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Environmental Bio-Indicators of the Quality System of Eco-Monitoring

Rade Biočanin1, Sonja Stefanov2

1University of Novi Pazar, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Pazar, Serbia2University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia

Abstract

Humanity is now confronted with many existential crises, and the environmental crisis has a special place. The damage done to the environment today will have a negative impact on the entire ecosystem for many years in advance. The consequences of the devastating effects of mankind on the environment that occurred in the past are going to influence today’s societies, whether it is an environmental crisis or an ecological disaster. Modern management system is based on permanent business process advancement along with application of Quality Management System and Environmental Management System in accordance with Sustainable development. In this paper we handle the impact of toxic substances on living beings and environmental bioindicators, which are essential for quality monitoring, environmental protection, prevention and treatment of the population.

Key words: environment, pollution, contamination, monitoring, bioindicators, system quality, sustainable development

Introduction

Earth’s atmosphere is a gas layer which surrounds the planet Earth and which is retained by Earth’s gravity. It contains 4/5 of nitrogen and 1/5 of oxygen while other gases are present in atmosphere only in traces. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultra-violet radiation from the Sun and by decreasing extreme temperature values during the night period.

Atmosphere does not end abruptly. It becomes less and less dense and ends into the space. Approximately 3/4 of the atmosphere mass is within 11km away from the planet’s surface, i.e. from point zero and it represents the space where life flourishes. However, the activities of mankind, and also some natural processes increase the level of gases in the atmosphere. Those gases are most of all carbon (IV) oxide, but also some gases that normally do not enter the atmosphere (or if they do, their presence is minimal) such as sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon and others which are present above MAA limit and affect life on Earth and its balance.

Aside from atmosphere changes mentioned, there may be some other changes which have negative effect on the health of human beings such as radionuclides (iodine 131, strontium 90, cesium 137, gold 138, beryllium, polonium 210 and others) which could have a significant influence on human health and most of all normal functions of vital organs and they could, also, cause many terminal illnesses.

The ecological awareness does not include knowledge only, but it is also the basis of further viable development, protection and preservation. It is combined with the knowledge and skills to provide basis for creating larger systems, broader goals and more sophisticated comprehension of cause, link and consequences that are the very basis of laws of nature. Protection and melioration of human environment is a significant issue of modern civilization. Mankind was never able to create an ideal civilization and avoid its crises.

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The solution of such issues requires, among other things, the discovery of the manner in which natural resources would be rationally and comprehensively used, and the manner of applying demographic policies and developing and improving international cooperation regarding scientific research. A new approach to the matter of environment and the transformation of the underlying note of the modern labour sphere become imperative.

Disturbance of the eco-balance is the consequence of human labour which mankind uses to claim nature of its own and create products. The disturbance of eco-balance and eco-systems (habitats) is not the only result of human labour, but the integrity and survival of mankind are also in question.

Global Issues of Modern Days

In the 21st century mankind faces following global issues: biosphere damage and damage to the eco-systems (habitats), overpopulation (over 6 billion going double that value by 2020), exhausting and decreasing many mineral sources and energy sources, pollution and degradation of the air, water and soil, global climate changes, the extinction of animal and vegetation species and further endangering of biodiversity. It also faces the fact that 1/4 of world population consists of homeless people, damaging human health and endangering human lives, large quantities of waste in the three aggregate states and the like.

World ecologists warn that mankind managed to exhaust the planet it inhabits so much that it can barely ‘breathe’. Some world organizations for environmental protection have estimated that mankind is spending more than 30% of natural resources over Earth’s limits. The forests are vanishing, so do the species that live in the water. There are shocking data that, in the last 30 years, the number of animals living in forests and water has decreased by a third. All this leads to the forest vanishing, decrease or disappearance of life in water and climate changes, which we nowadays experience to some extent.

The greatest danger of damaging the quality of water is by introducing heavy metals in it by waste waters. The pollution effects of water pollution with heavy metals are various and they initially become visible in plants, which are the most sensitive link in plants-animals-humans chain. The survival of human society was often challenged in the past by natural disasters, breakouts, wars, food deficiency and other factors, which were, nevertheless, limited to a specific territory. The existence crises of the past differ from crises of modern days a great deal because modern day crises are not results of natural disasters limited to a specific territory, but of global discord between ideals and material goods of the entire industrial civilization.

The number of factors affecting the environment which could cause distinctive damage to the health of human and other beings is large. Some of those factors are:

– the effect of polluted air, water, food and soil,– the effect of radiation energy,– the effect of noise and vibrations.

Numerous chemical substances that pollute and which are introduced into the environment could cause a series of disorders in a living organism and some of them are:

– poisoning - toxic effect,– damage to the genetic material - mutation effect,– damage to the offspring (embryo, fetus) - teratogenic effect,– the cancer of various organs -cancerous effect.

Toxic substances, which can be usually found in the environment, may be a common phenomenon for the certain surroundings, but they would have to be present in ordinary quantities. However, any increase in the quantity of the toxic substances in the environment over the highest level permitted is considered as toxicity.

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Toxic substances could be found in different states in the environment as follows:– as gas (CO2, CO, SO2, and other sulphur oxides, NO2 and other nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon, etc),– as liquid (mercury, etc.),– as solid substances (particles, which most commonly contain carbon, silicon, aluminium, iron

oxide, etc.).

Toxic substances are introduced into an organism in many ways: via respiration, skin, digestion (food). Toxins have the quickest effect when they are introduced into an organism by means of respiration because the absorption of the respiratory system is the quickest; however, gastrointestinal tract reabsorbs food quickly, as well. On entering the mucous membrane, toxic substances enter the bloodstream and they are relatively quickly transported to the vital tissues and organs and to other organs in the organism afterwards.

Vital organs, the most sensitive to the external toxins effect, are endocrine system of organs and most of all thyroid gland, liver (which participates in detoxification of an organism), heart (large quantity of blood flows through it - 6 l per minute in average), brain (which is also exposed to the toxic effect of various toxins that penetrate the meninges). When toxins enter an organism, they initially occupy the organs they could immediately bond with, such as radioactive iodine 131 bonds with the thyroid gland and causes cancer of that gland relatively quickly.

3. УТИЦАЈУТИЦАЈ ЉЕКОБИЉАЉЕКОБИЉА ИИ ПЧЕЛИЊИХПЧЕЛИЊИХ ПРОИЗВОДАПРОИЗВОДАНАНА ЈАЧАЊЕЈАЧАЊЕ ИМУНОГИМУНОГ СИСТЕМАСИСТЕМА

Факултет за Безбједност и Заштиту Faculty of Security i ProtectionPicture 1. How to preserve perfection and harmony of nature and living beings

In considering this issue, the terms should be considered:– processes in the environment– bioavailability and bioavailability processes– biotic and abiotic decomposition of pollutants– persistence– bioaccumulation– biomagnification– biotransformation

Numerous abiotic processes that take place without the participation of living organisms, and biotic processes that take place with the participation of living organisms in the environment are focused on the elimination (removal) of eco-pollutants. Many xenobiotics got into the air, land, water, contributing to minimal damage to ecosystems due to the short time of their action. Examples: heavy metals, polycyclic polyhalogen hydrocarbons (polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, dibenzofurans, polyhlot diphenils), organochlorine insecticides (DDT, heksahlor, aldrin lindane), etc.

Substances that are resistant to the processes of decomposition, which are long persistent in the environment as a rule, are potentially of dangerous ecotoxicity. Example: pesticide Mirex in Lake

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Ontario (high content measured in the nineties, and production ceased in the seventies). Examples: heavy metals, polycyclic hydrocarbons polyhalogen (polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, dibenzofurans, polyhlot diphenils), organochlorine insecticides (DDT, heksahlor, aldrin lindane), etc.

Picture 2. DDT biomagnification in aquatic ecosystems (in ppm); shows: tertiary consumers (13.8ppm), secondary consumers (2.07 ppm), primary consumers (0.23 ppm) and producers (0.04 ppm).

Biomagnification of polychlorinated biphenyls in the ecological food chain Arctic ecosystems:– red - pelagic zooplankton,– light green colour - cod– dark green colour – seabirds

Picture 3. The concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls in food chain

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Environmental Bio-Indicators of the Quality System of Eco-Monitoring

Picture 4. Biotransformation of chemical substances

– Photochemical– Degradation - photolysis– (UV radiation)– Hydrolysis

Eco-toxic Disorders in Human Beings

Eco-toxicology mostly refers to toxic, teratogenic effects, mutation and cancerous effects of toxins. Toxic effects are a series of disorders in an organism caused by some toxic substances. The toxicity of the substance depends on the intensity of the processes in the organism that happen simultaneously: re-absorption, detoxification, deposition and elimination.

The toxins may produce the effect immediately on entering the organism or after a certain period (incubation). The toxins produce their toxic effects relatively quickly on entering the organism, hindering and altering the functions of vital tissues and organs (liver, heart, brain, bone marrow, endocrine system, etc.).

Some reabsorbed toxins reach the organs that are less sensitive and remain there for some time (deposition). In adipose tissue many insecticides are deposited, and in osseous tissue, strontium and led are deposited. Some of toxins are excreted out of the organism (elimination) via kidneys (most part), excrement (insoluble compounds such as metals) and lungs (gaseous toxins).

Liver is one of the vital organs and its function is irreplaceable because it participates in detoxification of an organism acting as a filter that clears toxic substances away. In the detoxification process, liver synthesizes bile, which flows into the gallbladder, and then the bile leaves the body via common bile duct (a canal). When toxins enter an organism and liver, in series of mechanic activities, removes them from the blood, they reach the gallbladder and, as bile flows, they remain attached to the walls of gallbladder, common bile duct and intestines, and cause alterations, which unable the common functions of those organs and subsequently, corrupt them.

The heart is also affected by toxins on their entry into an organism because of the quantity of blood vessels it is connected to. Cardiac output is approximately 5-6 l of blood per minute, which means that the toxins easily enter bloodstream, remain attached to the inner walls of the heart endocardium and cause infections, which could disrupt the heartbeat, especially should the infection linger and grow into chronic disease. Heart conditions always lead to more serious alterations in functions of an organism, which are manifested in time, and cause severe conditions such as dilated cardiomyopathy, mitral valve prolapse which causes mitral regurgitation, varicose vein which may cause thrombophlebitis and others.

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Many toxins have neurotoxic effects because they attack neurons, disturb their functions and cause alterations in the function and structure of the brain (the brain cells do not have the power of regeneration or multiplication).

Toxins have the strongest impact upon the endocrine system, i.e. on the endocrine glands, such as radioactive iodine effect on the thyroid gland, which has been previously mentioned.

Teratogenic effect (lat. terata-mutant) is the effect of toxins on the offspring in the first three months following conception, because that is the most sensitive period for the offspring due to the quick cell multiplication and organogenesis. One of the causes of having children with anomalies is the effect of toxins on fetus in the first three months of pregnancy.

Mutation effect of toxins is closely related to teratogenic effect because the toxins alter the genetic structure and their effect is the strongest when the ‘victim’ i.e. fetus is the most sensitive. However, toxins may have mutation effect in postnatal period as well, which means that they could cause damage during the life cycles of the individual being.

Mutation effect may cause two types of damage to the genes: • Alterations in the structure of chromosomes and their number (aberration); these are microscopic alternations,• Alterations in the genes (genetic mutation).

Cancerous effect of toxins is presented in the form of causing many malignant alterations (cancer) of various organs in an organism. Such cancerous substances turn healthy cells into cancerous cells, which multiply rapidly causing malignant tumours (they grow and corrupt surrounding tissues- metastasis).

The number of substances with cancerous effect is growing, and it is considered that such substances, in 60-90% of the cases, could cause cancer in human beings. Viruses, aside from mutation effect, could have cancerous effect on the organism (the so-called oncogenic viruses). It is believed that there could be approximately 2000 potentially cancerous substances. Cigarette smoke contains more than 30 cancerous substances. Radioactive substances in the air could also have cancerous effect.

Toxins present their cancerous effect on entering an organism by attacking the organ most susceptible to them, altering its cellular genetic structure and when cells begin to multiply rapidly and disrupt the balance the first symptoms of illness present themselves and, when detected, they usually mean that cancer is progressing.

Picture 4-a. The diversity of wildlife and bioindication

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Picture 4-b. A human being is the finest bio-indicator of health and quality of life

Bio-indicators of the Environment Quality

When global, regional and local pollution, i.e. contamination, is concerned, eco-toxicology and environment bio-indicators bear great merit and play a significant role in the monitoring system.

Eco-toxicology is a multidisciplinary science, which studies the effects of toxins on an organism, population and communities in polluted environment. It was defined for the first time by Truhaut (1969). Toxicology of an environment, eco-toxicology derives its lexical etymology from Ancient Greek words toxikon, which means poison, and logos, which means science. Great many chemicals in everyday use seriously damage the health of human and other living beings. Statistic data, that there are approximately 60000 chemicals in everyday use, and that each year another 1000 new chemicals are produced, witness the seriousness of the issue. The science that focuses on the damaging (toxic) effects of chemical substances on living organisms is called toxicology.

The term “bio-indicators” was first introduced by Clements in 1920, to define the organisms which, when present in a habitat, indicate without a doubt the ecological conditions of that habitat. Physics and chemistry methods of monitoring are irreplaceable part of that system considering their providing exact data of the presence and distribution of pollution substances. However, they alone are not sufficient, nor could they replace biologic monitoring.

Biologic monitoring has been divided, for methodological reasons, depending on the state of the environment, for alteration monitoring such as pollution of air, water and soil.

Lichens and mosses are bio-indicators used in air pollution monitoring. There are 20000 species of lichens described. These organisms were, in the past, considered to be related to moss, algae and were even characterized as ‘Chaos of Nature’.

The relation between those two organisms which combined create a lichen was a scientific puzzle for a long time. One could even assume that, due to the long process of evolution and many environmental factors, the two organisms formed a single utterly new organism completely adapted to the most complex and most severe environmental conditions.

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Eco-toxicology- kinetics is part of ecotoxicology, which examines the fate of xenobiotics (eco-pollutants) in the environment: their sources, distribution in abiotic and biotic elements of the environment, the transformation of xenobiotics in the environment in which they are located, the elimination from the environment.

Picture 5. The material allows membrane transport, toxicokinetics and toxico-dynamics

A series of biologic and ecologic characteristics of lichens is not merely a sum of characteristics of each member of that symbiosis, but it is something completely new and different. Long life, non-shedding of old parts and accumulation of many substances in thallus make lichens reliable indicators of the state of environment. In the previous century, the disappearance of lichens from Luxembourg Garden in Paris was related to the overwhelming air pollution. This initiated intensive research of lichen flora in urban and rural areas as well as in industrial areas all over the world, which confirmed the selective sensitivity of lichens to variations of air quality.

What does all that mean? The research proved that the lichens are particularly sensitive to elevated concentration of sulphur dioxide, the greatest city polluter, so based on the quality and quantity composition of lichen flora (presence or absence of certain taxa) the degree of air pollution of certain segments in urban and rural areas could be determined.

After the Chernobyl disaster on 26 April 1986, many researches confirmed that lichens accumulated radionuclides during radioactive rainfalls and they could be considered as good indicators of radioactive pollution level.

Moss is land vegetation, evolutionary primitive but hardy and widely spread (almost worldwide) on the Earth’s surface. They are most commonly very small plants which could be found in large numbers in humid areas, such as north sides of rocks and bark of trees or as green covering over the forest soil (‘moss mat’).

The supposition that moss grows on humid surfaces is wrong. Although most mosses prefer elevated humidity, there are some uncommon examples of desert moss and tundra moss which survive in water impoverished areas. Mosses could, however, be found in chloride and sulphate slatinas and deserts, on landslide soils or eroded soils and seas. Botany has divided mosses in three groups in lower plants: hornworths, liverworths and bryopsidae and that division was valid for some time.

The role of mosses in ecosystems is great - they compensate their small size with their numerosity. Mosses are the pioneer groups of plants which grow on fire sights, secondary bare surfaces, north edges of tundras. Due to their numerosity on marshes’ soils and mountain forests, they prevent the erosion of land and have a sponge effect by absorbing and gradually releasing water into an ecosystem. Clumps of

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moss are small ecosystems because many small invertebrates and some bacteriae inhabit them. Mosses easily absorb environment polluters because they have no cuticle on their stems or leaves.

On the bark of apple fruit it may cause scars, which are alterations in texture that look like cork. “Apple scar skin“ viroid.

Picture 6. Each ‘overdosing’ causes alterations on fruits of plants

Water Resources Monitoring

In bio-monitoring of water pollution the commonest bio-indicators of state alternations are algae, bacteriae and fish. Water as a habitat affects all the living beings with its physical and chemical characteristics. Optimal characteristics are those which create conditions in which a certain species of organism may preserve characteristic alternation of substance, and enable biological progress of the species. Variability of some factors of water habitat has and ecological significant for living beings in water.

Analysis of individual parameters of water quality indicates the temporary state of water habitat which with its physiological and patho-physiological states reflect the events that took place a week ago, a month ago, a year ago or even further into the past before the analysis.

The quality of water in which fish live is very important for their survival. Fish live in a certain range of basic parameters (temperature, oxygen, pH value, ammonia, organic matter, water hardness) and within those parameters they can live normally. Any overstepping of the minimum or maximum limits causes alternation of their physiological state.

There are many scientific researches in the world nowadays and they are focused on testing, improving and preserving the environment, especially water which is a limited and sensitive natural resource.

One of the first steps towards the solution of ecological pollution water issue is research and monitoring of the presence and concentration of polluting substances, especially heavy metals. Even though water has extraordinary power of self-purification, some pollutants, among which are heavy metals, could cause the alternation in water quality to the point of making it useless for many purposes.

Bio-indicators of soil pollution are usually plants, vegetation, microorganisms, bacteriae, insects and animal species. They are indicators of health and the degree of preservation of environment due to their extraordinary sensitivity to the slightest of alternations in habitats. In some cases, it is possible that individual species disappear off the monitored locality. Those are the very species considered to be bio-indicators.

Bio-indication is possible to be applied to all levels of living systems, starting with molecular to biological, physiological, cellular, individual, population, species relevant, biocenological (ecosystem), biome and biospheric level. The advantages of biologic indication over physical and chemical methods of environment pollution/contamination monitoring are in the fact that living organisms may indicate the effect of polluting substances accumulation in the longer time period. Be that as it may, physical and chemical methods provide with exact data even though they are available in specific periods.

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Picture 7. The significance of bio-monitoring in water quality research

Conclusions

The entire world begins to grasp the importance of following eco-demands for viable development, while acknowledges the issues and requirements of environment as key factors of survival of the civilization as well as distinguishing awareness of human participation in decaying which demands new types of curriculums with ecological position. Successful practicing of eco-management, i.e. the theory of viable development, would provide unimpeded industrial growth, environment quality, health and harmonious existence of present and future generations.

Even after serious warnings about eco-disturbance, unfortunately, world population does not consider the situation alarming. The popularity of ecology is growing especially among young people. For all those reasons, the ecology is considered to be more of a trend of ‘healthy living’, a lifestyle of eccentric individuals who do not know what do with their lives (unfortunately due to narrow-minded and short-sighted people it is often the case). The diversity of ecology rates must not define ecology as a fluke or a phrase. Although the consequences of ecological negligence are catching up with people of modern days, majority of world population remains blissfully unaware or inert. Let us hope that when we all become aware of the problem it does not turn out that it is too late.

In environment monitoring, bio-indicators, such as lichens, birds and bacteriae, are used for the presentation of actual state of the environment. Those organisms are used for detecting changes in the environment and demonstrating the presence of polluters and their effects on an ecosystem. Changes could be chemical, psychological or behavioural.

Bio-indicators are relevant to the ecological health and quality of life. Each organism within an ecosystem has the ability to affect the health. Specific psychological changes of bio-indicators are used to demonstrate the changes in the health of the environment. The key criteria for bio-indicators when evaluating quantity and quality state of the environment:

• Indicators are useful and reliable for environment monitoring, • Indicator is the goal; it is transparent and reproductive,• Elementary data are characterized by the methodology of gathering such data, systems of data

management which are integrally protected, and the procedure for ensuring the quality,• Data enable the description of changes or they are the indicator of their movements, which

are comparable in time and space regarding the specimen of the target population. Identifying sources of pollutants is an important step in ecotoxicology characterization.

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