal.

The generation of solid waste is an inevitable outcome of resource use and economic

development. The disposal of such waste is of major environmental concern. The extend

of problems associated with the collection and disposal of domestic and industrial waste

have combined to produce a complex and challenging era this service has ever known.

Waste management is a much-neglected aspect in any development or project and is often

the last function to be allocated funds (Lombard, 1992). There is a general realization that

the environment has a limited assimilative and carrying capacity. The concept

"environment" is used in various contexts to describe different situations. It is used to

describe the biophysical elements and or the human elements be they social, political or

economic. The environment must be understood to mean a totality of interlocking systems

that supports and influences life. Within the environment, waste may become a problem

when it is not properly disposed of and when the assimilative capacity of the environment

is exceeded.

As a result of such improper disposal or excessive generation, waste pollutes the

environment and thereby makes fewer resources available to support life. Also, waste has

an adverse impact on human health as well as on the environmental aesthetics. The

perception of waste that it is an unwanted useless material with no intrinsic value has

dominated attitudes to their disposal (Petts and Eduljee, 1994:03). A concern over waste

disposal is often shown when there is a potential health risk posed by improper waste

disposal practices and associated pollution of the environment. Otherwise the "out of

sight, out of mind" or the "throw away" mentality influences the attitude to waste disposal.

Already in 1978, Cargo states that too much waste is being generated and the supply of

land available for the disposal of solid waste is being exhausted with relatively few

possibilities for expansion. Disposal site problems have generally prompted efforts with

regard to alternative disposal methods as well as recycling and re-use schemes.

4

Already in 1992, the Department of Water Affairs indicated that as much as 80 to 95

percent of waste in South Africa was disposed of at landfill sites. At that stage, South

Africa had about 14 000 landfill sites of which only 10 percent were licenced (Wong,

1993:59). As no significant change has occurred in this regard, the majority of landfill

sites are therefore just rubbish dumps. This makes the potential of fire, ground and surface

water pollution, as well as plaque outbreaks, even more likely from such dumps.

Historically, the lack of a clear waste management strategy in many public and private

sector organizations, has resulted in the belated discovery of the devastating effects of

poor waste management on the environment. The bubonic plague that killed half of the

fourteenth-century Europeans and caused many subsequent epidemics with high death

tolls, was as a result of the lack of any plan for the management of waste (Tchobanoglous,

et al, 1993:05).

South Africa and other less developed parts of the world, must learn from the experiences

of the industrialised countries, and not follow their historic paths of inefficiencies and

mistakes in waste management.

Waste issues are not simply environmental issues; they are also tied up with our economy,

which is geared to manufacturing or production and then disposing of waste. Similarly,

waste creates problems that lower the environmental quality.

1.2.1 Types and sources of waste

There are various waste types. In a nutshell, waste types may be distinguished on the basis

of their material composition in which case they would be classified as solid, liquid, or

gas. A further distinction is based on whether waste is hazardous or non-hazardous. Some

classifications are based on the source of waste and hence, a distinction is made between

domestic and industrial waste. Figure 1 (p.6), provides a simplified flow diagram for waste

classification.

5

Waste Source

I

Type:Solid Liquid Gas

I 1 1

Non-Hazardous

Hazardous

Figure 1. Schematic representation of sources and classification of waste

One of the major causes of an increase in domestic waste is the rise in packaging

materials. Domestic goods including food, clothing and other household commodities are

sold in paper, plastic, glass or metal containers. These containers end up in the form of

waste classified as domestic waste. Such domestic waste may be of solid, liquid or even

gaseous type and may further be classified as hazardous or non-hazardous as shown in

Figure 1.

Industrial waste varies and may, like domestic waste, be in a form of solids, semi-solids,

liquids and gases. These may be hazardous or non-hazardous. Industrial waste is generated

because less than 100% of the raw material entering a manufacturing process end up as a

final product. The significant difference between domestic and industrial waste seems to

be on the quantities produced rather than on the chemical properties thereof.

Within the mainstreams of domestic and industrial waste as already explained, a further

detailed description of waste types is made in Fuggle and Rabie (1992; 495). They make

the following distinction:

6

Inert waste: This is the type that is not regarded as exerting a negative impact on the

environment unless they are disposed of in sites that may be sensitive to such waste

type. Examples include builders' rubble.

General wastes: These wastes can have a negative impact on the environment when

their by-products pollute the environment. Examples include chemical containers (for

insecticides) and sewage.

Special wastes: Wastes of this category do have the potential to cause ailments and

death within the affected environment because of the quantity, concentration or

chemical characteristics thereof. They include chemical substances in various forms

i.e. gas (industrial fumes), liquid (mercury leachates) or solid (medical waste). The

laws governing waste management in South Africa give special attention to this

category of waste types in terms how they are treated, stored, transported and

disposed.

In South Africa, special waste is given a special code based on the International Maritime

Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG). This code was developed to control the international

transportation of pure hazardous substances and is based on the chemical attributes and

toxicity of the substances. Table 1 provides an indication of the basic RSA codes for

notifiable or special waste. These types of wastes generally invoke special attention for

their disposal as they are viewed as being dangerous.

Table 1. Basic RSA code for special or notifiable wastes.

CLASS TYPE

1 Explosives 2 Gases compressed or under pressure 3 Flammable liquids 4 Flammable solids or substances 5 Oxidizing substances 6 Poisonous (toxic) and infectious substances 7 Radioactive substances 8 Corrosive 9 Miscellaneous dangerous substances

10 Ecologically hazardous substances 11 Reactive mixes

7

Currently, planning for the disposal of waste is made difficult by the absence of

information on how much of what type of waste is generated. The DEAT (2004), has

plans for the establishment of a waste database. From this database, accurate figures on

quantities and types of waste generated by various economic sectors of the South African

society will be provided. This initiative will provide a solid base for waste management

planning. According to the DEAT (2004), information for local general waste produced

per capita per year, must be held by solid waste departments of local governments and

reported to provinces and DEAT.

Discarded tyres present a problem that requires special attention. Close to 28 million used

tyres have been dumped all over South Africa and close to 9,3 million are added to this

waste stream annually (Human, 2004). It is important that there must be an effective and

economic manner of removing and disposing of used tyres. Since there is no system of

used tyre disposal, these tyres are often dumped and over time, they create environmental

problems. Questions on the environmental impacts emanating from the disposal of these

tyres in South Africa must be addressed without delay.

The purpose of this research is to explore disposal options for used tyres. Since used tyres

add to the solid waste stream, it is important for the purpose of a clearer understanding to

spend some time and discuss issues concerning solid waste type.

1.2.2 Used tyres within soild waste stream

Solid waste comprises all the waste arising from human and animal activities, that are

normally solid and that are discarded as useless or unwanted (Tchobanoglous et al,

1993:03). Much of the waste discarded at landfills is the solid type. These include

household and industrial waste like containers such as cans, paper, plastic as well as

leftover food, builders' rubble, etc. Discarded tyres also fall under this group of waste type

and since they do not readily interact with the environment, they are identified in Fuggle

and Rabie (1992: 495) as inert type of waste.

8

More than a decade ago, Valenti (1991: 108) referred to a daunting disposal problem in

the United States, where at that stage, about 250 million tyres were disposed annually.

Athough the quantity of such used tyres in South Africa is comparatively less, the

challenge is similar. In view of this type of threat, the General Assembly of the United

Nations went further and remarked that the environmentally sound management of solid

waste is among the environmental issues of major concern in maintaining the quality of

the Earth 's environment (Sitarz, 1994; 221).

In Europe, the point where tyres are decleared waste is defined by law (Frith, 2001:06). In

the RSA, no such law is available currently and the point at which a tyre is considered

waste is at the discretion of the users. Once tyres are no longer of use and are discarded,

they contribute to solid waste. When not properly disposed of, used tyres may present a

variety of environmental problems including those associated with the accumulation of

solid waste.

The dumping as well as the accummulation of used tyres at unspecified, uncontrolled

sites, makes them a potentially harzardous waste. Used tyres accumulate at various sites

including waste tipping sites, disused mine shafts, the open veld and as stock piles within

the builtup residential areas. According to Farrel (2000:01) it was after a stockpile of 13

million used tyres burned uncontrollably in Hagarsville, Ontario in 1990, and caused $3

million in damages, that the Canadian provinces began looking for permanent solutions to

their used tyre problems. As a result, several of these provinces began charging advance

disposal levies on new tyres to fund tyre recycling programs. Some provinces established

tyre stewardship programs, with arm's length boards that are responsible for collecting the

levies and paying incentives to used tyre processors. These European initiatives must be

considered when disposal options are suggested.

In the RSA also, there is a tendency to burn such used tyres for the recovery of steel, for

warming up during cold spells or due to sheer 'arson. The potential of fire outbreaks at

used tyres disposal sites and temporary storage sites with the resultant air, soil and water

9

pollution highlights that used tyres present a unique waste problem and that used tyres

require a special attention with regard to their disposal.

1.2.3 Used tyres within solid waste management

In general, waste management is one of the ways to control and prevent environmental

pollution. It is one of the developing multi-disciplinary applied sciences and offers

practical, effective and often innovative solutions to many modern waste problems

(Fuggle and Rabie 1992:493). The overriding objectives of waste management are

threefold:

the avoidance of waste production,

the reduction of those wastes which cannot be avoided and

the disposal of residues in an environmentally acceptable and safe way

(CSIR,1991:147).

Solid waste management means the removal of solid waste material from wherever the

waste is generated and the disposal thereof at disignated areas. The problems of solid

waste management are increasing with increasing urbanization and industrialization.

One way of enhancing environmental control and pollution prevention, is to build

awareness and understanding of available information regarding the amount of waste we

are generating. Pollution reduction is a generally known objective and so, any measure

that will contribute to the achievement thereof must be considered. One of the

prerequisites towards achieving the objective of pollution control is to know what products

we are producing and where such products are consumed. Also, there is a need to know

what ultimately happens to the disused and discarded or subsequent waste elements of all

products, including used tyres.

The void that currently exists in the systematic waste management strategy in South

Africa is leading to the problem of waste dumping. The finite nature of most of the raw

materials on which manufacturing depends, requires a waste management strategy that

ensures that little unused raw materials or waste if any, ends up at landfill sites or

10

incinerators. This strategy in South Africa is called the Intergrated Solid Waste

Management (ISWM).

Intergrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM), is a term applied to activities associated

with the management of waste. ISWM may be defined as the control of the generation,

storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid waste in such a

manner which is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics,

engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations, and that is

also responsive to public attitudes (Tchobanoglous, et al, 1993:07). The basic goal of

ISWM is to manage a society 's waste so that public health and environmental concerns

and the public 's desire to re-use and recycle waste material is met.

An intergrated waste management approach promotes clean technology and waste

minimisation. According to Wong (1993:59), this approach promotes viable resource

recovery and recycling, volume reduction and processing to improve waste handling and

reduce risks.

The objective when following the ISWM approach, is to upgrade waste management to a

level where decisions and facilities regarding waste management options, conforms to the

best practical environmental option (Wong, 1993:59).

Since tyres ultimately end up as solid waste, the ISWM as a strategic approach to solid

waste management, could find relevance in the management of used tyres. There is an

environmental danger looming as a result of the unwise disposal of tyres. A proactive

approach as outlined in the concept of ISWM, could help avert such a consequence.

There is large-scale recycling of other material waste objects such as scrap metals, cans,

glass, paper, plastic, etc., but not much is heard about the recycling of rubber, specifically

tyres. What is the feasibility of tyre recovery and recycling or of reusing, discarded tyres

for other purposes?

11

v Waste handling,

11 Waste collection

11 Separation, processing and transformation of solid waste

U V

Waste disposal

Waste generation

‘1

Transfer and transport

To accomplish effecient and orderly waste management, there is a need to identify its

fundamental aspects as well as relationships involved (Tchobanoglous et al, 1993:15).

These aspects and relationships are identified as falling within six fuctional elements, from

the point of waste generation to that of final disposal ( see Figure 2). These six functional

elements provide a useful framework within which to view activities associated with the

management of solid waste.

Figure 2. The interrelationships between the functional elements in a solid waste

management system (Tchobanoglous et al, 1993:12).

When all of the functional elements of a waste management system have been evaluated

for use, and all of the interfaces and connections between elements have been matched for

effectiveness, the community has developed an intergrated waste management system

(Tchobanoglous et al, 1993:15). The specific waste management objectives and goals with

regard to the management of used tyres have to be identified and developed. Effective

management of waste tyre disposal is dependent on co-operation of all sectors from waste

source to waste disposal.

12

Solid waste management is comprised of the following operations:

The collection of waste from the source of waste generation, which will vary from

place to place and also from waste type to waste type.

The transportation from the source of waste generation to processing. This operation is

usually by road to the disposal site which may be a landfill site, an incinerator, a waste

transfare station, etc.

The processing of solid waste at the provided facilities, Processing can range from

composting, recycling, incineration and pulvarizing to simple transfer of wastes

(Krompman, 1984:06). The result of waste processing is a reduction in the volume of

waste. In South Africa, the two well-known solid waste processing sites are at Athlone

in the Western Cape and Kempton Park in Gauteng.

Once the waste volume has been reduced, it is transported to final disposal sites. The

tranport costs of processed solid waste are characterized by a low unit cost compared

to the tranportation from collection points, to the facility.

The last operation is the disposal of the solid waste at the final disposal sites of which

landfills are the only characteristic disposal sites in South Africa.

The task of waste handling and procesing is tedious for waste that has not been sorted at

the collection point. This task is comparatively easier to manage when handling a

specifically identifiable waste type such as tyres. This is the case because used tyres, due

to their relatively bigger physical size compared to other solid waste types, are clearly

identifiable.

Separation of tyres into various sizes for ultimate disposal is also not a complex task.

Tractor tyres are clearly identifiable from truck or passenger vehicle tyres, and thus task of

appropriate disposal of each tyre category is less involved.

1.3 MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Increasing growth in the usage of vehicular mode of transport in South Africa and

elesewhere in the world, is beyond doubt. Such increasing growth has however, also

13

meant that more tyres are produced as well as imported to meet with the increasing

demand. A stage in the life-cycle of tyres is reached when they cannot be re-used anymore

and are ultimately discarded as waste. As a result, millions of worn-out tyres are discarded

each year. Depending on the waste management programme of the concerned area, used

tyres can pose an environmental disaster or a resourcesful endproduct.

In the light of the aforesaid, a forum was formed in 1992 in South Africa, by interested

parties within the tyre manufacturing and retail industry. This forum is made-up of the

South African Tyre Dealers Association (SATDA), the South African Tyre Manufacturers

Association (SATMA), Motor Industries Federation (MIF), as well as the National

Committee for the recycling in the tyre and rubber industry (TRR). This forum came to be

known as the South African Tyre Manufactures Conference (SATMC). This forum has

identified the problem of waste tyre disposal and has attempted to raise the level of

concern by engaging government in deliberations to ensure that waste tyre disposal is

streamlined.

The forum has suggested that a system of waste tyre recovery and disposal be put in

place. Prior to this intervention, the incentives to collect used tyres as part of waste

management and waste control appear to have been non-existant.

The assumption made in this research regarding used tyre problems is that manufactures

and importers of tyres in South Africa appear to have developed an interest regarding the

environmental concequences of waste resulting from used tyres and that, they are

involved in finding a solution to the accumulation and problem of disposal of used tyres.

The primary objective of this study is to explore methods that could be used to dispose of

used tyres as an aspect of solid waste management in South Africa. In other words, what

mechanisms are used and must be used for the disposal of used tyres that have become

part of solid waste?

14

In seeking a response to this question, this research will invariably provide an indication

regarding the current waste management strategy regarding used tyres. Investigating this

question must enable a better understanding of the current waste management practices

regarding used tyres, and also highlight any shortfalls. Therefore, the question that this

research seeks to find an answer to is expected to solicit a response that will be both a

practical initiative, as well as suggesting some policy issues regarding management of

used tyres. This is an exploratory study since it seeks to find out what the situation in

South Africa with regard to used tyres disposal mechanism is like.

It will be important that the question be responded to within the South African context and

therefore this research will seek clarity on the following issues:

Policy provisions for waste disposal and how such a policy impacts on tyre

manufactures' responsibilties

The number of tyres produced and imported in South Africa per annum

Document the current disposal of used tyres

The management of used tyres must be seen as an effort to address a special category of

waste type. This research will contribute to the efforts made with regard to solid waste

management, specifically in as far as the disposal of used tyres is concerned. The tyre

manufacturer may be interested to know what ultimately happens to the end-result of their

product, and possibly promote efforts in the appropriate disposal thereof to prevent any

negative impact of their product on the environment.

1.4 STUDY AREA

This research studies the problem of used tyre disposal in South Africa and how this

problem can be addressed. The generation of used tyres takes place throughout the

country, but quantities of such waste vary from one part of the country to the other.

The urban areas of Pretoria-Witwatersrand and Vereniging in the Gauteng province, the

Cape Town metropolis in Western Cape, the Uitenhage-Port Elizabeth in the Eastern

Cape, as well as the Durban-Pinetown area in Kwa-Zulu Natal, are economically advanced

15

parts of the country and are areas with the higher volume of vehicles. It is expected that

these urban centres are areas from which larger quantities of used tyres are generated. It is

in these urban areas that waste management problems are generally experienced and it is

also in these areas that the disposal of used tyres has to be addressed.

There are at present, four tyre manufactures in the country and more than a hundred tyre

dealers. The South African Tyre Manufactures Conference (SATMC) represents the

interests of the South African tyre manufactures and co-ordinates issues of common

interest to the local tyre manufactures. The SATMC is important to this research since

they provided some of the data used.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

The sequence followed in this research is depicted on Figure 3. This study primarily

follows a method based on primary research and literature review. The collection of

existing data on quantities of used tyres as well as on the disposal methods of used tyres is

limited to the existing literature as well as on information communicated to the researcher

during meetings with the SATMC and Rubber SA. From such literary study, information

on the quantities of used tyres disposed as well as the various options for the disposal of

used tyres will be deduced.

16

Introduction and Statement of the

problem

Legislation background

Data collection

s Literature Study different options

s Recommendations and

conclusions.

Figure 3. Flow diagram of the study

17

CHAPTER 2.

LITERARY BACKGROUND

Various aspects of waste management are controlled by a variety of acts, regulations,

minimum requirements, etc (Botha and Poolman: 1997). Legislation provides effective

mechanisms and framework to deal with waste and it is necessary at this point, to discuss

legislation applicable to waste management in South Africa.

The world over, legislation is the tool society uses to protect themselves and the

environment. As such, environmental legislation is a manifestation of a society 's

awareness of the need for environmental protection and management. In this regard South

Africa has like many other countries, a legal framework that enables environmental

management to be taken seriously.

It is generally accepted that laws embody ideas, prescribe processes and create

institutions. Environmental legislation that regulates waste management in South Africa is

not unified. It is scattered throughout various Acts and municipalities' by-laws. The

extend and success of waste management therefore, depends on the capacity of the

affected government department or municipality.

2.1 LEGISLATION CONTROLLING WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE RSA

In March 2000, a White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management was passed

for South Africa. It is envisaged that a Draft Bill will ensue from this White Paper and that

it will be circulated for comment before it gets passed by Parliament into an Act.

Although this White Paper and the envisaged Act do not effectively unify legislation on

waste management, it is a policy framework that will allow for legislation to be enacted

that would seek to integrate waste management at various levels. Until such legislation is

passed, the current waste management remains fragmented, unfocussed and ineffective.

Government departments such as those managing the environment, Water affairs, Health,

18

Trade and Industry, Tourism, Minerals and Energy, have to manage certain waste types

from their area of jurisdiction. The multidisciplinary nature of waste is such that legally,

the Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) manages all aspects of

waste other than its disposal, which is the responsibility of Water Affairs and Forestry

(DWAF) (Barnard, 1999: 308).

Considering that South Africa has a scattered regulatory framework governing waste

management and disposal, it is important to make reference to those legal and policy

initiatives that have a bearing on waste management in this country.

The National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), Act 107 of 1998, provides the

background against which waste management and pollution control is based. The ideals

that are promoted in NEMA are those that encourage pollution prevention, minimization

at the source, impact management and rehabilitation. Following NEMA, and also

realizing the fragmented nature of waste management regulations, the South African

government has initiated a process of formulating a National Waste Management Strategy

(NWMS). This strategy is expected to include implementation strategies to give effect to

the ideals of pollution prevention, minimization at source, impact management and

rehabilitation. The initiative of Intergrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM), is covered

under the NWMS.

Meanwhile, South Africa continues to generate waste and associated therewith, the

pollution of air, soil as well as water. Waste disposal practices are unsatisfactory.

Ineffective waste management as well as poor regulatory controls, allow waste producers

to externalise waste management costs on the environment and society. There continues to

be a lack of control in some aspects of waste management.

The following are some of the legal provisions or departments that are currently applicable

to address waste generation and disposal in South Africa.

19

2.1.1 The Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996)

Section 24 of the Bill of Rights (Chapter 2) in The Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996),

states that everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or

well-being, and to have the environment protected through, inter alia, the prevention of

pollution and environmental degradation, and through ecologically sustainable

development.

Tyres in themselves do not pose a threat to human health, but the consequences of

incorrect tyre disposal may pose this danger. This danger may arise from tyres being burnt

thus polluting the air, or when tyres serve as breeding ground for mosquitoes which may

carry some diseases.

2.1.2 Environment Conservation Act (ECA), 1987 (Act 73 of 1989)

According to Barnard (1999), some sections of the Environment Conservation Act (ECA),

1987 (Act 73 of 1989) will be repealed at an udetermined date in the future in line with the

provisions in NEMA. Waste management and disposal is regulated mainly in terms of

Section 20 of the ECA, 1987 (Act 73 of 1989). Section 20 prohibits any person from

establishing, providing or operating any disposal site without a permit issued by the

Minister of Water Affairs & Forestry. Subject to the provisions of any other law, waste

may not be discarded or disposed of in any other manner except at permitted disposal sites

or in a manner prescribed by the Minister of Environmental Affairs & Tourism

(Ball :1998).

In regulation R.1182 of September 1997, made in terms of section 21 of the ECA (Act 73

of 1989), the disposal of waste in terms of section 20 of the ECA was identified as an

activity which may have a substantial detrimental effect on the environment (Ba11:1998).

In terms of section 24 of the ECA, regulations regarding various aspects of waste

management may be made. These regulations are broad, covering various aspects of waste

management and include:

♦ The submission of statistics regarding the quantity and type of waste produced,

20

The classification of different types of waste, and the handling, storage, transportation

and disposal thereof, and

The recovery or re-use of waste.

These regulations provide for the tracking of waste to the manufacturer or importer, and

make them responsible for the ultimate disposal of their commodity or part thereof. If

implemented, these regulations would make it easier to quantify the amount and types of

waste as well as plan for appropriate disposal thereof.

2.1.3 National Water Act ( Act 36 of 1998)

The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) is responsible for the

implementation of he National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998). Until recently, the Water Act,

(Act 54 of 1956) remained the only operative Act governing water resources in the RSA.

In terms of section 23 of the Water Act, (Act 54 of 1956), the pollution of surface and

ground water was deemed to be an offence. The National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) has

introduced radical changes as far as water regulation in the RSA is concerned. However,

the principle that fosters the prevention of water pollution, as spelt out in Chapter 1 of the

NWA, is still paramount.

Where tyres are burnt, some of the rubber hydrocarbons, carbon black and other tyres

components, may pollute water in nearby streams. In that sense, whenever tyres are stored

in bulk, precautions must be taken to avoid water pollution should these tyres catch fire.

DWAF is also responsible for the regulation of waste disposal in South Africa. In this

respect they have produced three documents entitled "The Minimum Requirements in

waste management". These requirements are entitled:

Minimum requirements for waste disposal by landfill,

Minimum requirements for the handling and disposal of hazardous waste,

Minimum requirements for monitoring at waste management facilities.

In these documents, "minimum requirements" are defined as, "standards by means of

which environmentally acceptable waste disposal practices can be differentiated from

environmentally unacceptable waste disposal practices."

21

The emphasis by the minimum requirement documents in waste management is on the

identification of landfill disposal sites. The fundamental reason is to ensure that

underground water is not polluted by leachates from such landfill disposal sites. As tyres

are not classified as hazardous waste, they are grouped together with other solid waste

types. But unlike the general solid waste, tyres present problems to landfill disposal sites.

These problems form part of later discussions.

2.1.4 Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (Act 45 of 1965).

In terms of Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, (Act 45 of 1965), waste disposal is not

directly a concern, but waste incineration processes are listed as scheduled processes. In

terms of the Act, scheduled processes are those that result in negative impact on the

atmosphere.

Some of the scrap metal collectors whom burn tyres to derive steel, are causing air

pollution and are in contravention of the Air Pollution Prevention Act. The disposal of

tyres that may entail burning them in incinerators, kilns or open sites, must be done in

such a way that it does not lead to contravention of this Act.

2.1.5 Transboundary movement of hazardous waste

International law regulates the disposal or movement of waste from one country to the

other. In March 1989, 116 countries and the European Community became signatories to

the Basel Convention on the control of transboundary movements of hazardous waste and

their disposal (CSIR, 1991: 215). This convention contains in its definition of hazardous

waste, those that have among others, a characteristic of being flammable or are

combustible. As tyres have these characteristics, it would be in contravention of the

convention if used tyres were moved across borders, unless importing countries consent in

writing.

22

Air and water are specifically guarded by their comprehensive statutes; the Atmospheric

Pollution Prevention Act (Act 45 of 1965) and the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998)

respectively. It is in the area of land-based pollution and waste management that the

regulatory statutes are scattered, dispersed and generally uncoordinated (CSIR: 1991).

Since discarded tyres may impact on the environment negatively, the properties of tyres

will now be discussed.

2.2 WHAT MAKES TYRES AN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM?

Since this research is about the options in the disposal of used tyres, it is important to

understand the make-up of a typical tyre. The following section highlights the unique

properties of tyres in terms of their chemical as well as physical composition. This will

help to clarify why used tyres require special attention when they are to be disposed.

2.2.1 Properties of tyres

A tyre is a rubber article with a complicated structure. Advancement in science and

technology have influenced the methods of tyre manufacturing. It has also increased the

variety and technical qualities of tyres. Tyres are manufactured for a variety of vehicular

purposes. These include among others, passenger cars, vans, trucks, earth moving

equipment, agricultural vehicles, aircraft and military vehicles.

The most significant in this research, are motor car, van and truck tyres, which according

to the Technical Guide (unpublished), represents about 85% of the total number of

manufactured tyres. Figure 4 provides an indication of the average chemical composition

of a used car tyre. From this Figure, the resource value of tyres may be deduced. It is clear

that the obvious components of a tyre are rubber, carbon black and steel which all

together constitute about 78% of the average weight of a used passenger car tyre. Since

these components may be separately harnessed for their resourse value, any plan regarding

the disposal option of tyres must consider their dominant components and how these

components can be accessed and utilized.

23

43%

Rubber Hydrocarbon

Carbon Black*

Steel

Textiles

LI Zinc oxide

Sulphur

Additives

20% * Part of the Carbon Black may be replaced by silica for certain type of tyres.

Figure 4. Average composition in weight % of used passenger car tyres.

( Adapted from Technical Guide: Unpublished)

Again focussing on material composition of tyres, Table 2 presents comparative figures

between passenger and heavy goods vehicles. The material components between the two

classes are basically similar. The difference lies in quantities of raw materials that are used

in each class.

Table 2. Physical properties of passenger car and truck tyres (ETRA, 998:06)

Type of tyre Kilograms %Rubber %Steel %Textile %Other

Passenger car 6.5 70% 18% 8% 4%

Heavy Goods vehicle 55-80 70% 25% 1% 4%

When burnt, a tyre is said to produce between 32 and 34 MJ/kg (million joules per

kilogram) of energy (Technical Guide: unpublished). Burning a tonne of tyres is

equivalent to burning a tonne of good quality coal or 0,7 tonne of fuel oil (Technical

Guide, unpublished).

24

• Waste / Discarded tyres

Roadworthy •

• Used tyres

V Retreaded tyres

Scrap tyres

The energy value of tyres is therefore noticebly remarkable. As tyres are chemically

composed of hydrocarbons, their combustion produces carbon dioxide, water plus inert

residues. The sulphur emissions, approximately 1%, are comparable to a low sulphur

content coal, or a very low sulphur content fuel oil (Technical Guide: unpublished). Used

tyres may therefore provide an alternative energy source to coal. The environmental

benefit thereof will be significant considering that coal is a non-renewable resource.

2.2.2 Life-span of tyres

Tyres are an advanced form of the wheel. Before they get discarded and end up as waste,

tyres are used in various modes of transport. Once the tyre casing gets worn out, they are

either retreaded or if the tyres are beyond retreading, they are disposed of as waste. What

ultimately happens to discarded tyres is of concern to this research. Figure 5 depicts the

life-span of a tyre form its roadworthy state to a stage where it gets discarded as waste.

Figure 5. Schematic representation of the life-span of tyres

The diagram indicates that tyres ultimately end up as waste and waste has to be properly

disposed of. Waste that is not properly disposed of adds to various other environmental

problems, a matter that is besides the focus of this research.

25

2.2.3 Potential Risk to the Environment

As tyres are a complex chemical product and are produced in large quantities, the risk that

they pose to the environment as waste has been investigated by various institutions around

the world. This was done to assess the environmental threat that may result from the use of

tyres. Some of the findings of these studies are summarised in the following paragraphs;

In 1995, studies were carried at the Pasteur Institute in Lille (France), using rubber

powder generated from tyre treads. Tests were done on Algae S. Cpricricornutum (a

type of plant), Daphnia magnia (Fish) Brachydanio rerio (a type of fresh fish). These

studies showed no toxicity in powdered rubber from tyre treads (Technical Guide,

unpublished: 05).

In 1996, a supplemental study tittled : "Determination of Acute Toxicity as per ISO

11268/1 — Observation of the effect of tyre powder rubber on a population of

earthworms placed in a definite substratum" was done at the request of the Bureau de

Liaison des Industries du Caoutchouc de I'U.E.( BLIC) in Belgium, using standardised

norms— at the Pasteur Institute in Lyon. These tests also, showed no toxicity

(Technical Guide, unpublished: 05).

According to the Technical Guide (unpublished: 05), a report published in September

1989 by Radian Corporation at the request of the Rubber Manufactures Association

(RMA) in the United States, to assess levels of chemicals leached from RMA

products showed that there was no threat to ground or surface water.

The above studies tend to varify the statement by Urban Solid Waste (USW) classification

in Fuggle and Rabie (1992: 495), which identifies tyres as inert type of solid waste. Inert

type of waste is the type that does not exert a negative impact on the environment, unless

they are disposed of in disposal sites not dermacated for that purpose. Disposing tyres at

these unacceptable sites, brings about other environmental problems especially those

26

resulting from a fire outbreak. This fact emphasises the need for proper waste

management regarding the disposal of used tyres. Such waste management depends on the

economic and industrial conditions of a particular country or part thereof.

In this research, it is important to indicate how in South Africa, used tyres are being

disposed of. It is also important to provide guidelines regarding options that may be

followed when disposing off used tyres.

2.2.4 Used tyres as part of solid waste

The problem with tyre disposal within the solid waste stream is that tyres do not decay and

if burned, they resurface as they are of lower density than the surrounding soil. If they are

landfilled, they give an unstable surface to any landfill and the ground cannot

subsequently be used for building. On the surface, they are a fire risk. It is in that light,

according to McColl and Griffiths (2002:27), that most parts of the UK want to have tyre

disposal at landfill sites banned by 2006 and have issued directives such as the Landfill

and the Vehicle Directives which are meant to be legislative drivers for re-use, recycling

and recovery of components from vehicles.

Used tyres that are discarded must be classified as "special waste" considering their size,

shape and chemical nature. This must also be done considering that used tyres are not

generally disposed of with household waste. They however end up with other general

solid waste usually destined for landfill sites.

In Britain, many county councils refuse to grant tip operators a licence to bury whole tyres

because they take up large amounts of increasingly valuable landfill space and pose a

constant fire hazard (Pearce, 1993:13). As a result, provision was made in the

Environmental Protection Act (EPA) which imposed a "duty of care" on waste producers

including tyre manufactures and distributors, to ensure that their products are safely

disposed of. This however made the cost of tyre disposal to be high. As a result,

unscrupulous waste dealers were used by tyre manufactures and distributors to dispose

27

used tyres on their behalf. These unscrupulous dealers simply dumped such tyres at

isolated stretches of rivers and abandoned them, such as it has happened over the Pennines

in Yorkshire (Pearce, 1993:14) and in the USA (Stark, 1989: 149).

The population of used tyres is exacerbated by the fact that South Africa has vast open

spaces and used tyre is thinly spread over the entire country. Except for the major cities,

the disposal of used tyres may not appear to be a major concern.

For used tyres, the problem may not be an immediate threat to life. But as it has happened

in some parts of the world, used tyres present serious problems especially those that result

from fire out-breaks. On the 30 October 1989 for example, fire was set to a waste tip

containing millions of used tyres in a secluded river valley near Knighton (Britain) and the

smouldering of these tyres continued for more than four years (Pearce, 1993:13). Similar

occurrences were reported at Oldbury (in 1992), Kent Village of Marden (in 1993) and

during the same year in Sheffield.

The formulation of a waste management strategy for used tyres therefore, must consider

the numbers not only of locally manufactured, but of imported tyres as well that enters the

market.

The reason that makes tyre disposal a problem is that industry has not developed any

effective large-scale means of utilizing this negative value resource (Stark, 1989: 149).

The conventional wisdom of using tyres for fuel or as an additive to asphalt has economic

limitations. Most of the proposed "miracle cures" to the tyre disposal problem in the US

fail to stand up to strict scrutiny, and therefore local units of government, faced with the

growing tyre disposal problem, have to take the matters into their own hands (Stark, 1989:

150). This scenario of other countries, provides an indication of the extend of problems

regarding waste tyre management that South Africa may soon also experience. There is a

need to be pro-active and avoid uncontrolled dumping of tyres.

28

Similar trends may be deduced for South Africa. With increasing population and the

increased use of vehicular mode of transport, tyre usage is bound to result in increased

volumes of used tyres that must be discarded.

Regulations governing tyre tread thickness have a bearing on the rate of waste tyre

generation. Although Britain has been labelled Europe 's dumping ground for tyres, most

of them are coming from Germany where tyres must have a tread thickness of at least 2

millimetres compared to 1,6 millimetres in Britain, it still exports more tyres than it

imports (Pearce, 1993:14). Japan also exports a very large percentage of its used tyres to

international markets (Fisher and Evans, Jr.,1993).

SA has put a legal minimum tyre tread thickness of 1,2mm. Although slightly lower than

that of the European countries, there is a huge market for imported second hand tyres in

this country and like many other less developed countries, these tyres add to the stockpile

of waste generated in this country after they have been used for a short duration.

29

CHAPTER 3.

DATA COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The data collection phase of the research process is of cardinal importance, as the analysis

from which all conclusions are reached, may be influenced by the type and quality of data

collected. In this regard, the following data have been collected in order for this research

to provide responses to questions that it seeks to address:

Data quantifying the number of tyres manufactured, as well as those imported in South

Africa. This will enable a comprehension of the number of used tyres that the country

has to dispose of annually.

Data quantifying the number of used tyres generated in South Africa and which have

to be disposed of.

To establish the number of used tyres generated around the RSA, two types of survey

questionnaire forms were designed (see Appendix B):

One was sent to municipalities,

The other was sent to tyre dealers in different municipalities. In the same

questionnaire, the disposal method of used tyres that municipalities follow is also

solicited.

Substantial amounts of data are secondary as they are provided by the South African Tyre

Manufactures Conference (SATMC). They have access to the business details of local tyre

manufactures and the quantities of tyres imported in South Africa. Each of the local tyre

manufactures sends their business report to an auditing firm. It is from such audits that the

number of tyres produced in the country is derived. In this way, the quantity of locally

manufactured tyres is easy to establish.

30

The data that have been generated from questionnaires were also based on figures that

have been estimated by respondents. However, the figures have not been verified for the

purpose of this research. The data on the number of locally manufactured tyres as well as

imported tyres were collected by the SATMC. With the assistance the Department of

Water Affairs, the SATMC also collected data on the number of discarded tyres at various

places throughout the country.

Due to lack of proper control, a number of tyres are illegally imported into South Africa.

This makes it difficult to establish the quantities of used tyres we are producing with any

accuracy.

3.2 SOURCE AREAS AND GENERATION OF USED TYRES

Tyres are a worldwide problem when they become waste. Each year, new accumulations

are added to these billions which have been stock-piled in landfill disposal sites, as well as

unaccounted millions found in illegal dumping sites, warehouses, and throughout

mountains and valleys. Their relatively bigger size compared to other waste types and the

fact that they are flammable, make them a particularly nagging concern.

About 10 million tyres are being dumped annually in South Africa (The Star, Feb 19:

2001). Estimates put annual accumulation of used tyres in the European Union at about

250 million and comparable numbers amassed in Eastern Europe, North America, Latin

America, Japan, the Middle East, among others , totaling almost a billion new waste tyres

per year (ETRA,1998: 03).

Used tyres are generated almost everywhere where vehicles are used. In South Africa, as

in other parts of the world, tyres which do not meet national standards for road use (i.e.

tread depth in motor vehicle tyres and cannot be retreaded ) are collected from a range of

sources.

31

Some of the common areas which tend to accumulate discarded tyres include the

following:

Used tyres are generated from ordinary consumers and are generally disposed of

with household waste to landfills or lie around in some residential areas,

Fleet service companies such as vehicle rental companies and bus companies,

Automobiles and truck concessionaires including Governments' (fleets of cars,

buses, lorries, construction and maintanance equipment, delivery vans and trucks,

etc.),

Tyre importers and distributors,

Vehicle service centres/ stations, tyre dealers and tyre retreaders,

Car dismantlers,

Rejects from manufactures and retreaders.

The other common source of tyres that ultimately contribute to waste are those that are

confiscated by customs and police authorities when they are illegally imported into the

country. All of the abovementioned sources provide an indication of the areas which face

problems when they have to dispose of bulks of used tyres and therefore, it is mainly from

these areas that such used tyres can be collected for appropriate disposal.

Considering international trends, there is currently no single method for calculating the

number of tyres available in each member state of the European Union. Some states take a

direct count (Sweden), others use estimates based upon new tyre sales (Greece, Italy), and

some others use a fixed number such as five to indicate the number of tyres per car (UK)

(ETRA,1998:03). As a result, numerous factors cause discrepencies when comparisons of

culculations of tyre availability in different countries are attempted.

In South Africa, numerous factors are considered in caculating the total number of used

tyres generated. These factors include estimates based on the number of:

Locally manufactured tyres

Legally imported tyres

Motor vehicles

32

The rate of waste tyre accumulation varies between areas. There are regional disparities of

waste tyre production and Table 3 indicates calculations that are based on the motor

vehicle population in South Africa in 1998. From this table, it can be seen that almost half

of the total number of discarded tyres in South Africa comes from the Gauteng province

Table 3. Estimate of used tyres in the RSA (Adapted from SATMC: 1998).

No Source Number of discarded

tyres per year

(Units)

% of total

1 Gauteng 3 924 712 42,1%

2 KZ Natal 1 511 116 16.2%

3 W Cape 1 290 958 13,8%

4 E Cape 516 009 5,5%

5 Mpumalanga 615 920 6.6%

6 Free State 479 397 5,1%

7 North West 391 298 4,2%

8 Northern Cape 213 955 2,3%

9 Limpopo Province 387 865 4,2%

Total 9 331 230 100%

In early 1998, the indications were that more than nine million tyres were entering the tyre

market per annum. More than a quarter percentage of this number is found in the Gauteng

Province, since this province has a larger volume of vehicles than other provinces. Over

the years, this figure is more likely to have increased with the increase in the number of

motor vehicles. This figure provides a means around which planning can be based for

disposal options that may be considered.

33

It is also important for planning purposes, to consider the estimated number of used tyres

that are dumped in the open veld including mine dumps, ditches and open spots outside

the built-up urban areas. Where feasible, these tyres and their remains will have to be

collected for appropriate disposal. Table 4 provides figures of discarded tyres for 1998

that were dumped in the open veld.

Table 4. Estimate of tyres disposed and accumulated in the veld in the RSA. (Adapted

from SATMC: 1998).

No Source Estimated stockpile

in the veld

% of total

1 Gauteng 13 098 172 46.8%

2 KZ Natal 3 871 787 13.8%

3 W Cape 3 542 273 12%

4 E Cape 1 542 273 5%

5 Mpumalanga 1 517 136 5%

6 Free State 1 438 190 5%

7 North West 1 173 893 4%

8 Northern Cape 641 865 2%

9 Limpopo Province 1 163 595 4%

Total 27 989 184 100%

Again these figures indicate that there are larger quantities of such tyres in the Gauteng

province, for reasons previously mentioned. With such large quantities of used tyres not

systematically disposed of, the problem of environmental pollution due to poor waste

management is worsened. All of the pictures 1 to 4 on Appendices A point to the problem

of tyre dumping that is emerging. A method of waste tyre recovery that will be both cost-

effective and sustainable is therefore important.

34

3.3 QUANTITIES OF TYRES AND THEIR DISPOSAL METHODS

Tyres are of different makes and are used for various purposes. In 2002, the SATMC

provided the data, as reflected in Table 5, of the number and specifics of tyres that are sold

annually. The figure may be expected to vary with increasing use of motor vehicles.

Table 5. Quantities of tyres entering the market annually (Human 2002).

Class of

tyres

SA local

production

Retread

production

New

imported

Casings

imported

Total

Passenger 4 600 000 920 000 1 267 500 1 600 000 8 387 500

Lt Bias 324 000 324 000

Lt Radial 1 652 000 81 250 1 733 250

Trk Steel 271 000 271 000

Mining 273 000 218 400 195 000 400 000 1 086 400

Earth Mover 10 000 10 000

Tractor Front 8 000 81 250 89 250

Tractor Rear 76 000 76 000

73 000 73 000

TOTAL 7 287 000 1 138 400 1 625 000 2 000 000 12 050 400

Table 5 provides an indication that more than 12 million tyres of various makes enter the

market annually. Apart from passenger car tyres, vehicles used in civil work such as in

roads and mining are making use of large quantities of tyre material. Providing for a

proper disposal of these tyres once they are discarded, is a challenge for the RSA in the

same way as it has become in Europe and the USA. The challenge however, is more with

the passenger car tyres which are generated in larger quantities and therefore ultimately

have to be disposed of once scrapped.

Three hundred municipalities and tyre dealers responded to a questionnaire (see Appendix

B) that was sent randomly to each. The responses were recorded as they were received and

35

in some instances, indications are that one questionnaire received different responses from

the same dealer or municipality. The purpose of the questionnaires were to find out if

there was any record keeping regarding the amounts of used tyres generated as well as

find out if there was any consistency in disposing such used tyres at landfill sites.

The information on tyre disposal system is non-existent and responses are estimates from

officials who completed the questionnaires.

On the questionnaire, the following questions were investigated;

Location; includes both the councils and the tyre dealers,

Landfilled; seeks to find if (Yes) tyres are landfilled or (No) they are not,

Costs; refers to the costs incurred where the disposal site accepts used tyres,

Generated; seeks to find out the number of used tyres that comes from a

particular locality.

The following table summarises the responses the questionnaires.

Table 6. Summary of responses to the questionnaire

Respondents Landfilled Costs per tyre in Rands

Burnt Generated

333

Yes No Highest Lowest Yes No Highest Lowest

180 153 9 12 5 79 242 5 000000 3 000000

The information received through this questionnaire indicates that there is no systematic

record keeping with regard to the generation of used tyres. There are respondents who

even went to the extend of indicating that there were no discarded tyres generated from

their sites. There is also no knowledge of what ultimately happens to tyres that have

become waste and have to be disposed.

36

The data provide no indication of any systematic disposal plans available or operative, and

points to the huge gap that exists regarding management plans for appropriate disposal of

discarded tyres. Indications are that discarded tyres are largely treated like all other solid

waste materials and are disposed of at landfills.

Landfill operators in South Africa reluctantly accept used tyres and in many cases refuse

to accept them for disposal. In many cases, they demand such high fees for their disposal

that they effectively eliminate used tyres from their waste stream. This has led to illegal

dumping or stockpiling of used tyres. Few of the respondents indicate that there is some

payment made for the disposal of used tyres at landfill sites.

The figures provided points to a lack of strategy to address the problem of used tyres. It is

important at this stage to discuss options that may be considered and that could be part of

the national strategy to address this waste type.

37

CHAPTER 4:

OPTIONS TOWARDS WASTE TYRE DISPOSAL

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Although South Africa produces large quantities of used tyres, there is no plan of dealing

with such type of waste. Used tyres therefore continue to accumulate at various sites

haphazardly. This points to the need to introduce schemes that will consume large

quantities of used tyres to address a growing problem resulting from their haphazard

dumping. Since nothing is in place to address the problem of used tyres, it is important to

discuss options that may be considered and that could be part of the national strategy to

address this waste type. The following sections discuss possible options that may be

considered in waste tyre disposal.

The general philosophy in waste management is to follow the four rs namely; reduce

waste generation, re-use material in original form, recycle to re-make the original form

and recover material from waste and use them elsewhere. This general philosophy as will

be shown in the forthcoming discussions, does find application with regard to the

management of used tyres.

Figure 6 provides a summary of the various possible routes that a tyre may follow once it

has been used and has become scrap. Once they cannot be retreaded anymore, waste tyres

may find various physical applications in their intact form. Alternatively, such tyres may

also be of use once they have been shredded into crumb. Furthermore, waste tyres may

undergo various chemical processes to extract their components for further use or be

incinerated for energy generation.

38

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Rub

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Car

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(1)

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INNIIIMM•111, 1

tyre

s. (

UN

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Fig

ure

6. R

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4.2 SOURCE REDUCTION

The quantities of wastes produced are increased by unsustainable patterns of production and

consumption (Sitarz, 1994:222). Tyre manufacturers, like most other manufatures, seem not

to regard their environmental obligations in as far as environmentally-friendly disposal of

used tyres, as of significance. The concern appears to be more of productions and

consumption of their product and not what ultimately happens once the product enters the

waste stream. The motivation seem to be inclined towards improving the technical reliance of

tyres, such as its grip, tread wear, rolling resistance and stability. All these have to do with

tyre performance during its life-time. Efforts must rather be directed at manufacturing tyres

that have a longer life-span so that they do not have to be disposed of as waste quickly.

Competitive tyre manufactures expect their product to last over an increasingly higher

mileage. This factor of tyre life span could be included as a source of competition among tyre

manufacturers. The reduction in the resultant used tyres generated is dependent on a

consumer who in striving to get the highest possible mileage from their tyres. In so doing,

such a consumer help to reduce the frequency and number of used tyres generated. Since tyre

consumers would naturally be inclined to obtain the highest milage on their tyres, effeciency

of use is therefore enforced by economic factors.

Importation of tyres without quality check-controls may also encourage the dumping of poor

quality products in this country. Poor quality tyres have a short life-span and therefore

exarcebates the problem of waste tyre generation and accumulation. Such poor quality tyres

find their way onto the market at numerous poorly manned custom points in South Africa.

Imported tyres are offered at low prices, but as they were not manufactured for the local

climatic conditions, they wear or are damaged far too quickly and increase the rate at which

used tyres are generated.

Source reduction does not imply that waste will not be generated. It only means that waste

tyre generation will be reduced. Correct tyre usage in vehicles which include fitting correct

types of tyres, maintaining correct tyre pressure as well as rotating and alligning tyres

40

regularly are basic measures that not only increase the life-span of tyres, but also improves

the safety of tyre usage on vehicles. Public awareness is neccesary to built appropriate

attitudes towards tyre usage. This, together with effective policing of legislation governing

tyre tread depth, will contribute to the minimisation of the generation of non-retreadable used

tyres that have to be disposed of as waste.

Once tyres are worn-out untill they are smooth, they are not suitable for retreading and have

to be disposed of as waste. The number of scrap casings that can be retreaded in South Africa

is less than the demand. As a result, casings may are imported into South Africa for

retreading purposes. It is estimated that more than 60% of retreaded tyres sold in South

Africa is from imported casings (SATMC,1998:03). Some of these imported casings are

directly sold off as second hand tyres to unsuspecting buyers and shortly thereafter they add

to the amount of waste that the RSA have to dispose of.

Up to 1999, all that was required to import goods was a permit from the Department of

Trade and Industry. Customs and the Department of Trade and Industry did not keep a

record of the number of tyres imported into South Africa (South African Tyre Recycling

Project, 1998). If the country is not able to measure the number of used tyres it may be

generating, it will not make the effort of effective planning for their disposal. Records of

imported tyres need to be kept to enable for effective planning for their ultimate disposal .

The other alternative after waste reduction, is to turn waste into something useable. This can

be done by means of retreading and material recovery.

4.3 RETREADING

As the costs of waste disposal increase, waste recycling as well as resource recovery are

becoming cost effective (Sitarz, 1994:224). Resource-efficient approaches to waste

management and control is becoming an environmentally viable option. Recycling is an

important factor in helping to reduce the demand on resources and the amount of waste

requiring disposal by landfilling (Tchobanoglous, et al, and 1993:16).

41

Recycling involves;

the collection and separation of waste materials,

the preparation of these materials for re-use, processing, and re-manufacture and

the re-processing, re-manufacture and re-use of these materials.

For tyres, the highest technical value is obtained when worn-out tyres are repaired or

retreaded and then re-used. Retreading is a form of recycling. According to Chiras

(2001:586), recycling conserves resoursces, alleviates furure resouce shortages, reduces

energy demand and decreases solid waste disposal and incineration.

The process of tyre re-use involves recovery of worn-out, but undamaged tyre casings and

removing whatever is left of the original tread. A fresh patterned tread is then applied to

these old casings. This method of waste management delays and reduces the amount of waste

that would otherwise had to be handled. Suitable undamaged casings are thus given an

extended useful life. This is so, considering that through retreading, about 80% of the

original material value of a tyre is available for re-use (Technical Guide, unpublished: 08).

According to the South African Tyre Recycling Project (1998), the cost of retreaded

passenger car tyres is generally 30 to 50% less than the cost of new tyres. The discarded tyre

is transformed by grinding and reclaiming of a material which can be used by mixing into

fresh rubber compounds or used as material modifiers (Smith, 1986:36). The tyre-retreading

industry is fulfilling the function of material re-use. They provide for the re-use of material

that would otherwise have become waste.

Much of the US industry and Government supports the use of retreaded tyres. An executive

order requiring federal agencies to replace original tyres with retreaded ones was signed in

1993 by the US President, George Bush. According to South African Tyre Recycling Project

(1998), up to 80% of the tyres used by the commercial airlines and military jet aircraft in the

US are retreaded tyres. In the RSA, all South African Airways (SAA) aircraft and

government vehicles use retreads. The approximate number of units that are annually

retreaded are indicated in Table 7.

42

Table 7. Approximate number of units retreaded annually in South Africa. South

African Tyre Recycling Project (1998).

TYPE OF TYRE NUMBER RETREADED

Passenger tyres 900 000

LDV tyres 380 000

Truck Tyres 900 000

TOTAL 2 180 000

Recycling saves natural resources and cuts the energy needed to make new products. It can

even result in job creation for the tyre collectors and processors. In the US, 33 jobs are

created for every 10 000 tons of material recycled, compared to seven jobs if the material is

landfilled (The Star, 1996). The recycling of tyres through retreading, if it becomes a viable

option may create employment for the informal tyre collectors as well as in retreading

industries.

The re-use option for worn tyres can be achieved through retreading. Much effort is being put

into tyre development and design to make a lighter tyre and to reduce the rolling resistance of

tyres (Human, 2004). Such technical improvements increase the lifespan of a tyre thus

reducing the quantities of tyres that ultimately accumulate as waste.

4.4 MATERIAL RECOVERY

The costs of processing used tyres vs. the value of the end product, its replacement potential

and the unwanted constituents inherent in rubber tyres make the economics questionable

(Spagnoli, et al, 1999:01). However, when tyres cannot be used for their intended original

purpose any further, consideration must be given to their physical and chemical composition,

which could allow recovery of some useful compounds. Recovery methods are divided into

three main approaches of materials recovery, energy recovery and re-use in a whole or part

form for miscellaneous physical purposes.

43

It is important to know what tyres are made of so as to know what material can be derived

once these tyres are. discarded. Table 8 and Figure 4 (p.24) respectively indicate the average

material and chemical composition of a tyre.

Table 8. Average composition of a tyre. (South African Tyre Recycling Project, 1998).

Compound Percentage

Natural rubber 11%

Synthetic rubber 21%

Reclaimed rubber 4%

Filler (soot, silicon dioxide) 37%

Zinc Oxide 1,2%

Softening oils 3%

Sulphur 1.35%

Sundry matters 3.5%

Beading, textiles, fibre and steel 18%

TOTAL 100%

It can be deduced from Table 8 that rubber and steel constitute the major physical component

of a tyre. Figure 4 (P. 24) on the other hand, indicates that carbon is about the major chemical

constituent of a tyre and this can be explained from the large amount of rubber that makes up

a tyre.

The composition of tyres makes them a valuable resource for various materials that may be

recovered such as rubber, steel and fibre. When material recovery is made from waste, the

process is called waste transformation. Waste transformation involves the physical, chemical,

and biological alteration of wastes (Tchobanoglous, et al, 1993:16).

In the US, a number of states like North Carolina and Illinois are providing grants to

stimulate markets for products made from scrap tyre rubber, while states like Texas and New

York are developing new civil engineering applications for the material (Ferrell and Block,

1999:01). This confirms the significant resource value of used tyres that must be exploited.

44

The aim of waste transformation is:

To improve the efficiency of solid waste management operations and systems,

To recover re-usable and recyclable materials and

To recover conversion products and energy in the form of combustible biogas.

As a result of waste transformation, the need for landfill sites required for the final waste

material that cannot be transformed any further is reduced. This results from volume

reduction of the original waste material during waste transformation. Since tyres by their

nature, occupy a relatively larger volume per unit space in landfills compared to other waste

types, their physical or chemical transformation prior to disposal would be ideal.

In considering options available for the disposal of used tyres, it must be acknowledged that

the use of recycled material has limited response. Holmes, et al, (1993:457) argue that the

traditional emphasis of controlling waste after it has been generated is less effective. Efforts

should instead be focussed on reducing the amounts of waste generated followed by

emphasis on resource recovery and recycling. The problem is said to be attributed to the

relative abundance of natural resources compared to the dispersed nature of material that has

to be recycled and has to be collected at cost. Virgin material is of higher quality and quality

control is easier. The processing technologies are designed to use virgin material and the use

of recycled material will require technological investments.

Although it is important to take economic factors into consideration when decisions about

material recovery are made, these factors must not be considered in isolation. Other factors to

be considered may include that there is a reduction in the amount of solid waste which means

less pollution, an improvement in the quality of the neighbourhood and the environment in

general (Judais, 1986:03).

Similarly, the recovery and recycling of tyre materials will have an immediate effect of

pollution reduction. It is important at this point to discuss some available technologies such

as cryogenic, shredding and pyrolysis that can be used to encourage material recovery from

discarded tyres.

45

4.4.1 Cryogenic technology

As mentioned already, tyres are made from a variety of raw materials (see Tables 2 and Figure

4) with steel and rubber being the most common. Since tyres are largely made of rubber, this

resource can be reclaimed by means of grinding used tyres through what is known as

Cryogenic technology. This process involves cooling tyres to minus 195,8 °C using liquid

nitrogen, making it possible for the tyre to be brittle (Kohler, n.d). The idea with this

technology is to freeze tyres and embrittle them thereafter in a harmer mill or granulator.

The tyre is then broken and separated into its major components of rubber and steel. Rubber

recovered in the process may be used for a variety of purposes including:

As raw material in the rubber industry

Flooring for indoor and outdoor sports

Roofing material

Carpet underlay

Thermoplastic and rubber blends

Road surfaces (modification of bitumen with rubber)

The use of tyre material for playground surfaces, as done in the US, is a practice worth

emulating. In numerous cities there, including Atlanta, Detroit, Minneapolis, Chicago and

Baltimore, tyres have been used for the construction of playgrounds (Lasoff, 2000:02).

The cryogenic process entails some expenses and would have to be economically viable to be

pursued. According to the South African Tyre Recycling Project (1998), the following

primary factors have to be considered when deciding on implementing cryogenic as an

option for waste tyre management and disposal:

About 0,42 tonnes of nitrogen is required for every tonne of used tyres to produce

rubber granules of 1mm to 5mm sizes.

Approximately 85 kW/h of energy is consumed for material production from 1 tonne

of used tyres

A high throughput of about 3 million tyres are required for the process to be viable

46

The above factors indicate the need for massive capital outlay and huge operating costs to

establish and maintain this technology. Considering the above, the fact that the costs of liquid

nitrogen are increasing as well as a scarce market for cryogenic products, this technology

may not be economically viable.

4.4.2 Tyre shredding

Tyre shredding is done to provide a raw material in a form of crumb or to reduce the volume

of tyres before landfilling. Crumb could be regarded as useful raw material and a major

contributor in addressing the used tyre disposal problem. Crumb rubber is any material

derived by reducing scrap tyre or other rubber into granules with the inherent reinforcing

materials such as steel and fibre removed along with any other type of inert contaminants

such as dust, glass, or rock. In Europe and the USA, rubber crumb is used as a modifier or an

addition to asphalt.

The other material that can be recovered from the process of tyre shredding is steel. High

quality steel is used to reinforce tyres to improve their safety level. Some metal collectors

bum tyres to recover this steel. The average market value of this steel is about 40 cents per

tyre. Burning tyres in the open veld however, results in excessive air pollution. This method

of waste disposal and material recovery must be discouraged.

4.4.3 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a process in which organic material is decomposed at high temperature in either

an oxygen-free or low-oxygen atmosphere (Human: 2004). Unlike incineration, which is an

exothermic combustion reaction with air, pyrolysis requires the application of heat indirectly

to produce products that are potentially useful as fuels and chemical raw materials. The

purpose is to break the tyre into its original components of oil, gas and char. Pyrolysis

products of oil, gas and char could be sold at commercial prices outside the rubber industry.

47

There is value in going the pyrolysis route. One of the primary benefits is that the products

obtained, namely liquid hydrocarbons, coke residue or carbon black and gas, have properties

that would allow their easy reuse.

4.5 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCE

Incineration of waste has generally become an acceptable and integral element of a waste

management strategy. Comparatively, Denmark incinerates 60% of its waste, Netherlands

and Sweden burn about one-third, whilst the US incinerates 17% of its soilid waste (Chiras,

2001:582). Since tyres are largely composed of hydrocarbons, they may provide an

alternative non-fossil fuel resource when they are incinerated. Used tyres can reduce virgin

fuel amounts by supplying about 25 percent of the energy required to produce cement in

kilns, as discovered by more than 100 US cement facilities and electric power plants (Siuru,

1998:01).

According to David (1993), 30% of today's used tyres can be re-used in alternate products,

and the number is on the rise with waste-to-energy being the current largest market for used

tyres. Tyres may therefore be burnt to provide energy for the production of steam,

electricity, cement, lime paper, steel, and in the incineration of other waste material. In SA,

specific kilns that are so designed as to burn tyres have to be identified, in order to support

the continuous intake of used tyres. These kilns also have to have a reliable inflow of these

tyres to justify the costs incurred in their re-design.

New York State Electric & Gas Corporation, the first utility in the US to burn used tyres, has

burned more than 1.3 million tyres to generate power (Milner, 1992). This alternate fuel

saved more than 16 000 tons of coal to a month's normal consumption at this plant (Telsa,

1994:01). Oxford Energy Inc. (Santa Rosa) has been pursuing the incineration of tyres since

1987 and they are burning 5 million used tyres per year (Valenti, 1991:108). Similarly,

Britain has developed a tyre incinerator at Elm Energy and Recycling, in the town of

Wolverhampton in the West Midlands. At this plant, up to 90 000 tonnes of rubber is burnt

annually generating enough power (about 25 megawatts) to supply a small town with

48

electricity (Pearce, 1993:14). The large decline in the number of tyres disposed of at landfills

in the UK has been due to the successful implementation of the Elm Energy tyres for energy

operation. Other international tyre burning plants include:

Germany - Gmunden

Switzerland — Eclepens Siggenthal

USA — Midlothian, Dundee, Ash Grove, Seattle

Brazil — Sorocaba

Canada — St- Consatant

France — Eataque

UK — Caudon, Sheffield

Sweden — Skovia

Austria - Eiberg

Japan — Kumangaya

Sri Lanka — Colombo (EPA:1991)

Since a burning tyre generates almost as much heat as an equivalent weight of coal, the

"non-fossil fuel" nature of tyres could provide an alternative energy source to coal (Pearce,

1993:14). However, using tyres as an alternative source of fuel might create other

environmental problems especially those regarding air pollution. The extend of air pollution

depend on the efficiency with which tyres are burnt. The Elm Energy and Recycling plant

has installed no less than three systems for cleaning up its emisions (Pearce, 1993:14). Apart

from the UK, this option according to Taylor (2002:27), has been successful in Belgium and

Germany. In these instances therefore, the level of sulphur dioxide emmisions into the

atmosphere are comparable to those of coal , or a very low sulphur content fuel oil. A case

for the use of tyres as a substitute for a similar quality coal is worth investigating.

The SATMC with the help of two major South African cement companies, the Pretoria

Portland Cement (PPC) and Anlo-Alpha Cement, have identified that tyres can be used in the

cement kilns as an alternative energy source to coal. The two South African cement

companies have successfully ran trials on the use of tyres for fuel generation. Money has

been invested by the cement companies to modify their plants at which the switch over from

49

coal to rubber is envisaged. The idea of using tyres to fire cement kilns require that there

must be a sustained supply of these tyres. The challenge to reduce the emmissions of dioxins

and furans during the burning of tyres presents another challenge to industrialists.

A National Draft Energy Bill is out for comment from interested and affected parties. The

Bill makes specific reference to the need for integrated energy planning in South Africa. Of

the six principles that this Bill emphasises, the most important is that the integrated energy

planning must take into cognisance the optimal use of indigenous and regional resources. In

that sense, it may be argued that although used tyres may not be indigenous, they are a

resource abundantly available.

Burning tyres can reduce the waste volume by two-thirds, and therefore cutting requirements

for landfill space (Chiras, 2001:582). Apart from using tyres as alternative energy source

other uses for scrapped tyres could be identified and persued.

4.6 PHYSICALLY TRANSFORMED TYRE RE-USE

There are many other uses for used tyres. This option uses the physical entity of the tyre and

the very property that creates the waste problem, its non-degradability. Used tyres in a whole

condition or mashed, cut or sliced, can be utilised in a variety of ways, which may include:

In civil Engineering works, to take advantages of their sound and impact

absorption properties: e.g. highway crash barriers, sound absorbing walls, boat

fenders on harbour walls.

As coastal protection and off-coast break water

As insulation in building foundations and road base material

For erosion control on steep slopes or roadsides

As cover material in agriculture applications

As artificial reefs to provide shelter for sea life

As material to be cut up into shoe soles or other simple rubber goods like mats,

floor tiles, dock fenders, muffler hangers, support pads for back hoes, well

50

chocks, brake pads, clothing accessories such as belts, handbags and buttons

(Technical Guide, unpublished: 08).

In all of the above alternatives, the physical properties of tyres are exploited beyond the

original purpose mainly for aesthetic purposes. According to Chiras (2001:50), there is a new

wave of sustainable housing whereby houses are built with among others, discarded tyres.

As a result, there is less demand on use of timber and other material needed in construction

of houses. Also, there is good use of discarded tyres, which would otherwise lie in the veld as

waste. These are options that must be considered once the tyre re-use option has been

exhausted.

4.7 LANDFILLING

According to Douglas (1992), landfilling is one of the most common methods of waste

disposal in the world. It is estimated that more than 95% of the waste in South Africa is

disposed of in landfill sites (South Africa, 1994). In the US, 55% of the municipal solid

waste is buried in landfills (Chiras, 2001:580). The concept of landfilling has undergone

considerable refinement and today we speak of sanitary landfill, which is defined as follows:- " ...a method of disposing of refuse on land without causing nuisances or hazards to public

health or safety, by utilizing the principles of engineering to confine refuse to the smallest

practical areas, to reduce it to the smallest practical volume, and to cover it with a layer of

earth at the conclusion of each day 's operations, or at such more frequent intervals as may

be necessary (Asoe in Krompman 1984:07). "

In South Africa, 95% of domestic, trade, industrial and hazardous waste is landfilled (The

Star: 1996). This popular method of waste disposal is not suitable for disposing of waste tyre.

The ideal hierarchy in any waste management is to use landfilling option as a last resort for

waste disposal. According to Miller (1998:573), landfilling is to be considered under the

following conditions:

When there is no further use for solid waste,

With the residual matter remaining, after solid waste have been separated at a

materials recovery facility; and

51

♦ With the residual matter remaining after waste incineration.

Tyres compound problems of landfill sites by the fact that as a result of their chemical

composition, they are non-biodegradable. Tyres not only consume space in landfills but since

they are buoyant, they also tend to resurface. On the surface, they may pose a fire hazard. A

fire in a tyre dump is extremely difficult to put out and produces air pollution as well as toxic

runoff that can pollute nearby surface water and ground water. Landfilling of tyres in some

countries is prohibited.

In practice, the economic or commercial value of used tyres has been the prime factor in the

choice of recovery method rather than the technical value. As a result, from an economic

point of view, dumping has been the most preferable.

There are various methods of waste disposal. In the RSA, waste is often disposed off at

landfill sites. Providing proper wastefill sites is considered a main challenge in the Gauteng

area specifically (Wong, 1993:59). This could be asumed to be the case for the Kwa-Zulu

Natal, Eastern and Western Cape and the Mpumalanga Provinces. The reason for the high

incidence of landfilling are:

Landfilling is generally the cheaspest and most convenient method

Most other solid waste handling processes leave some form of residue which is

ultimatetely disposed of in a landfill.

Landfill sites are later reclaimed for other land-use types.

This framework could possibly be followed when management decisions about the disposal

of used tyres are made. Although the general tendency of waste disposal is to landfill such

waste, the evironmental viability of this option must be weighed against other options in the

disposal of used tyres.

For a number of reasons however, the disposal of used tyres cannot be relegated to wastefill

sites. Not only are used tyres prohibitively costly to landfills, but the environmental impacts

of discarded tyre casings, once the tyres are used-up, are massive. According to Stark (1989:

149), some of these reasons why used tyre cannot be disposed of at landfills are that:

52

Tyres do not remain buried when placed in landfills. Since they are less-dense than

the soil, they work their way up to the surface and

When on the surface there is a threat of them being ignited by metal collectors who

may want to remove steel from burnt tyres or even by arsonists

When dumped in the open, tyres tend to collect water and thereby provide suitable

breeding ground for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are known to carry deseases such as

malaria and La Crosse encephalitis. The United States Environmental Protection

Agency estimates that annual health cost associated with encephalitis resulting from

dumped tyres amounts to US $5.4 million.

In addition, a stockpile of tyres at landfill sites or in the open veld is a fire hazard in that it is

virtually impossible to extinguish once they are set on fire.

More often, recycling is encouraged as an alternative to landfilling. However, the use of

recycled material has limited response. Some of the reasons for ineffective recycling schemes

are that:

Virgin material is of higher quality and quality control is easier.

The process technology is designed to use virgin material and the use of recycled material

will require technological investments.

The recovery of material from waste is dependent on economic factors. The recovery and

recycling of tyres will have an immediate effect of pollution reduction. The social benefits in

terms of job creation and not primarily the environmental protection motive, is often the

persuasive factor for recycling. Recycling, or any such alternative to waste tyre disposal, as it

will always happen, must be driven by economic factors for it to be sustainable.

In the light of these stated reasons, there is a need to identify viable alternatives for the

disposal of used tyres.

53

CHAPTER FIVE

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to explore methods that can be used to dispose of used tyres as

an aspect of solid waste management in South Africa. It was envisaged that the information

obtained from the study would assist waste management institutions and tyre manufacturing

industry in making decisions regarding used tyre disposal options. This would contribute to

minimizing the impact of uncoordinated used tyre disposal on the environment.

The study investigated the disposal methods that are followed and also looked at the nature

of reporting on the quantities of used tyres. Without any concerted effort to address it, the

problem of the disposal of used tyres will not disappear.

5.2 LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY

There were some limitations to this study that must be stated at this stage. The information

that this study is based on were supplied by the SATMC from a survey they conducted. The

information used in this study, was collected by a third party for another purpose. The release

of data, its re-categorization and simplistic presentation was unhelpful in specifically

answering questions of quantities of tyres disposed. The responses to the survey were

inconsistent, as the respondents were not informed as to the purpose of the survey. Probably

due to fear of victimisation, some tyre dealers, municipalities and landfill sites did not

respond to the questionnaires.

This research has highlighted that there is no systematic method of disposing of used tyres in

South Africa. It has also been indicated that there are scanty published figures on the

quantities of used tyres annually generated within RSA. The problem of handling the

54

disposal of used tyres is also attributed to lack of enabling national legislation on how to deal

with this waste problem..

Used tyres have thus far not been regarded as a critical issue. Problems that arise from their

disposal have as a result also received little public attention. This research however indicates

that used tyres continue to be generated at increasing rates and that the environmental

impacts of their unco-ordinated disposal will soon become a serious environmental concern.

Currently, there is no mechanism that exists for the disposal of used tyres that have become

part of solid waste. Until now, sporadic landfilling, hapharzard dumping and burning of used

tyres seem to be the de facto methods of disposing of used tyres in the RSA.

There is an indication from Table 6 (p.36), that more than 50% of used tyres are dumped at

landfill sites. From Table 4 (p.34), it can be deduced that there are more tyres disposed of in

the Gauteng Province than in any other in South Africa. This is in line with the generally held

view that the Gauteng Province is the most urbanized and therefore the one with most

environmetal problems, including the management of discarded tyres.

5.3 RECCOMENDATIONS

The increasing problem of disposing used tyres necessitates that proactive measures be taken

to ensure that such disposal is environmentally responsible. Unlike plastic bags, tyres do not

appear to be part of the major pollutants and they have as such not received major public

attention. However, prevention is better than cure. Measures have to be established to address

this salient problem. In this regard, the following recommendations are made to address this

problem of used tyres disposal.

5.3.1 Effective legislation and waste management policy

An integrated national pollution and waste management policy, which will ensure that the

fragmentation in dealing with waste and pollution are eliminated, will also determine the

success of used tyre management. Public participation in the management of used tyres is

essential to ensure recovery of used tyres and eventual planned disposal. The incentive to

55

collect and appropriately dispose of tyres must be attractive to maintain consistent collection

from the general public.

South Africa may have to legislate for among others, the collection, transfer and disposal of

used tyres. The creation of a national waste fund has been mooted. This may increase the tax

burden, as it will pass on to the consumer. Whilst the market forces will determine the most

efficient method of used tyres disposal, legislation would and must at least ensure that:

there is a legislated waste audit system,

tyre manufactures accept used tyres from end users. This will address the concerns

on the funding of used tyre collection,

a national retrieval network is established,

manufactures modify their production systems to allow for the use of recycled tyre

material, and

there is assistance in finding financial support for industries that will accept used

tyres as their raw material.

The definition of waste in terms of the law as reflected in the Environment Conservation Act

(Act 73 of 1989), does not provide for regulation and disposal of used tyres. For this reason,

legislative provision dealing with used tyres is recommended, as that would provide the

necessary framework for the management of used tyre disposal.

5.3.2 Stricter commercial measures and use of economic instruments

Stricter control on the importation of second hand tyres is also called for. Not only do

imported tyres add to the volumes that will later have to be disposed of, but imported second

hand tyres add to the problem of tyre safety. South Africa has an option of raising the

minimum legal tyre tread depth to minimise the number of imported second-hand tyres.

Quality control and effective policing on imported tyres also has to be established, as low

quality goods including tyres are flooding the RSA market. Low quality tyres may wear

quickly adding to the waste accumulation and disposal problem.

56

Since making use of retreads will help to reduce the rate at which used tyres are generated, it

is one option to be encouraged. Depending on the standards and quality maintained by the

retreading companies, a good casing can be retreaded more than once. The perception of

most passenger car owners in South Africa is that retreads are unsafe on cars. This may be

attributed to the common sight of tyre debris on freeways. Such debris comes mainly from

trucks and other heavy vehicles and indicates that retreads tend to fail under certain

conditions, such as high temperatures and high speed. Retreads could therefore be

recommended for low speed and low stress driving. The latter is a topic on its own that

warrants special attention.

In line with other commodity imports, the importation of used tyres must be regulated to

ensure that quantities of imported tyres are known. This will assist in any planning effort, as

reliable figures would be available. This will also limit the illegal importation of second-hand

or poor quality tyres.

Some practices that alleviate the problem of waste tyre accumulation are already underway.

Retreading is already an option being exploited in South Africa for some considerable time.

This option can be significantly maximized with an extra effort. Similar to the controls

governing the collection of used motor vehicle batteries and used oil, it is recommended that

economic instruments to sustain and advance the used tyre management be investigated. This

may include a thorough consideration of a levy aimed at the collection of used tyres.

The costs of waste tyre treatment must be internalized. This implies that such costs must be

included in the production cost so that the market price reflects the environmental cost of

disposal. That will lessen the need for legislating and regulating, as market forces will ensure

that used tyres, find their way back to the producer for appropriate disposal.

The use of economic instruments, it could be argued, can allow business to innovate, save

money and reduce the burden of regulations (Chiras, 2001:632). Economic disincentives such

as user fees and pollution taxes or green taxes should be imposed on products that waste

resources so as to force business to seek sustainable options. According to Chiras (2001:632-

57

3), many businesses and economists find green taxes more acceptable than bureaucracy and

regulation. Use of incentives - such as tax credits- or disincentives can work if properly

thought through and implemented.

To encourage the use of retread tyres, retreading associations must rigorously market their

product to organizations that run large fleets especially those that do high mileage from large

number of relatively short journeys. This will delay the quantity of tyre that have to be

disposed of at any given time. Beyond retreading, there will ultimately be a waste tyre to be

disposed of. In remote countryside areas, where it may be uneconomical to collect tyres, an

option of landfilling may still be the only commonly viable one.

In general, steps to minimise the accumulation of used tyres can be effected through

optimising the usage of virgin material and also constantly striving to employ new recycling

technologies (Wong, 1993:59). Energy and material recovery from used tyres are some of the

other numerous options that may be considered. Such recovery may be mechanical, thermal

and chemical. The most prevalent last option that is also the least satisfactory, is that of

surface or underground dumping of tyres.

5.3.3 Industrial Ecology

The development of materials exchange systems, in which one company 's wastes becomes

another company 's resources is an aspect of waste management that must be persued where

feasible. That practice will not only reduce the demands on land for location of waste

disposal sites, but it would also reduce pollution or polluting practices. In this regard, the

possibility of using discarded tyres as raw material in other industries must be explored and

encouraged. This form of waste disposal is what Miller (1998), calls eco-industrial

revolution. Within eco-industrial revolution, companies take back packaging and used

products from consumers for re-use, recycling, repair, or re-manufacturing (Miller,

1998:572).

58

The concept of industrial ecology is relevant to used tyres as well. Technologies that take

advantage of the fuel value and steel in used tyres must be encouraged. If applied within

waste tyre management, then no used tyres will accumulate in unwanted places, but they will

be consumed as raw material resources by other industries. Motor vehicle manufactures must

increasingly make use of processed waste tyre product(s) in the manufacturing of some

vehicle parts such as dashboards and bumpers.

The disposal of used tyres by incineration for energy recovery must be explored. In South

Africa however, there are large coal reserves. It stands to reason therefore that incinerating

tyres for power generation would not present much competition to the current use of coal. It

must be considered however, that the incineration of tyres in some cement kilns would not

only consume large quantities of used tyres, but would also produce no residue for further

disposal. Modifications of kiln stacks can ensure that emissions are controlled and are kept

within regulated standards.

The rate of waste tyre generation is also an outcome of the tyre design. Manufactures must be

proactive and manufactured tyres that would be assimilated into the natural environment after

a said period. The possibility of producing tyres that are biodegradable, must be explored.

Equally important, the life span of tyres must be increased to ensure a reduction on quantities

of tyres added to waste stream. This will happen when fewer tyres become unfit for their

original purpose. This calls for tyre manufactures to increasingly manufacture tyres that last

longer. It also calls for increased public awareness on the value of correct tyre maintenance

and use on vehicles. This will not be solving the problem, but will be delaying the rate of

waste tyre generation.

Data on used tyres, as in many other waste-related issues, is not readily accessible.

According to Frith (2001:06), there is need to develop a mechanism for data collection so as

to develop a sound basis on which policy and subsequent action can be formulated. Robust

and consistent reporting of pre- as well as post-consumer tyre quantities is needed. This

reporting should include the disposal methods of used tyres. The information that will come

59

out of such reporting will not just be used to assess the scale of the problem, but to also

provide vital statistics for the evaluation of progress made as well as provide investment

information for those seeking to invest in the waste treatment initiatives.

If proper disposal methods for used tyres receives the attention from both government and

business, it would not only aid in reducing environmental pollution, but would also add to the

provision of the much required entrepreneurial opportunities and creation of sustainable jobs.

Whilst this matter remains an environmental concern, it is reasonable to refrain from further

disposing tyres in the landfills. This implies that used tyres should be stockpiled at allocated

sites they may be needed for other disposal options discussed earlier or that may be

discovered. Dumping them at landfill sites is not environmentally friendly and may later

prove to have been a waste of a possible resource.

The challenges of achieving the desired disposal methods are huge. Legislation on its own

will not guarantee success. Allowance has to be made for entrepreneurs to determine the

most efficient and less expensive way to achieve environmentally desirable outcomes.

Generally, all profitable options will be sustainable and therefore they will be the ones that

will have to be allowed and encouraged. Non-subsidised markets are therefore

recommended.

5.4 CONCLUSION

This study pointed out the status quo of the present waste tyre disposal in South Africa. The

disposal of used tyres in the RSA is uncoordinated and haphazard. There is no standard to

guide the disposal of used tyres. As a result, waste tyre disposal is becoming a proven

environmental problem as can be seen from the photographs in Appendix A. At the rate at

which used tyres are accumulating, there is uncertainty with regard to the accuracy and

reliability of figures about the levels and amounts of used tyres produced and how they are

being disposed of. Therefore planning for appropriate method of disposal will be based on

assumptions and may be flawed.

60

Various options are available and some may offer a sustainable solution to the problem of

waste tyre disposal. The local tyre manufactures through their conference, the SATMC, are

showing initiative in encouraging systematic disposal of used tyres. The country must build

on the readiness of the business community by providing the much needed political will.

Creative methods are required in the reduction and control of pollution as a result of used

tyres. Whatever methods South Africa adopts for waste tyre disposal, they must be creative

and reflective of the realities of the country 's economic development.

61

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Disposal Facilities, (Draft). Johannesburg: Jarrod Ball & Associates.

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Barrow, C.J. 1995. Developing the Environment, Problems and Management. Essex:

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Chiras, D.D. 2001. Environmental Science: Creating a Sustainable Future. Sudbury:

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CSIR. 1991. The situation of waste management and pollution control in South Africa.

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Environment: Pretoria. Report CPE 1/91.

David, D. 1993. Industry explores alternate uses for recycled tires. World Wastes. 36. 1-2.

Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). 2004. Development of a core set

of environmental performance indicators; Final report and set of indicators. Pretoria,

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Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). 1992. Glossary of Terms used in

Integrated Environmental Management. Guideline Series 6. Department of

Environmental Affairs, Pretoria: South Africa.

Department of Water Affairs (DWAF). 1998. Waste Management Series. Department of

Water Affairs: South Africa.

Douglas, T. 1992. Patterns of land, water and air pollution by waste: Managing the Human

Impact on the Natural Environment. London: Belhaven.

Draft National Energy Bill. (2004). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria: South

Africa.

Environment Conservation Act, No 73 of 1989.

EPA. 1991. Burning tires for Fuel and Tire Pyrolysis Air Implications. Unpublished.

European Tyre Recycling Association (ETRA). 1998. Introduction to Tyre Recycling.

Belgium: ETRA.

Farrell, M and Block, D. 1999. Funding innovative uses for scrap tires. BioCycle. 40.1-4.

Farrel, M. 2000. Managing scrap tires via stewardship programs. BioCycle. 41.1-5.

Fisher P. M. and Evans Jr. L. R. 1993. Whole Tyre Recycling: The Elm Energy Approach.

Paper presented at the Rubber Europe conference, 10 th and 11 th June. The Hague

Frith, P. 2001. Environmental Council Summit on Tyre Campaign. Waste Management:

The Monthly IWM journal for Professional Waste Managers, August, 6-7.

Fuggle, R.F and Rabie, M.A. (Ed.). 1992. Environmental management in South Africa.

Johannesburg : Juta.

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Holmes, G., Singh, B.E. and Theodore, L. 1993. Handbook of Environmental

Management and Technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Human, E. (2004). Scrap tyre recycling project. Available from:

http://www.rubbersa.com/index.htm . (Accessed 24 September 2004).

Judais, R.S. 1986. White South Africans' knowledge about attitude towards and practice

of the voluntary recycling of domestic solid waste. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research

Council

Kohler, R. "Cryogenic processing of scrap tyres." Polymer Recycling; 2 83-88.

Krompman, R. 1984. Regional Approaches to Solid Waste Management on the

Witwatersrand. Unpublished MSc (Engineering) Dissertation. University of the

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Lasoff, M.A. 2000. Sears Grants Amnesty to Scrap Tires. Waste Age, 31, 2.

Lombard, R. 1992. Recycling Potential in the Auto Engineering Industry. Unpublished.

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McColl, V. and Griffiths, P. 2002. A regional approach to dealing with the tyre ban to

landfill. Waste Management. 27-30.

Miller, T. G. Jr. 1998. Living in the Environment. 10th Ed. Belmont: Wardsworth.

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Petts, J. and Eduljee,G. 1994. Environmental impact assessment for waste treatment and

disposal facilities. Chichester. Wiley.

Pillsbury, H. 1991. Market for scrap tires: An EPA assessment. Resource Recycling. LI) 6,

19-24.

SATMC. 1998. Business Plan: SA Tyre. Recycling Project. Unpublished

Sitarz, D. 1994. Agenda 21- The Earth summit strategy to save our planet. Carbondale

IL: Earth Press

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Siuru, B.1998. New technology burns whole tires for cement industry. World Waste

Atlanta, 41,1-2.

Skitt, J. 1972. Disposal of Refuse and Other Waste. Charles Knight & Co. London.

Smith, K.V. 1986. Scrap tyres: disposal and recycling. Municipal Engineer. 18,1,36-7.

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Spagnoli, J.J., Weber, A.S. and Richards, T.J. 1999. An alternative to scrapping scrap tires.

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Stark, F.J. 1989. The Tirecycle Solution. Minnesota 's answer to the scrap tire disposal

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Taylor, A. 2002. Used tyres fuel cement production. Waste Management, June,26-28.

65

Technical Guide on the identification and management of used tyres: Draft Guidelines

for consideration by the Technical Working Group of the Basel Convention on the

Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal: Unpublished

Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. and Vigil, S. 1993. Integrated Solid Waste Management;

Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Telsa, M.T. 1994. Scrap tire process turns waste into fuel. Power Engineering .98. 1-2.

The Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy. Department of Environment

Affairs and Tourism. 17 November 2000

The Star, 21 November, 1996. Waste Management and Recycling.

The Star, 19 February, 2001. Used tyres cluttering landscape

UNCTAD. 1996. Draft Statistical Review of International Trade in tyre and Tyre—

related Rubber Waste. Unpublished: Geneva.

Valenti, M. 1991. Burning Rubber; Mechanical Engineering, 108.

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Gazette, Volume 385, Pretoria, 28 July 1997. No. 18164.

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66

7. APPENDIX A

Photograph 1: Tyres Dumped in the veld. ( Human, E.:2004). Scrap tyre recycling project. Available from: http://www.rubbersa.com/index.htm (Accessed 24 September 2004)

67

Photograph 2. Tyres dumped along R562 in Midrand

68

Photograph 3. Tyres dumped along R25 in Bronkortzspruit

69

Photograph 4. A waste tyre dump site near a mine in Rustenburg.

70

APPENDIX B i. Questionnaire sent to Municipalities (July 1998)

TO: THE NI A N AG ER, kik E,TFI DEPT OR TOWN CLERK

. URGENT: PLEASE COMP Le,TE TODAY AND POST From: Nis W dna Nloolman, Chief Industrial Technician, Div Waste Management, OWAF, Tel 10121 • 338-7557 Fox, 1012) 323-0321

21 Jul y 1998 SIJAVEY OF TYRE SCRAP _IN. SA

'THIS' WILL ONL V TA ICE 5 MIN UTESI TO CO All' LET E The Dept' ,q or \Voter Affairs and 1;nvirontnental A fro ir.t; are misting the *1 -yre Industr y 1:0 plan the possible collection of most scrap tyres in SA and distribute this to rubber recyclers. Please scud 1.1;.: today the followin g, info. Please note some info is better than nothing. 1(: his () need not be 100/0 car-rect. /thy .yue.s.,c word(' helpful.

QUESTIONS: 1. Your region is? 2_ Are scrap tyres dumped al your approved landfill? Yes

No 3, What do you charge for the scrap tyres? R per

Are lyres dumped in the veldt? Yes? No? Are tyres burnt by informal sector to recover steel? 'Yes? No? Any idea of how many tyres ore generated per month in your region?

or number of tyres? Any idea of how many tyres arc lying in the Town / City / or veldt kg or number of tyre'? Contact person in future re the ithove?:. • `Name P,osition Address

Tel uo & code Fax no & code address's

Any other info you would like to give us?

Thank you very much, 70-6tet VOdentli,t

Please post your repl y TODAY to PERSON collating dottt FOlt WATRIZ 4\1:1-7KIRS: :Etienne 11ownn & Associates, 'Box 1370 , f■sVR.NDA 2J 60

or fax to 011 886-683()

71

Dealer

Other (specify)

Retreacter ••••••r—S--"— iDealer&Retreader

Vat NOI

Code

ViVilet•IVCItt, .91Mt•• • •

Code

ii. Questionnaire sent to Tyre Dealers (July 1998)

From No SATRP 0101

Page 1 of 2

SOUTH AFRICAN TYRE RECYCLING PROCESS COMPANY

SA TYRE DEALERS ffr OTHER GENERATORS Or SCRAP TYRES APPLICATION FOR REGISTATION FORM

The local tyre mentanOttimrs and Major impotteue are driving the SATRP prolem, to arrange for the collection of CCM)) tyres after a "Green Fee" has been collected from the consumer. This form Is urgently required lo regislor all generators of scrap generated In SA and your collodion requiromuols, It is nol a InaIly binding offer at this stage. The collection procusa will be phased In over limo, starting In early 2003, Details will be made amiable. Nome complete a SEPARATE FORM FOR EACH LOCATION. All Information will be treated its CONFIDENTIAL. end not distributed.

Type of Business

Holding Company

Company Name

Registration No

Trading Name

Physical Address Street

PoStal Address Box

Contact Details of Responsible Officials

Head Office Contact Name:

Tel

Area Manager Contact Name:

Tel

E-Mail

i (coth: 1 Fax

P

l(Code 1 Fox L 1

Branch Manager Contact Name: i -.._,-...._ Di

:

Tel Wilt J Fax ------- 1

E-Mail I I

72

Propel No SATRP 0100

Patio 2 of 2

SOUTH AFRICAN TYRE RECYCLING PROCESS COMPANY

SA TYRE DEALERS & OTHER GENERATORS OF SCRAP TYRES APPLICATION FOR REGISTATION PORNI

Tyres per week No. Scrapped

Passenger [—

Light Commercial

Heavy Commerciale

Other (specify)

Sent for retreading (not included In scrap)

-11.- •

Type

Other Rubber per week

Tubes

Other (specify)

Kg. Scrapped

How are you disposing of your scrap tyres at present? Your scrap yard fills lip in 1 Days

If your scrap Is being collected please supply current collectors details.

Name!

Tel No [(Code

Fax No 1 Do you have any Large End Users, (I.e. Putco, Mines etc) as a customer, where scrap tyres may

accumulate? If so please supply details. If you have more than one of theSe customers please

proVide a list, giving full details.

Large End User

Physical Address

1 Code r r

Approximately Km from your fitment centre Km

Tyres per week No. Scrapped

Light Commercial

Heavy Commercial

Other (specIfy)1

73

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG UNIVERSITEIT VAN JOHANNESBURG

AUCKLAND PARK KINGSWAY CAMPUS I KAMPUS POSBUS 524 BOX 524

AUCKLAND PARK 2006

Tel: 011 559-2165

2008 -09- 2 5

2 -02- 0 2 2009 -03- 2.0

2009-04- 15 2009 -05- 2 3

c::: -E

2010 -6- 2 7

011-12- 3 ,v ,Ksz. ,

2011 -10- —0 II., OF - = - ---- .- 2012 -06- 1, i ' - ,) r \ ‘\\- :-,' - _4 -

- \ — — —

This item must be returned on or before the last date stamped. A renewal for a further period may be granted provided the book is not in demand. Fines are charged on overdue items.