Environmental history 1

Environmental historyEnvironmental history, a relatively new branch of historiography, is the study of human interaction with the naturalworld over time. Historians have tended to treat nature — when they treat it at all — as the setting for history, ratherthan a participant or active agent of change. Environmental history is history written with the acknowledgment thatwe shape our environment and it shapes us. Environmental historians maintain that as nature is a key influence onhuman affairs then it is both an appropriate and necessary subject for historical analysis.Charles Darwin's "bulldog", his supporter and advocate Thomas H. Huxley claimed that "the question of questionsfor mankind – the problem which underlies all others" – was to ascertain "the place which Man occupies in nature ...What are the limits of our power over nature, and of nature's power over us?"[1] Environmental history was foundedto address questions like this.

The city of Machu Picchu was constructed c. 1450 AD, at the height of the Inca Empire.It has commanding views down two valleys and a nearly impassable mountain at its back.There is an ample supply of spring water and enough land for a plentiful food supply. The

hillsides leading to it have been terraced to provide farmland for crops, reduce soilerosion, protect against landslides, and create steep slopes to discourage potential

invaders.

Environmental history addresses threecore issues.[2] Firstly, nature itself andits change through time – nature ismore than a cultural construct, it is aphysical reality. This issue deals withthe impact of humans on historicalchanges in Earth's land, water,atmosphere and biological systems:included here would be issues ofclimate, energy exchanges, humanresource use, and interaction withecosystems as well as major naturalevents such as floods, volcanic eruptions, wildfires and the spread of diseases. Secondly, how we use nature – theenvironmental consequences of socioeconomic activity resulting from increasing population, more effectivetechnology and changing patterns of production and consumption. Environmental history maps aspects of thetransformation that has occurred as the basic human physical need for food, shelter, mobility, water and materialshas, over the years, and through complex social organization been converted into industrial agriculture, megacities,modern transport systems, extensive dams, pipelines and water infrastructure, and the sophisticated technology of themanufacturing industry.[3] Other key themes in this category include the separation from nature that occurred whennomadic hunter-gatherer communities developed settled agriculture in the neolithic revolution, the effects of colonialexpansion and settlement communities, and the environmental and human consequences of the industrial andtechnological revolutions.[4] Thirdly, how we think about nature – the way our attitudes, beliefs and values influenceour interaction with nature shaped, as they are, by our myths, legends, ideology, aesthetics, religion and science.

Environmental history emerged in the United States as a new discipline that grew out of the environmentalmovement of the 1960s and 1970s and much of its impetus still stems from present-day global environmentalconcerns.[5] The field was founded on simple, often local, conservation issues but has progressively engaged withmore general social and scientific history and is just as likely to deal with cities, population or sustainabledevelopment. Indeed, as all human experience is grounded in the natural world almost anything might be consideredsuitable material for research, a situation that acts as an incentive to ground the subject in particular time-scales,geographic regions, or key themes. Certainly as a strongly multidisciplinary subject it draws widely on both thehumanities and natural science and, like all history, it presents us with a considered view of the past from which wehave the opportunity to learn.

Environmental history 2

Origin of expressionIn 1967 Roderick Nash published "Wilderness and the American Mind", a work that has become a classic text ofearly environmental history: but it was in an address to the Organization of American Historians in 1969 (publishedin 1970) that he first used the expression "environmental history",[6] although 1972 is generally taken as the datewhen the term was first coined.[7]

HistoriographyBrief overviews of the field of environmental history have been given by John McNeill in 1983,[8] Richard White in1985,[9] and J. Donald Hughes in 2006.[10]

Definition

The World in 1897. British "possessions" are coloured in red

A universally accepted definition ofenvironmental history has yet tocrystallise. Certainly in simple terms itis a history that tries to explain whyour environment is like it is and howhumanity has influenced its currentconfiguration, as well as elucidatingthe problems and opportunities oftomorrow.[11] or Donald Worster's1988 definition is widely quoted, itstates: "Environmental history is theinteraction between human culturesand the environment in the past."[12]

In 2001 J. Donald Hughes defined thesubject as “The study of humanrelationships through time with thenatural communities of which they area part in order to explain the processes of change that affect that relationship.”[13] and, in 2006, as "... history thatseeks understanding of human beings as they have lived, worked and thought in relationship to the rest of naturethrough the changes brought by time"[14] ... "As a method, environmental history is the use of ecological analysis asa means of understanding human history ... an account of changes in human societies as they relate to changes in thenatural environment.”[13] Environmental historians are also “interested in what people think about nature, and howthey have expressed those ideas in folk religions, popular culture, literature and art.”[13] In 2003 McNeill suggestedthat environmental history was "... the history of the mutual relations between humankind and the rest of nature".[8]

Subject-matterTraditional historical analysis has, over the years, extended its range of study from the activities and influence of afew significant people to a much broader social, political, economic and cultural analysis. Environmental historybroadens the subject base of conventional history still further. In 1988 Worster stated that environmental history“attempts to make history more inclusive in its narratives”[15] by examining the “role and place of nature in humanlife”.[16] and in 1993, that “Environmental history explores the ways in which the biophysical world has influencedthe course of human history and the ways in which people have thought about and tried to transform theirsurroundings”.[17] The interdependency of the human and environmental in the creation of landscapes is expressedthrough the notion of the cultural landscape.

Environmental history 3

Scope

The scope of environmental history is no more certain than its definition because, as Donald Worster has pointedout, "Environmental history has both the strength of enormous ambition and the weakness of too muchdiffuseness"[18] and "We study humans and nature; therefore can anything human or natural be outside ourenquiry?"[19] Environmental history is generally treated as a subfield of history, possibly because history has suchlong-established credentials that its position as the parent discipline is considered beyond question. But thisassumption is not beyond challenge. Traditional history is human history – the story of people and theirinstitutions.[20] But "humans cannot place themselves outside the principles of nature"[21] so environmental historyis human history but within a context that extends beyond the human realm: a history that has matured by taking inthe "big picture" and becoming less dependent on its inescapable anthropocentrism – even though anthropogenicchange is at the center of its narrative.[22]

Dimensions

General view of Funkville in 1864, Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, USA

J. Donald Hughes has responded to theview that environmental history is"light on theory" or lacking theoreticalstructure by viewing the subjectthrough the lens of three "dimensions":nature and culture, history and science,and scale.[23] This appears to be ananalytic advance on Worster'srecognition of three broad clusters ofissues to be addressed byenvironmental historians although bothhistorians recognize that the emphasisof their categories might varyaccording to the particular study[24] as,clearly, some studies will concentratemore on society and human affairs andothers more on the environment.

Themes

The themes used to express these historical dimensions are many. A more traditional historical approach is toanalyse the transformation of the globe’s ecology through themes like: the separation of man from nature during theneolithic revolution, imperialism and colonial expansion, exploration, agricultural change, the effects of theindustrial and technological revolution, and urban expansion but also the more environmental topics of humanimpact through its influences on forestry, fire, climate change, sustainability and so on. “The increasinglysophisticated history of colonization and migration can take on an environmental aspect, tracing the pathways ofideas and species around the globe and indeed is bringing about an increased use of such analogies and ‘colonial’understandings of processes within European history. This brief balance sheet has both positives and negatives, andplenty of unrealized potential.”[25] The importance of the colonial enterprise in Africa, the Caribbean and IndianOcean has been detailed by Richard Grove.[4] Much of the literature consists of case-studies targeted at the global,regional, national and local levels.[26]

Environmental history 4

Scale

Although environmental history can cover the sweep of planetary history spanning billions of years and a spatialrealm that embraces the whole Earth: it can equally concern itself with local scales and brief time periods.[27] Manyenvironmental historians are occupied with local, regional and national histories.[28] A bibliography of key works forgeographic regions of the world is given at the end of this article. Some historians link their subject exclusively tothe span of human history – "every time period in human history"[21] while others include the period before humanpresence on Earth as a legitimate part of the discipline. Ian Simmons's Environmental History of Great Britaincovers a period of about 10,000 years. There is a tendency to difference in time scales between natural and socialphenomena: the causes of environmental change that stretch back in time may be dealt with socially over acomparatively brief period.[29]

Significantly, although at all times environmental influences have extended beyond geographic regions and culturesit is in the early modern period, th twentieth and early twenty-first centuries that anthropogenic environmentalchange has assumed global proportions, most notably with climate change but also as a result of settlement, thespread of disease and the globalization of world trade.[30]

Development of the subject

Nature preservationist John Muir with US President Theodore Roosevelt (left) onGlacier Point in Yosemite National Park

The questions posed and themes coveredby environmental history date back toantiquity: historians have always includedthe effects of natural phenomena on humanaffairs.[31] Perhaps Hippocrates, ancientGreek father of medicine, was an earlyenvironmental determinist when, in hisAirs, Waters, Places he asserted thatdifferent cultures and humantemperaments could be related to thesurroundings in which peoples lived.[32]

However, the origins of the subject in itspresent form are generally traced to thetwentieth century.

In 1929 a group of French historiansfounded the journal Annales and this wasin many ways a forerunner of modernenvironmental history since it took as itssubject-matter the reciprocal globalinfluences of the environment and humansociety. The idea of the impact of thephysical environment on civilizations wasespoused by this Annales School todescribe the long term developments thatshape human history[33] by focussing away

from political and intellectual history, toward agriculture, demography, and geography. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie,a pupil of the Annales School, was the first to really embrace, in the 1950s, environmental history as we mightunderstand it today.[34] Although probably the most influential member of the Annales School was annaliste LucienFebvre (1878-1956) whose book A Geographical Introduction to History is now a classic in the field.

Environmental history 5

The most influential empirical and theoretical work in the subject has been done in the United States where teachingprograms first emerged and a generation of trained environmental historians is now active.[35] It was in America thatthe idea of environmental history as an independent field of study really emerged in the general cultural reassessmentand reform of the 1960s and 1970s along with environmentalism, "conservation history",[36] and a gatheringawareness of the global scale of some environmental issues. This was undoubtedly a reaction to the way nature wasportrayed in history of the day “When it dealt with nature at all, it portrayed the advance of culture and technology asreleasing humans from dependence on the natural world and providing them with the means to manage it. Itpositively celebrated human mastery over other forms of life and the natural environment, and expectedtechnological improvement and economic growth to accelerate”.[37] “The older history, when it recognized thatnature and the environment were present, treated them as a backdrop, but environmental history treats them as activeforces”. The intention was to develop a post-colonial historiography that was "more inclusive in its narratives".[15]

Early writing was typified by that of Henry Thoreau and Aldo Leopold, even Rachel Carson and it frequentlypromoted a moral and political agenda although it steadily became a more scholarly enterprise.”[38] Early attempts todefine the field were made largely in America by Roderick Nash in “The State of Environmental History” and inother works by frontier historians Frederick Jackson Turner, James Malin, John Muir and Walter Prescott Webb whosubjected the process of settlement to critical analysis. Building on these foundations a more secure intellectual basehas been established by "trained" or professional "second generation" environmental historians including AlfredCrosby, Samuel Hays, Donald Worster, William Cronon, Richard White, Carolyn Merchant, John McNeill, DonaldHughes, Chad Montrie, and Europeans Paul Warde, Sverker Sorlin, Robert A. Lambert, T.C. Smout, Peter Coatesand Jan Oosthoek.

Frontier historian Frederick Jackson Turner (1861–1932)

Current practice

In the United States the American Society for EnvironmentalHistory was founded in 1975 while the first institute devotedspecifically to environmental history in Europe was establishedin 1991, based at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. In1986, the Dutch foundation for the history of environment andhygiene Net Werk was founded and publishes four newslettersper year. In the UK the White Horse Press in Cambridge has,since 1995, published the journal Environment and Historywhich aims to bring scholars in the humanities and biologicalsciences closer together in constructing long and well-foundedperspectives on present day environmental problems and asimilar publication Tijdschrift voor Ecologische Geschiedenis(Journal for Environmental History) is a combinedFlemish-Dutch initiative mainly dealing with topics in theNetherlands and Belgium although it also has an interest inEuropean environmental history. Each issue contains abstractsin English, French and German. In 1999 the Journal wasconverted into a yearbook for environmental history.

Communication between European nations is restricted by language difficulties. In April 1999 a meeting was held inGermany to overcome these problems and to co-ordinate environmental history in Europe. This meeting resulted inthe creation of the European Society for Environmental History in 1999. Only two years after its establishment,ESEH held its first international conference in St. Andrews, Scotland. Around 120 scholars attended the meeting and

Environmental history 6

105 papers were presented on topics covering the whole spectrum of environmental history. The conference showedthat environmental history is a viable and lively field in Europe and since then ESEH has expanded to over 400members and continues to grow and attracted international conferences in 2003 and 2005. In 1999 the Centre forEnvironmental History was established at the University of Stirling. Some history departments at Europeanuniversities are now offering introductory courses in environmental history and postgraduate courses inEnvironmental history have been established at the Universities of Nottingham, Stirling and Dundee and morerecently a Graduierten Kolleg was created at the University of Göttingen in Germany. [39]

Related disciplines

The 77 km long Panama Canal, opened in 1914, connects the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean, replacing a longand treacherous shipping route passing via the Drake Passage and Cape Horn at the tip of South America.

Construction was plagued by problems, including disease (particularly malaria and yellow fever) and landslides. Bythe time the canal was completed, a total of 27,500 French and American workmen are estimated to have died.

Environmental history prides itself in bridging the gap between the arts and natural sciences although to date thescales weigh on the side of science. A definitive list of related subjects would be lengthy indeed and singling outthose for special mention a difficult task. However, those frequently quoted include, historical geography, the historyand philosophy of science, history of technology and climate science. On the biological side there is, above all,ecology and historical ecology, but also forestry and especially forest history, archaeology and anthropology. Whenthe subject engages in environmental advocacy it has much in common with environmentalism.With increasing globalization and the impact of global trade on resource distribution, concern over never-endingeconomic growth and the many human inequities environmental history is now gaining allies in the fields ofecological and environmental economics.[40] [41]

Engagement with sociological thinkers and the humanities is limited but cannot be ignored through the beliefs andideas that guide human action. This has been seen as the reason for a perceived lack of support from traditionalhistorians.[42]

IssuesThe subject has a number of areas of lively debate. These include discussion concerning: what subject matter is mostappropriate; whether environmental advocacy can detract from scholarly objectivity; standards of professionalism ina subject where much outstanding work has been done by non-historians; the relative contribution of nature andhumans in determining the passage of history; the degree of connection with, and acceptance by, other disciplines -but especially mainstream history. For Paul Warde the sheer scale, scope and diffuseness of the environmentalhistory endeavour calls for an analytical toolkit "a range of common issues and questions to push forwardcollectively" and a "core problem". He sees a lack of "human agency" in its texts and suggest it be writtem more toact: as a source of information for environmental scientists; incorporation of the notion of risk; a closer analysis ofwhat it is we mean by "environment"; confronting the way environmental history is at odds with the humanitiesbecause it emphasises the division between "materialist, and cultural or constructivist explanations for humanbehaviour".[43]

Environmental history 7

Global sustainability

Achieving sustainability will enable the Earth to continue supporting human life aswe know it. The Blue MarbleBlue Marble NASA composite images: 2001 (left),

2002 (right)

Many of the themes of environmentalhistory inevitably examine thecircumstances that produced theenvironmental problems of the present day,a litany of themes that challenge globalsustainability including: population,consumerism and materialism, climatechange, waste disposal, deforestation andloss of wilderness, industrial agriculture,species extinction, depletion of naturalresources, invasive organisms and urbandevelopment.[44] The simple message ofsustainable use of renewable resources isfrequently repeated and early as 1864 George Perkins Marsh was pointing out that the changes we make in theenvironment may later reduce the environments usefulness to humans so any changes should be made with greatcare[45] - what we would nowadays call enlightened self-interest. Richard Grove has pointed out that "States will actto prevent environmental degradation only when their economic interests are threatened".[46]

AdvocacyIt is not clear whether environmental history should promote a moral or political agenda. The strong emotions raisedby environmentalism, conservation and sustainability can interfere with historical objectivity: polemical tracts andstrong advocacy can compromise objectivity and professionalism. Engagement with the political process certainlyhas its academic perils[47] although accuracy and commitment to the historical method is not necessarily threatenedby environmental involvement: environmental historians have a reasonable expectation that their work will informpolicy-makers.[48]

Declensionist narrativesNarratives of environmental history tend to be declensionist, that is, accounts of progressive decline under humanactivity. Thus environmental history, like environmentalism, is perceived as entrenched pessimism, a litany ofdegeneration, failure, loss, decline and decay – a progressive downward spiral leading inexorably to globalcatastrophe, a kind of environmental eschatology – often portrayed as proceeding from some halcyon golden age ofthe past. Along with this often comes the implication of the heroic struggle of a few wise people against thedestructive powers of modern capitalism. Further, that narratives of this kind are not only boring and repetitive butalso actually mislead due to their excessive simplicity.[49] [50] Against this it is argued that deterioration of the globalenvironmnet is a fact revealed by careful research, that good environmental history does not predict or prophesy, andthat the charge of catastrophism is unwarranted.[51]

Presentism and culpabilityUnder the accusation of "presentism" it is sometimes claimed that, with its genesis in the late twentieth century environmentalism and conservation issues, environmental history is simply a reaction to contemporary problems, an "attempt to read late twentieth century developments and concerns back into past historical periods in which they were not operative, and certainly not conscious to human participants during those times".[52] This is strongly related to the idea of culpability. In environmental debate blame can always be apportioned, but it is more constructive for the future to understand the values and imperatives of the period under discussion so that causes are determined and the context explained.[53] Presentism points out how easy is the wisdom of hindsight and the way we interprete

Environmental history 8

issues of the past through the eyes of today as we attempt to put the past into perspective, not just for the past, but forourselves and posterity.

Environmental determinism

Ploughing farmer in ancient Egypt. Mural in the burial chamber of artisanSennedjem c. 1200 BCE

For some environmental historians "the generalconditions of the environment, the scale andarrangement of land and sea, the availability ofresources, and the presence or absence ofanimals available for domestication, andassociated organisms and disease vectors, thatmakes the development of human culturespossible and even predispose the direction oftheir development"[54] and that "history isinevitably guided by forces that are not of humanorigin or subject to human choice".[55] Thisapproach has been attributed to Americanenvironmental historians Webb and Turner[56]

and, more recently to Jared Diamond in his book"Guns, Germs and Steel" where the presence or absence of disease vectors and resources such as plants and animalsthat are amenable to domestication that may not only stimulate the development of human culture but evendetermine, to some extent, the direction of that development. The claim that the path of history has been forged byenvironmental rather than cultural forces is referred to as environmental determinism while, at the other extreme, iswhat may be called cultural determinism. An example of cultural determinism would be the view that humaninfluence is so pervasive that the idea of pristine nature has little validity - that there is no way of relating to naturewithout culture.[57]

Methodology

Recording historical events

Useful guidance on the process ofdoing environmental history has beengiven by Donal Worster,[58] CarolynMerchant,[59] William Cronon[60] andIan Simmons.[61] Worster's three coresubject areas (the environment itself,human impacts on the environment,and human thought about theenvironment) are generally taken as astarting point for the student as theyencompass many of the different skillsrequired. The tools are those of bothhistory and science with a requirementfor fluency in the language of naturalscience and especially ecology.[62] Infact methodologies and insights from arange of physical and social sciences isrequired, there seeming to be universal agreement that environmental history is indeed a multidisciplinary subject.

Environmental history 9

Key works• Chakrabarti, Ranjan (ed), DoesEnvironmental History Matter: Shikar, Subsistence, Sustenance and theSciences

(Kolkata: Readers Service, 2006)• Chakrabarti, Ranjan (ed.), Situating Environmental History (New Delhi: Manohar, 2007)• Cronon, William (ed), Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature (New York: W.W. Norton & Company,

1995)• Dunlap, Thomas R., Nature and the English Diaspora: Environment andHistory in the United States, Canada,

Australia, and New Zealand (NewYork/Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)• Glacken,Clarence, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in WesternThought From Ancient Times to

the Endo of the Nineteenth Century(Berkely: University of California Press, 1967)• Griffiths, Tomand Libby Robin (eds.), Ecology and Empire: The Environmental Historyof Settler Societies

(Keele: Keele University Press, 1997)• Grove, Richard, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical IslandEdens and the Origins of

Environmentalism, 1600-1860 (CambridgeUniversity Press, 1995)• Hughes, J.D., An Environmental Historyof the World: Humankind's Changing Role in the Community of

Life(Oxford: Routledge, 2001)• Hughes, J.D., "Global Environmental History: The Long View", Globalizations, Vol. 2 No. 3, 2005, 293-208.• MacKenzie, John M., Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester University Press, 1990)• McCormick, John, Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement (Bloomington: Indiana University

Press, 1989)• Rajan, Ravi S., Modernizing Nature: Forestry and Imperial Eco-Development 1800-1950 (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2006)• Redclif, Michael R., Frontier: Histories of Civil Society and Nature (Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press, 2006).• Stevis, Dimitris, "The Globalizations of the Environment", Globalizations, Vol. 2 No. 3, 2005, 323-334.• Williams, Michael, Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to GlobalCrisis. An Abridgement (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 2006)• White, Richard, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (Hill and Wang, 1996)• Worster, Donald, Nature's Economy: A Study of Ecological Ideals (Cambridge University Press, 1977)• Zeilinga de Boer, Jelle and Donald Theodore Sanders, Volcanoes in HumanHistory, The Far-reaching Effects of

Major Eruptions (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 2002)

Seminal works by countryIn 2004 a theme issue of Environment and History 10(4) provided an overview of environmental history as practicedin Africa, the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, China and Europe as well as those with global scope. DavidHughes (2006) has also provided a global conspectus of major contributions to the environmental history literature.• George Perkins Marsh,Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action, ed. David

Lowenthal (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1965 [1864])Africa

Environmental history 10

African landscape: Lesotho

• Adams, Jonathan S. and Thomas McShane, TheMyth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996)

• Cock, Jacklyn and Eddie Koch (eds.), Going Green:People, Politics, and the Environment in SouthAfrica (Capetown: Oxford University Press, 1991)

• Dovers, Stephen, Ruth Edgecombe, and Bill Guest(eds.), South Africa's Environmental History: Casesand Comparisons (Athens: Ohio University Press,2003)

• Green Musselman, Elizabeth, “Plant Knowledge atthe Cape: A Study in African and EuropeanCollaboration,” International Journal of AfricanHistorical Studies, Vol. 36, 2003, 367-392

• Jacobs, Nancy J., Environment, Power and Injustice: A South African History (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2003)

• Maathai, Wangari, Green Belt Movement: Sharing the Approach and the Experience (New York: Lantern Books,2003)

• McCann, James, Green Land, Brown Land, Black Land: An Environmental History of Africa, 1800-1990(Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1999)

• Steyn, Phia, "The lingering environmental impact of repressive governance: the environmental legacy of theapartheid-era for the new South Africa", Globalizations, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2005, 391-403

Antarctica

Palmer Station, located on Anvers Island, is the smallest of the three stations operated by the US Antarctic Program

• Pyne, S.J., The Ice: A Journey to Anatarctica. (University of Iowa Press, 1986).Americas

Environmental history 11

Artistic impression of the first landing of Columbus and the pilgrim fathers on the shoresof the New World: at San Salvador, West Indies, on 12 October 1492.

• Andrews, Richard N.L., Managingthe Environment, ManagingOurselves: A History of AmericanEnvironmental Policy (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1999)

• Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring(Cambridge, Mass. : RiversidePress, 1962)

• Cronon, William, Changes in theLand: Indians, Colonists and theEcology of New England (NewYork: Hill and Wang, 1983)

• Cronon, William, Nature'sMetropolis: Chicago and the GreatWest (New York: W.W. Norton &Company, 1991)

• Dean, Warren, With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. (Berkely:University of California Press, 1995)

• Dorsey, Kurkpatrick, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy: U.S.-Canadian Wildlife Protection Treaties in theProgressive Era (Washington: University of Washington Press, 1998)

• Gottlieb, Robert, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement(Washington: Island Press, 1993)

• Hays, Samuel, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement1890-1920(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959)

• Melosi, Martin V, Coping with Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (Temple UniversityPress, 1985)

• Melville, Elinor, A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1994)

• Merchant, Carolyn, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper &Row, 1980)

• Nash, Roderick, The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics (Madison: University of WisconsinPress, 1989)

• Nash, Roderick, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001)• Raffles, Hugh, WinklerPrins, Antoinette, M. G. A., "Further Reflections on Amazonian Environmental History:

Transformations of Rivers and Streams", Latin American Research Review, Vol. 38, Number 3, 2003, pp.165-187

• Reisner, Marc, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (Penguin Books, 1986, 1993)• Simonian, Lane, Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico (Austin: University of

Texas Press, 1995)• Steinberg, Ted, Down to Earth: Nature's Role in American History (Oxford University Press, 2002)• Stradling, David (ed), Conservation in the Progressive Era: Classic Texts (Washington: University of Washington

Press, 2004.• Sale, Kirkpatrick. The Green Revolution: The American Environmental Movement, 1962-1999 (New York: Hill

& Wang, 1993)• Worster, Donald, Under Western Skies: Nature and History in the American West (Oxford University Press,

1992)

Environmental history 12

• Wynn, Graeme, Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO,2007)

Asia

Banaue rice terraces in the Philippines where traditional landraces have been grown forthousands of years

• Boomgaard, Peter, ed. PaperLandscapes: Explorations in theEnvironment of Indonesia. (Leiden:KITLV Press, 1997)

• Burke III, Edmund , "The ComingEnvironmental Crisis in the MiddleEast: A Historical Perspective,1750-2000 CE" (April 27, 2005).UC World History Workshop.Essays and Positions from theWorld History Workshop. Paper 2.http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ucwhw/ ep/ 2

• David, A. & Guha, R. (eds) 1995.Nature, Culture, Imperialism:Essays on the Environmental

History of South Asia. Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.• Elvin, Mark & Ts'ui-jung Liu (eds.), Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History (New

York: Cambridge University Press, 1998)• Elvin, Mark, The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (New Haven: Yale University

Press, 2004)• Gadgil, M. and R. Guha, This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India (Berkeley: University of California

Press, 1993)• Grove, Richard, Vinita Damodaran, and Satpal Sangwan (eds.) Nature & the Orient: The Environmental History

of South and Southeast Asia (Oxford University Press, 1998)• Hill, Christopher V., South Asia: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2008)• Menzie, Nicholas, Forest and Land Management in Late Imperial China (London, Macmillan Press. 1994)• Mahong, Bao, "Environmental History in China", Environment and History, Volume 10, Number 4, November

2004, pp. 475-499• Marks, R. B., Tigers, rice, silk and silt. Environment and economy in late imperial South China (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1998)• Perdue, Peter C., "Lakes of Empire: Man and Water in Chinese History”, Modern China, 16 (January 1990): 119 -

29• Shapiro, Judith, Mao's War against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China (New York:

Cambridge University Press. 2001)• Shiva, Vandana, Stolen Harvest: the Hijacking of the Global Food Supply (Cambridge MA: South End Press,

2000)• Tal, Alon, Pollution in a Promised Land: An Environmental History of Israel (Berkeley: University of California

Press, 2002)• Totman, Conrad D., The Green Archipelago: Forestry in Preindustrial Japan (Berkely: University of California

Press, 1989)• Totman, Conrad D., Pre-industrial Korea and Japan in Environmental Perspective (Leiden: Brill, 2004)

Environmental history 13

• Ts'ui-jung Liu, Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History (Cambridge University Press,1998)

• Tull, Malcolm, and A. R. Krishnan. "Resource Use and Environmental Management in Japan, 1890-1990", in:J.R. McNeill (ed), Environmental History of the Pacific and the Pacific Rim ( Aldershot Hampshire: AshgatePublishing, 2001)

• Yok-shiu Lee and Alvin Y. So, Asia's Environmental Movements: Comparative Perspectives (Armonk: M.E.Sharpe, 1999)

Australasia

Aboriginal Art, Anbangbang Rock Shelter, Kakadu National Park, Australia

• Carron, L.T., A History of Forestry inAustralia (Canberra, 1985).

• Dargavel, John (ed.), Australia and NewZealand Forest Histories. ShortOverviews, Australian Forest HistorySociety Inc. Occasional Publications, No.1 (Kingston: Australian Forest HistorySociety, 2005)

• Dovers, Stephen (ed), Essays inAustralian Environmental History:Essays and Cases (Oxford: OUP, 1994).

• Dovers, Stephen(ed.), EnvironmentalHistory and Policy: Still SettlingAustralia (South Melbourne: OxfordUniversity Press, 2000).

• Flannery, Tim, The Future Eaters, AnEcological History of the Australian Lands and People (Sydney: Reeed Books,1994).

• Garden, Don, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio,2005)

• Pyne, Stephen, Burning Bush: A Fire History of Australia (New York, Henry Holt, 1991).• Robin, Libby, Defending the Little Desert: The Rise of Ecological Consciousness in Australia (Melbourne: MUP,

1998)• Robin, Libby, The Flight of the Emu: A Hundred Years of Australian Ornithology 1901-2001, (Melbourne:

Melbourne University Press, 2000)• Robin, Libby, How a Continent Created a Nation (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2007)• Smith, Mike, Hesse, Paul (eds.), 23 Degrees S: Archaeology and Environmental History of the Southern

Deserts(Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press, 2005)• Young, Ann R.M, Environmental Change in Australia since 1788 (Oxford University Press, 2000)Europe

Environmental history 14

Roman aqueduct and plaza, Segovia, Spain

• Brimblecombe, Peter and ChristianPfister, The Silent Countdown: Essays inEuropean Environmental History (Berlin:Springer-Verlag, 1993)

• Crosby, Alfred W., EcologicalImperialism: The Biological Expansionof Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1986)

• Christensen, Peter, Decline of Iranshahr:Irrigation and Environments in theHistory of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to1500 A.D (Austin: University of TexasPress, 1993)

• Ditt, Karl, 'Nature Conservation inEngland and Germany, 1900-1970:

Forerunner of Environmental Protection?', Contemporary European History 5:1-28.• Hughes, J. Donald, Pan's Travail: Environmental Problems of the Ancient Greeks and Romans (Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins, 1994)• Hughes, J. Donald, The Mediterranean. An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2005)• Lancaster, Julia H., Marat Fidarov. An Environmental History of the Russian North Caucasus (New York: HHN

Media, 2009)• Netting, Robert, Balancing on an Alp: Ecological Change and Continuity in a Swiss Mountain Community

(Cambridge University Press, 1981)• Stephen J. Pyne, Vestal Fire. An Environmental History, Told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter

with the World (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1997)• Richards, John F., The Unending Frontier: Environmental History of the Early Modern World (Berkely:

University of California Press, 2003• Whited, Tamara L. (ed.), Northern Europe. An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2005)New Zealand & Oceania

Polynesian outrigger canoe

• Brooking, Tom and Eric Pawson,Environmental Histories of New Zealand(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

• James Beattie, "Environmental Anxietyin New Zealand, 1840-1941: ClimateChange, Soil Erosion, Sand Drift,Flooding and Forest Conservation",Environment and History 9(2003):379-392

• Cassels, R., "The Role of PrehistoricMan in the Faunal Extinctions of NewZealand and other Pacific Islands", inMartin, P. S. and Klein, R. G. (eds.)Quaternary Extinctions: A PrehistoricRevolution (Tucson, The University ofArizona Press, 1984)

• Young, David, Our Islands, Our Selves: A History of Conservation in New Zealand ( Dunedin: Otago UniversityPress, 2004)

Environmental history 15

• Star, Paul, "New Zealand Environmental History: A Question of Attitudes", Environment and History 9(2003):463-475

• Hughes, J. Donald, "Nature and Culture in the Pacific Islands", Leidschrift, 21 (2006) 1, 129-144.• Hughes, J. Donald, "Tahiti, Hawaii, New Zealand: Polynesian impacts on Island Ecosystems", in: An

Environmental History of the World. Humankind"s Changing Role in the Community of Life, (London & NewYork, Routledge, 2002)

• McNeill, John R., "Of Rats and Men. A Synoptic Environmental History of the Island Pacific", Journal of WorldHistory, Vol. 5, no. 2, 299-349

• Bridgman, H. A., "Could climate change have had an influence on the Polynesian migrations?", Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 41(1983) 193-206.

United Kingdom

• Grove, Richard, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins ofEnvironmentalism, 1600–1860 (Cambridge, 1994).

• Beinart, William and Lotte Hughes, Environment and Empire (Oxford, 2007).• Simmonds, Ian G., Environmental History of Great Britain from 10,000 Years Ago to the Present (Edinburgh,

2001).• Lambert, Robert, Contested Mountains (Cambridge, 2001)• Sheail, John, An Environmental History of Twentieth-Century Britain (Basingstoke, 2002).• Clapp, Brian W., An Environmental History of Britain Since the Industrial Revolution (London, 1994).

Future

Old and new human uses of theatmosphere

Environmental history, like all historical studies, shares the hope that throughan examination of past events it may be possible to forge a more consideredfuture. In particular a greater depth of historical knowledge can informenvironmental controversies and guide policy decisions.The subject continues to provide new perspectives, offering cooperationbetween scholars with different disciplinary backgrounds and providing animproved historical context to resource and environmental problems. Thereseems little doubt that, with increasing concern for our environmental future,environmental history will continue along the path of environmentaladvocacy from which it originated as “human impact on the living systems ofthe planet bring us no closer to utopia, but instead to a crisis of survival”[63]

with key themes being population growth, climate change, conflict overenvironmental policy at different levels of human organization, extinction,biological invasions, the environmental consequences of technologyespecially biotechnology, the reduced supply of resources - most notablyenergy, materials and water. Hughes comments that environmental historians“will find themselves increasingly challenged by the need to explain thebackground of the world market economy and its effects on the globalenvironment. Supranational instrumentalities threaten to overpower conservation in a drive for what is calledsustainable development, but which in fact envisions no limits to economic growth”.[64] Hughes also notes that"environmental history is notably absent from nations that most adamantly reject US, or Western influences".[65]

Michael Bess sees the world increasingly permeated by potent technologies in a process he calls “artificialization” which has been accelerating since the 1700s, but at a greatly accelerated rate after 1945. Over the next fifty years, this transformative process stands a good chance of turning our physical world, and our society, upside-down.

Environmental history 16

Environmental historians can “play a vital role in helping humankind to understand the gale-force of artifice that wehave unleashed on our planet and on ourselves”.[66]

Against this background “environmental history can give an essential perspective,offering knowledge of thehistorical process that led to the present situation, give examples of past problems and solutions, and an analysis ofthe historical forces that must be dealt with”[67] or, as expressed by William Cronon, "The viability and success ofnew human modes of existing within the constraints of the environment and its resources requires both anunderstanding of the past and an articulation of a new ethic for the future."[68]

See also• Conservation Movement• Conservation in the United States

Bibliography

Regional studies

Africa

• Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion (1992) 266p;covers 1900 to 1980s

• Anderson, David; Grove, Richard. Conservation in Africa: People, Policies & Practice (1988), 355pp• Bolaane, Maitseo. "Chiefs, Hunters & Adventurers: The Foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park,

Botswana". Journal of Historical Geography. 31.2 (Apr. 2005): 241-259.• Carruthers, Jane. "Africa: Histories, Ecologies, and Societies," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp.379-406;• Showers, Kate B. Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho (2005) 346pp

Asia

• Economy, Elizabeth. The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China's Future (2010)• Elvin, Mark. The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (2006)• Grove, Richard H.; Damodaran, Vinita; Sangwan, Satpal. Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of

South and Southeast Asia (1998) 1036pp• Johnson, Erik W., Saito, Yoshitaka, and Nishikido, Makoto. "Organizational Demography of Japanese

Environmentalism," Sociological Inquiry, Nov 2009, Vol. 79 Issue 4, pp 481-504• Thapar, Valmik. Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent (1998) 288pp

Latin America

• Dean, Warren. With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (1997)• Funes Monzote, Reinaldo. From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492 (2008)• Melville, Elinor G. K. A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico (2008)• Miller, Shawn William. An Environmental History of Latin America (2007)• Noss, Andrew and Imke Oetting. "Hunter Self-Monitoring by the Izoceño -Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco".

Biodiversity & Conservation. 14.11 (2005): 2679-2693.• Simonian, Lane. Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico (1995) 326pp

Environmental history 17

Europe and Russia

• Bonhomme, Brian. Forests, Peasants and Revolutionaries: Forest Conservation & Organization in Soviet Russia,1917-1929 (2005) 252pp

• Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815-2000 (2002)• Simmons, I.G. An Environmental History of Great Britain: From 10,000 Years Ago to the Present (2001).• Weiner, Douglas R. Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia (2000)

324pp; covers 1917 to 1939

United States• Bates, J. Leonard. "Fulfilling American Democracy: The Conservation Movement, 1907 to 1921", The

Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 1. (Jun., 1957), pp. 29–57. in JSTOR [69]

• Brinkley, Douglas G. The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America, (2009) excerptand text search [70]

• Cawley, R. McGreggor. Federal Land, Western Anger: The Sagebrush Rebellion and Environmental Politics(1993), on conservatives

• Flippen, J. Brooks. Nixon and the Environment (2000).• Hays, Samuel P. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985

(1987), the standard scholarly history• Hays, Samuel P. A History of Environmental Politics since 1945 (2000), shorter standard history

• Hays, Samuel P. Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959), on Progressive Era.• King, Judson. The Conservation Fight, From Theodore Roosevelt to the Tennessee Valley Authority (2009)• Nash, Roderick. Wilderness and the American Mind, (3rd ed. 1982), the standard intellectual history• Rothman, Hal K. The Greening of a Nation? Environmentalism in the United States since 1945 (1998)• Scheffer, Victor B. The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (1991).• Strong, Douglas H. Dreamers & Defenders: American Conservationists. (1988) online edition [71], good

biographical studies of the major leaders• Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the

Evolution of the New Right. The Journal of American History 96.1 (2009): 123-47 online at History Cooperative[72]

World

• Barton, Gregory A. Empire, Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism, (2002), covers British Empire• Bolton, Geoffrey. Spoils and Spoilers: Australians Make Their Environment, 1788-1980 (1981) 197pp• Clover, Charles. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. (2004) Ebury

Press, London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7• Jones, Eric L. "The History of Natural Resource Exploitation in the Western World," Research in Economic

History, 1991 Supplement 6, pp 235-252• McNeill, John R. Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth Century (2000),

Environmental history 18

Historiography• Bess, Michael, Mark Cioc, and James Sievert, "Environmental History Writing in Southern Europe,"

Environmental History, 5 (2000), pp.545-56;• Bess, Michael et al. (2005). "Anniversary Forum: What Next for Environmental History?". Environmental

History 10(1): 30–109.• Bess, Michael (2005b). "Artificialization and its Discontents". Environmental History 10(1): 5 para.• Cioc, Mark, Björn-Ola Linnér, and Matt Osborn, "Environmental History Writing in Northern Europe,"

Environmental History, 5 (2000), pp. 396-406• Coates, Peter. "Emerging from the Wilderness (or, from Redwoods to Bananas): Recent Environmental History in

the United States and the Rest of the Americas," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp.407-38• Cronon, William (ed.) (1995). Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature. New York: W W Norton.• Dovers, Stephen (ed.) (1994). Essays in Australian Environmental History: Essays and Cases. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.• Febvre, Lucien (1925). A Geographical Introduction to History. New York: Alfred A Knopf.• Grove, Richard H (1992). "Origins of Western Environmentalism". Scientific American 267(1): 42–47.• Grove, Richard (1994). Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of

Environmentalism, 1600–1860. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521565138.• Hay, Peter. Main Currents in Western Environmental Thought (2002), standard scholarly history excerpt and text

search [73]

• Hughes, Donald J. (2001). An Environmental History of the World: Humankind's Changing Role in theCommunity of Life (Routledge Studies in Physical Geography and Environment). London: Routledge.ISBN 978-0415136198.

• Hughes, Donald J. (2006). What is Environmental History? (What is History Series). Cambridge: Polity Press.ISBN 9780745631899.

• Hughes, Donald J (2008). "Three Dimensions of Environmental History". Environment and History 14: 1–12.• Huxley, Thomas H (1863). Man's Place in Nature. New York (2003): Dover. ISBN 978-0486432731.• Krech, Shepard; McNeill, John R & Merchant, Carolyn (2003). Encyclopaedia of World Environmental History

Vol 1–3. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415937320.• McNeill, John R (2001). Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century

World (Global Century Series). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393321838.• McNeill, John R (2003). "Observations on the Nature and Culture of Environmental History". History and Theory

42(1): 5–43.• MacEachern, Alan; Turkel, William J (eds) (2009). Method & Meaning in Canadian Environmental History.

Toronto: Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0176441166.• Marsh, George P (David Lowenthal ed. 1965) (1864). Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by

Human Action. Cambridge, Ma: Belknap Press of Harvard University.• Martinez-Alier, J; Schandl, H (2002). "Introduction: Special Section: European Environmental History and

Ecological Economics". Ecological Economics 41(2): 175–176.• Merchant, Carolyn (2002). The Columbia Guide to American Environmental History. New York: Columbia

University Press. ISBN 978-0231112338.• Melosi, Martin V (2010). "Humans, Cities, and Nature: How Do Cities Fit in the Material World?". Journal of

Urban History 36(1): 3–21.• Mosley, Stephen. "Common Ground: Integrating Social and Environmental History," Journal of Social History,

Volume 39, Number 3, Spring 2006, pp. 915-933; relation to Social history• Nash, Roderick (1970). "The State of Environmental History" [74]. in Bass, H.J. The State of American History.

Chicago: Organization of American Historians and Quadrangle Books.

Environmental history 19

• Nash, Roderick (1972). "American Environmental History: A New Teaching Frontier". Pacific Historical Review41 (3): 362–372.

• Opie, John (1983). "Environmental History: Pitfalls and Opportunities". Environmental Review 7(1): 8–16.• Ponting, Clive (2007 (rev. edn)). A New Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great

Civilizations. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0143038986.• Robin, Libby, and Tom Griffiths, "Environmental History in Australasia," Environment and History, 10 (2004),

pp.439-74• Simmons, Ian G. (1993). Environmental History: A Concise Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 1557864454.• Uekötter, Frank (2004). "The Old Conservation History – and the New: An Argument for Fresh Perspectives on

an Established Topic". Historical Social Research 29(3): 171–191.• Warde, Paul & Sorlin, Sverker (2007), "The Problem of the Problem of Environmental History: A Re-reading of

the Field and its Purpose", Environmental History 12(1): 107–130• Warde, Paul & Sorlin, Sverker (2009), Nature's End. History and the Environment, London: Macmillan,

ISBN 9780230203464• White, Richard (1985). "Environmental History: The Development of a New Historical Field". Pacific Historical

Review 54: 297–335.• White, Richard (2001). "Environmental History: Retrospect and Prospect". Pacific Historical Review 70(1):

55–57.• Worster, Donald (ed) (1988). The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521348463.• Worster, Donald (1993). The Wealth of Nature. Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination. Oxford:

Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195092643.

External linksPodcasts• Jan W.Oosthoek podcasts on many aspects of the subject including interviews with eminent environmental

historians [75]

• Nature's Past: Canadian Environmental History Podcast features monthly discussions about the environmentalhistory research community in Canada. [76]

• EnvirohistNZ Podcast is a podcast that looks at the environmental history of New Zealand. [77]

Institutions & resources• International Consortium of Environmental History Organizations (ICE-HO) [78]

• Oosthoek, K.J.W. What is environmental history? [79]

• Historiographies of different countries [80]

• H-Environment web resource for students of environmental history [81]

• American Society for Environmental History [82]

• European Society for Environmental History [83]

• Environmental History Resources [84]

• Environmental History Timeline [85]

• Environmental History on the Internet [86]

• Rachel Carson Center [87]

• Forest History Society [88]

• Australian and New Zealand Environmental History Network [89]

• Centre for Environmental History at the Australian National University [90]

• Network in Canadian History and the Environment [91]

• Nature's Past: Canadian Environmental History Podcast [76]

Environmental history 20

• Centre for World Environmental History, University of Sussex [92]

• Environmental History Virtual Library [93]

Journals• Environment and History, Published by White Horse Press with British-based Editorial collective [94]

• Environmental History, Co-published quarterly by the American Society for Environmental History and the (US)Forest History Society [95]

• Global Environment: A Journal of History and Natural and Social Sciences, Published in New Zealand withspecial regard to the modern and contemporary ages [89]

• Journal of the North Atlantic [96]

• Pacific Historical Review [97]

References[1] Huxley 1863, p. 71[2] Worster 1988, p. 293[3] Hughes 2006, pp. 5–7[4] See Grove 1994[5] MacEachern & Turkel 2009, p. xii[6] Nash 1970, pp. 249–260[7] Nash 1972, p. 362[8] McNeill 2003, pp. 5–43[9] See White 1985[10] See Hughes 2006[11] Dovers 1994, p. 4[12] Worster 1988, p. 289[13] Hughes 2001, p. 4[14] Hughes 2006, p. 1[15] Worster 1988, p. 290[16] Worster 1988, p. 292[17] Worster 1993, p. 20[18] Worster 1988, p. viii[19] Worster 1988, p. 306[20] Dovers 1994, p. 5[21] Hughes 2008, p. 8[22] Hughes 2008, p. 5[23] Hughes 2008, p. 3[24] Worster 1988, pp. 289–308[25] See Warde & Sorlin 2007[26] Hughes 2006, pp. 53–92[27] See Krech, McNeill & Merchant 2003[28] Hughes 2006, pp. 53–93[29] Dovers 1994, p. 14[30] Hughes 2006, p. 78[31] Hughes 2006, pp. 18-35[32] Hughes 2006, p. 21[33] Worster 1988, p. 306[34] See McNeill 2003[35] See Warde & Sorlin 2007[36] Adam Rome "Conservation, Preservation, and Environmental Activism: A Survey of the Historical Literature" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/

history/ history/ hisnps/ NPSThinking/ nps-oah. htm). Retrieved 2010-8-8.[37] Hughes 2001, p. 5[38] Worster 1988, p. 290[39] What is Environmental History? K. Jan Oosthoek (http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/ environmental_history. html). Retrieved 2010-8-8.[40] Bess 2005, pp. 30–109[41] Martinez-Alier & Schandle 2002, pp. 175–176[42] See Warde & Sorlin 2007

Environmental history 21

[43] See Warde & Sorlin 2007, pp. 107-130[44] Hughes 2006, pp. 2–3[45] See Marsh 1864, p. 15[46] Grove 1992, pp. 42–47[47] Opie 1983, pp. 8-16[48] See Worster 1993[49] Uekötter 2004, p. 172[50] See Melosi 2010[51] Hughes 2006, pp. 99–101[52] Hughes 2006, pp. 98-99[53] Dovers 1994, pp. 14-16[54] Hughes 2006, p. 5[55] Hughes 2006, p. 97[56] White 2001, p. 55[57] See Cronon 1995[58] Worster 1988, pp. 289-387[59] See Merchant 2002[60] Cronon 1993, pp. 1347-1376[61] See Simmons 1993[62] Hughes 2008, p. 6[63] Hughes 2006, p. 125[64] Hughes 2006, pp. 92-93[65] Hughes 2006, p. 75[66] Bess 2005b[67] Hughes 2006, p. 126[68] See Cronon quote here (http:/ / searchworks. stanford. edu/ view/ 5474508)[69] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1898667[70] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Wilderness-Warrior-Theodore-Roosevelt-Crusade/ dp/ 0060565314/[71] http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=8516594[72] http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jah/ 96. 1/ turner. html[73] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Main-Currents-Western-Environmental-Thought/ dp/ 0253215110/[74] http:/ / www. questia. com/ read/ 28078285[75] http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/ podcast/ podcast. html[76] http:/ / niche-canada. org/ naturespast[77] http:/ / envirohistorynz. wordpress. com/ podcasts-2/[78] http:/ / eseh. org/ about/ iceho[79] http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/ environmental_history. html[80] http:/ / www2. h-net. msu. edu/ ~environ/ historiography/ historiography. html[81] http:/ / www2. h-net. msu. edu/ ~environ/ index. html[82] http:/ / www. aseh. net/[83] http:/ / eseh. org/[84] http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/[85] http:/ / www. environmentalhistory. org/[86] http:/ / www. cnr. berkeley. edu/ departments/ espm/ env-hist/ eh-internet. html[87] http:/ / www. carsoncenter. uni-muenchen. de/[88] http:/ / www. foresthistory. org/[89] http:/ / environmentalhistory-au-nz. org/[90] http:/ / ceh. environmentalhistory-au-nz. org/[91] http:/ / niche-canada. org/[92] http:/ / www. sussex. ac. uk/ cweh/[93] http:/ / vlib. iue. it/ history/ topical/ environmental. html[94] http:/ / environmentalhistory-au-nz. org/ Environment_and_History[95] http:/ / environmentalhistory-au-nz. org/ Environmental_History[96] http:/ / www. eaglehill. us/ programs/ journals/ jona/ journal-north-atlantic. shtml[97] http:/ / ucpressjournals. com/ journalSoc. asp?jIssn=0030-8684

Article Sources and Contributors 22

Article Sources and ContributorsEnvironmental history  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380523475  Contributors: Adam crymble, Aitias, Alan Liefting, AnmaFinotera, Athkalani, Ayanoa, Bawolff,Brunnock, CrowzRSA, DASonnenfeld, Eassin, Edward, Esbenson, Ettrig, Foli8, Fratrep, G34j, Gaius Cornelius, Giraffedata, Granitethighs, Grutness, Hasilein, Jedes, Jeff3000, Jezhotwells, JohnVandenberg, Joshfinnie, Karunyan, Kempelen, Kempelen2, Kevlar67, Look2See1, MIPortnova, Mandarax, MelindaPF, Micler, MrBell, Nikdarlington, Ninarosa, Nmf1, Oxymoron83,Peregrine981, Piano non troppo, Ragesoss, Random Nonsense, Reywas92, Rjensen, Sct72, Seide, Shogun Luis, Skheraj, Steinan3, TheKarunyan, Themightyquill, Utahredrock, Von kempelen,Wambool, Wavelength, 63 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile: Machupicchuandthesacredvalley.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Machupicchuandthesacredvalley.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Fir0002, Janke, Raeky, Rubyk, Veledan, 1 anonymous editsFile:British Empire 1897.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Empire_1897.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknownFile:Penn oil 1864.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Penn_oil_1864.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bkwillwm, Infrogmation, UrbanFile:Muir and Roosevelt restored.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muir_and_Roosevelt_restored.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Underwood &UnderwoodFile:Frederick Jackson Turner.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frederick_Jackson_Turner.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was KF aten.wikipediaFile:Panama canal panoramic view from the top of Ancon hill.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panama_canal_panoramic_view_from_the_top_of_Ancon_hill.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Brian GratwickeFile:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Erasoft24Image:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Apoc2400File:Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, BBhounder, JMCC1, Jeff Dahl, Mdd, Mmcannis, Neithsabes, RobertLechner, XenophonFile:HistoricalMarkerUSGeorgiaPioneerTurpentiningExperiment.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HistoricalMarkerUSGeorgiaPioneerTurpentiningExperiment.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:RichardelainechambersFile:African landscape.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:African_landscape.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR,Geofrog, M loewen, RedWolf, RokeFile:Palmer Station panorama.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palmer_Station_panorama.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Patrick Rowe (NationalScience Foundation)File:Christopher Columbus3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christopher_Columbus3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:Currier and IvesCurrier and Ives(publisher)File:Rice terraces.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rice_terraces.png  License: unknown  Contributors: n.a.File:Aboriginal Art Australia(2).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aboriginal_Art_Australia(2).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:MosmasFile:Roman aqueduct in Segovia (side view).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_aqueduct_in_Segovia_(side_view).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:KomencantoFile:Tokelau Atafu vaka canoe. 20070715.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tokelau_Atafu_vaka_canoe._20070715.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: CloudSurferImage:Eolienne et centrale thermique Nuon Sloterdijk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eolienne_et_centrale_thermique_Nuon_Sloterdijk.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Aloxe

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