environmental assestment

7/29/2019 environmental assestment.

1/34

CHAPTER 10

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTLloyd V. Urban, Ph.D., P.E.

R. K. Jain, Ph.D., P.E.

During the decision-making process and development of a project, the environmental engineer should incor-

porate considerations of the proposed actions on the total environment: air, water, and land. Also, the prima-ry and secondary impacts on neighbors and the general public are important. In the United States, the Na-tional Environmental Policy Act (1) and subsequent regulations form the basis for environmentalassessments (EAs) and environmental impact statements (EISs). An overview of the first twenty-five yearsof these regulations is included in this chapter.

The environmental assessment process documents the awareness of the owner, designer, and public of thepotential impacts resulting from the construction any new, modified, or expanded facilities. The documenta-tion is concise, and the degree of detail varies with the size and location of the project. The outcome of theEA process will be a regulatory agency finding of no significant impact or a requirement for an EIS. An en-vironmental impact statement documents in great detail real and potential direct and secondary impacts ofthe proposed project. Alternative evaluations and mitigation actions may be included. Public participation is

key in the EA/EIS process.*

LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS

The environmental assessment process is couched in federal law, with auxiliary requirements evolvedthrough executive orders, regulations, agency response, state legal requirements, and other legal mecha-nisms. The principal federal legislation is the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (PL 91-190), typi-cally referred to as NEPA (see Figure 10.1).

When compared with most environmental legislation, NEPA has four distinguishing features (3).

1. NEPA is a policy act setting a course for public action and is not a regulatory statute.2. NEPAs goals and principles are not self-enforcing but require action by Congress and the President. Ob-

servance of the policy intent is mandated by the environmental impact statement and is enforceablethrough the courts.

3. NEPA is integrative, crossing and affecting a broad range of public issueseconomic, demographic, eco-logical, aesthetic, and ethical.

4. NEPA is oriented toward the future by recognizing the worldwide and long-range character of environ-mental problems.

10.1

*Material for portions of this chapter has been drawn from Ref. 2.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.

Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Source: STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING


2/34

10.2 CHAPTER TEN

PURPOSE

Sec. 2. The purposes of this Act are: to declare a national policy which will encourage productive andenjoyable harmony between man and his environment; to promote efforts which will prevent or eliminatedamage to the environment and biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare of man; to enrich the un-

derstanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to the Nation; and to establish aCouncil on Environmental Quality.

Title IDeclaration of NationalEnvironmental Policy

Sec. 101. (a) The Congress, recognizing the profound impact of mans activity on the interrelations ofall components of the natural environment, particularly the profound influences of population growth,high-density urbanization, industrial expansion, resource exploitation, and new and expanding technologi-cal advances and recognizing further the critical importance of restoring and maintaining environmentalquality to the overall welfare and development of man, declares that it is the continuing policy of the Fed-eral Government, in cooperation with State and local governments, and other concerned public and privateorganizations, to use all practicable means and measures, including financial and technical assistance, in amanner calculated to foster and promote the general welfare, to create and maintain conditions underwhich man and nature can exist in productive harmony, and fulf ill the social, economic, and other require-ments of present and future generations of Americans.

(b) In order to carry out the policy set forth in this Act, it is the continuing responsibility of the Feder-al Government to use all practicable means, consistent with other essential considerations of national poli-cy, to improve and coordinate Federal plans, functions, programs, and resources to the end that the Nationmay

(1) fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as trustee of the environment for succeeding genera-tions;

(2) assure for all Americans safe, healthful, productive, and esthetically and culturally pleasing sur-roundings;

(3) attain the widest range of beneficial uses of the environment without degradation, risk to health orsafety, or other undesirable and unintended consequences;

(4) preserve important historic, cultural, and natural aspects of our national heritage, and maintain,wherever possible, an environment which supports diversity and variety of individual choice;

(5) achieve a balance between population and resource use which will permit high standards of livingand a wide sharing of lifes amenities; and

(6) enhance the quality of renewable resources and approach the maximum attainable recycling of de-pletable resources.

(c) The Congress recognizes that each person should enjoy a healthful environment and that each per-son has a responsibility to contribute to the preservation and enhancement of the environment.

Sec. 102. The Congress authorizes and directs that, to the fullest extent possible: (1) the policies, regu-lations, and public laws of the United States shall be interpreted and administrated in accordance with thepolicies set forth in this Act, and (2) all agencies of the Federal Government shall

FIGURE 10.1 The National Environmental Policy ActPublic Law 91-190 (as amended by PL 94-83).

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT




3/34

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 10.3

(A) utilize a systematic, interdisciplinary approach which will ensure the integrated use of the naturaland social sciences and the environmental design arts in planning and in decision making which may havean impact on mans environment;

(B) identify and develop methods and procedures, in consultation with the Council on EnvironmentalQuality established by title II of this Act, which will ensure that presently unquantified environmentalamenities and values may be given appropriate consideration in decision-making along with economic andtechnical considerations;

(C) include in every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation and other major Federal ac-tions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment, a detailed statement by the responsibleofficial on

(i) the environmental impact of the proposed action,

(ii) any adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided should the proposal be implemented,

(iii) alternatives to the proposed action,

(iv) the relationship between local short-term uses of mans environment and the maintenance and

enhancement of long-term productivity, and(v) any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources which would be involved in the pro-

posed action should it be implemented.

Prior to making any detailed statement, the responsible Federal official shall consult with and obtainthe comments of any Federal agency which has jurisdiction by law or special expertise with respect to anyenvironmental impact involved. Copies of such statement and the comments and views of the appropriateFederal, State, and local agencies, which are authorized to develop and enforce environmental standards,shall be made available to the President, the Council on Environmental Quality and to the public as provid-ed by section 552 of title 5, United States Code, and shall accompany the proposal through the existingagency review processes.

(D) Any detailed statement required under subparagraph (C) after January 1, 1970, for any major Fed-eral action funded under a program of grants to States shall not be deemed to be legally insufficient solelyby reason of having been prepared by a State agency or official, if:

(i) the State agency official has statewide jurisdiction and has the responsibility for such action,

(ii) the responsible Federal official furnishes guidance and participates in such preparation.

(iii) the responsible Federal official independently evaluates such statement prior to its approval andadoption, and

(iv) after January 1,1976, the responsible Federal official provides early notification to, and solicitsthe views of, any other State or any Federal land management entity of any action or any alternative there-to which may have significant impacts upon such State or affected Federal land management entity and, if

there is any disagreement on such impacts, prepared a written assessment of such impacts and views forincorporation into such detailed statement.

The procedures in this subparagraph shall not relieve the Federal official of his responsibilities for thescope, objectivity, and content of the entire statement or of any other responsibility under this Act; and fur-ther, this subparagraph does not affect the legal sufficiency of statements prepared by State agencies withless than statewide jurisdiction.

(E) study, develop, and describe appropriate alternatives to recommended courses of action in any pro-posal which involves unresolved conflicts concerning alternative uses of available resources;

FIGURE 10.1 The National Environmental Policy ActPublic Law 91-190 (as amended by PL 94-83) (continued).





4/34

10.4 CHAPTER TEN

(F) recognize the worldwide and long-range character of environmental problems and, where consis-tent with the foreign policy of the United States, lend appropriate support to initiatives, resolutions, andprograms designed to maximize international cooperation in anticipating and preventing a decline in thequality of mankinds world environment;

(G) make available to States, counties, municipalities, institutions, and individuals, advice and infor-mation useful in restoring, maintaining and enhancing the quality of the environment;

(H) initiate and utilize ecological information in the planning and development of resource-orientedprojects; and

(I) assist the Council on Environmental Quality established by title II of this Act.

Sec. 103. All agencies of the Federal Government shall review their present statutory authority, admin-istrative regulations, and current policies and procedures for the purpose of determining whether there areany deficiencies or inconsistencies therein which prohibit full compliance with the purposes and provi-sions of this Act and shall propose to the President not later than July 1, 1971, such measures as may benecessary to bring their authority and policies into conformity with the intent, purposes, and proceduresset forth in this Act.

Sec. 104. Nothing in Section 102 or 103 shall in any way affect the specific statutory obligations of anyFederal agency (1) to comply with criteria or standards of environmental quality; (2) to coordinate or con-sult with any other Federal or State agency, or (3) to act, or refrain from acting contingent upon the recom-mendations or certif ication of any other Federal or State agency.

Sec. 105. The policies and goals set forth in this Act are supplementary to those set forth in existing au-thorizations of Federal agencies.

Title IICouncil on Environmental Quality

Sec. 201. The President shall transmit to the Congress annually beginning July 1, 1970, an Environ-

mental Quality Report (hereinafter referred to as the report) which shall set forth (1) the status and con-dition of the major natural, manmade, or altered environmental classes of the Nation, including, but notlimited to, the air, the aquatic, including marine, estuarine, and fresh water, and the terrestrial environ-ment, including, but not limited to, the forest dryland, wetland, range, urban, suburban, and rural environ-ment; (2) current and foreseeable trends in the quality management and utilization of such environmentsand the effects of those trends on the social, economic, and other requirements of the Nation; (3) the ade-quacy of available natural resources for fulfilling human and economic requirements of the Nation in thelight of expected population pressures; (4) a review of the programs and activities (including regulatoryactivities) of the Federal Government, the State and local governments, and nongovernmental entities orindividuals, with particular reference to their effect on the environment and on the conservation, develop-ment and utilization of natural resources; and (5) a program for remedying the deficiencies of existing pro-

grams and activities, together with recommendations for legislation.Sec. 202. There is created in the Executive Office of the President a Council on Environmental Quality

(hereinafter referred to as the Council). The Council shall be composed of three members who shall be ap-pointed by the President to serve at his pleasure, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Pres-ident shall designate one of the members of the Council to serve as Chairman. Each member shall be a per-son who as a result of his training, experience, and attainments, is exceptionally well qualified to analyze andinterpret environmental trends and information of all kinds; to appraise programs and activities of the Fed-eral Government in the light of the policy set forth in Title I of this Act; to be conscious of and responsive to






5/34


the scientific, economic, social, esthetic, and cultural needs and interests of the Nation; and to formulate andrecommend national policies to promote the improvement of the quality of the environment.

Sec. 203. The Council may employ such officers and employees as may be necessary to carry out itsfunctions under this Act. In addition, the Council may employ and fix the compensation of such expertsand consultants as may be necessary for the carrying out of its functions under this Act, in accordance

with section 3109 of title 5, United States Code (but without regard to the last sentence thereof).

Sec. 204. It shall be the duty and function of the Council

(1) to assist and advise the President in the preparation of the Environmental Quality Report requiredby section 201;

(2) to gather timely and authoritative information concerning the conditions and trends in the qualityof the environment both current and prospective, to analyze and interpret such information for the purposeof determining whether such conditions and trends are interfering, or are likely to interfere, with theachievement of the policy set forth in title I of this Act, and to compile and submit to the President studiesrelating to such conditions and trends;

(3) to review and appraise the various programs and activities of the Federal Government in the light of

the policy set forth in title I of this Act for the purpose of determining the extent to which such programsand activities are contributing to the achievement of such policy, and to make recommendations to thePresident with respect thereto;

(4) to develop and recommend to the President national policies to foster and promote the improve-ment of environmental quality to meet the conservation, social, economic, health, and other requirementsand goals of the Nation;

(5) to conduct investigations, studies, surveys, research, and analyses relating to ecological systemsand environmental quality;

(6) to document and define changes in the natural environment, including the plant and animal sys-tems, and to accumulate necessary data and other information for a continuing analysis of these changes or

trends and an interpretation of their underlying causes;(7) to report at least once each year to the President on the state and condition of the environment; and

(8) to make and furnish such studies, reports thereon, and recommendations with respect to matters ofpolicy and legislation as the President may request.

Sec. 205. In exercising its powers, functions, and duties under this Act, the Council shall

(1) consult with the Citizens Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality established by ExecutiveOrder numbered 11472, dated May 29, 1969, and with such representatives of science, industry, agriculture,labor, conservation organizations, State and local governments, and other groups as it deems advisable; and

(2) utilize, to the fullest extent possible, the services, facilities, and information (including statisticalinformation) of public and private agencies and organizations, and individuals in order that duplication of

effort and expense may be avoided, thus assuring that the Councils activities will not unnecessarily over-lap or conflict with similar activities authorized by law and performed by established agencies.

Sec. 206. Members of the Council shall serve full time and the Chairman of the Council shall be com-pensated at the rate provided for Level II of the Executive Schedule Pay Rates (5 U.S.C. 5313). The othermembers of the Council shall be compensated at the rate provided for Level IV of the Executive SchedulePay Rates (5 U.S.C. 5315).

Sec. 207. There are authorized to be appropriated to carry out the provisions of this Act not to exceed$300,000 for fiscal year 1970, $700,000 for f iscal year 1971, and $1,000,000 for each fiscal year thereafter.






6/34

National Environmental Policy Act

The enactment of NEPA added a new dimension to the planning and decision-making process of federal andstate agencies in the United States. NEPA requires federal agencies to assess the environmental impact ofimplementing their major programs and actions as early in the planning process as possible and, in all cases,prior to the undertaking of the project or the action (1). For those projects or actions that are either expectedto have a significant effect on the quality of the human environment or are expected to be controversial onenvironmental grounds, the proponent agency is required to file a formal environmental impact statement(EIS) (1). This environmental assessment process (also referred to as the NEPA process) has had a pro-found effect on the way major projects with significant federal agency involvement are planned and imple-mented.

In order to incorporate environmental concerns into the decision-making process, the environmental im-pact analysis of major undertakings is a logical first step. In the normal market exchange of goods and ser-vices, these environmental concerns cannot be, and are not, properly accounted for. Consequently, in theUnited States, provisions of NEPA were designed to create a vehicle for considering environmental ameni-ties consistent with other national needs, such as economic development, in a systematic manner. This sys-tematic procedure is called the environmental assessment process, and it is documented as an environmental

assessment or an impact statement.

Purpose. The main purposes of this legislation, as set forth in the act, are

To declare a national policy which will encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his en-vironment; to promote efforts which will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and biosphere andstimulate the health and welfare of man; to enrich the understanding of the ecological systems and natural re-sources important to the Nation; and to establish a Council on Environmental Quality (1).

There are two titles under the Act: Title I, Declaration of National Environmental Policy, and Title II,Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ).

Title I. Title I sets forth the national policy on restoration and protection of environmental quality. The rel-evant sections under this title are summarized as follows:

Section 101. Requirements of Section 101 are of a substantive nature. Under this section, the federal gov-ernment has a continuing responsibility consistent with other essential considerations of national policy tominimize adverse environmental impact and to preserve and enhance the environment as a result of imple-menting federal plans and programs.

Section 102. Section 102 requirements are of a procedural nature. Under this section, the proponent fed-eral agency is required to make a full and adequate analysis of all environmental effects of implementing itsprograms or actions.

In Section 102(1), Congress directs that policies, regulations, and public laws shall be interpreted and ad-ministered in accordance with the policies of NEPA. Section 102(2) directs all federal agencies to follow aseries of steps to ensure that the goals of the act will be met.

The first requirement is found in Section 102(2)(A), where it is required that a systematic and interdis-ciplinary approach be used to ensure the integrated use of social, natural, and environmental sciences inplanning and decision making.

Section 102(2)(B) states that federal agencies shall, in consultation with CEQ, identify and develop pro-cedures and methods such that presently unquantified environmental amenities and values may be givenappropriate consideration in decision-making along with traditional economic and technical considera-tions.

Section 102(2)(C) sets forth the requirements and guidelines for preparing environmental impact state-ments. This section requires all federal agencies to include in every recommendation or report on legislative

10.6 CHAPTER TEN





7/34

proposals and other major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment, a de-tailed statement by the responsible official covering the following elements:

1. The environmental impact of the proposed actions2. Any adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided should the proposal be implemented

3. The alternatives to the proposed action4. The relationship between local short-term uses of the environment and the maintenance and enhance-ment of long-term productivity

5. Any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources that would be involved in the proposed ac-tion should it be implemented

Specific EIS format, coordination, and instructions for approval and review hierarchy are established byCEQ regulations (4) and each federal agency. Persons preparing an EIS should follow the instructions of theappropriate organization.

Section 103. This section requires all federal agencies to review their regulations and procedures for thepurpose of determining whether there are any deficiencies or inconsistencies therein which prohibit full

compliance with the purposes and provisions of this Act and [they] shall propose to the President . . . suchmeasures as may be necessary to bring their authority and policies into conformity with . . . this Act.

Title II. Title II establishes the CEQ as an environmental advisory body for the executive office. In addi-tion, the President is required to submit to the Congress an annual Environmental Quality Report. Thisyearly summary sets forth: (1) the status and condition of the major natural, man-made, or altered environ-mental classes of the nation; (2) current and foreseeable trends in the quality, management, and utilization ofsuch environments and socioeconomic impacts of these trends; (3) the adequacy of available natural re-sources; (4) a review of the effect of governmental and nongovernmental activities on the environment andnatural resources; and (5) a program for remedying the deficiencies and recommending appropriate legisla-tion.

The CEQ is composed of three members who are appointed by the President with the advice and consentof the Senate. The President designates one of the members of the CEQ to serve as chairman. In addition,the CEQ employs environmental lawyers, professional scientists, and other employees to carry out its func-tions as required under NEPA. Duties and functions of CEQ may be summarized as follows:

1. Assist and advise the President in the preparation of the Environmental Quality Report as required byNEPA

2. Gather, analyze, and interpret, on a timely basis, information concerning the conditions and trends in thequality of the environment, both current and prospective

3. Review and appraise the various programs and activities of the federal government in light of the policyof environmental protection and enhancement, as set forth under Title I of NEPA

4. Develop and recommend to the President national policies to foster and promote improvement of envi-ronmental quality to meet many goals of the nation

5. Conduct research and investigations related to ecological systems and environmental quality6. Accumulate necessary data and other information for a continuing analysis of changes in the national

environment and interpretation of the underlying causes7. Report at least once a year to the President on the state and condition of the environment8. Conduct such studies and furnish such reports and recommendations as the President may request

A significant feature to note is that both the charter assigned and the responsibilities delegated to CEQare quite extensive. However, although CEQ does not have any regulatory or policing responsibilities, it ishighly influential in its advisory capacity.






8/34

CEQ REGULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL DOCUMENTS

In the United States, the CEQ is responsible for overseeing federal efforts to comply with NEPA. In 1970,the council issued guidelines for the preparation of EISs under Executive Order 11514 (1970). Until recent-ly, the 1973 revised guidelines were in effect. But under Executive Order 11991, the President directed the

CEQ to issue regulations to supersede the 1973 guidelines. Issued in 1977, the regulations became effectiveon July 30, 1979. In the executive order, the President directed that the regulations should be (5):

Designed to make the Environmental Impact Statement process more useful to decision-makers and the publicand to reduce paperwork and the accumulation of extraneous background data, in order to emphasize the needto focus on real environmental issues and alternatives.

The new regulations were developed to achieve three principal goals: reduction of paperwork; reductionof delays; and, most importantly, production of better decisions which further the national policy to protectand enhance the quality of the human environment.

These regulations are designed to ensure that the action-forcing procedures of Section 102(2) of NEPAare used by agencies to fulfill the requirement of the congressionally mandated policy set forth in Section101 of the act. Since these regulations are applied uniformly to all federal agencies, this will minimize mis-interpretation, redundancy, and misapplication. Also, time required to learn these regulations and reviewthese documents will be minimized.

Various documents required to comply with the NEPA process and CEQ regulations are described herein.

Environmental Documents

The CEQ regulations require that a number of environmental documents be prepared during the projectplanning and development process. These documents include the following (3):

1. Notice of intent2. Environmental assessment3. Draft environmental impact statement4. Final environmental impact statement5. Finding of no significant impact6. Record of decision

This section will identify each of these documents and discuss briefly the differences among them.

Notice of Intent. This refers to a notice that an EIS will be prepared and considered. This notice is pub-lished in theFederal Register, and all timing for document processing is tied to this publication date. This

notice shall briefly

1. Describe the proposed action and possible alternatives2. Describe the agencys proposed scoping process, including whether, when, and where any scoping meet-

ing will be held3. State the name and address of the person within the agency who can answer questions about the proposed

action and the EIS

Environmental Assessment. An environmental assessment is also referred to as an environmental impactassessment or EIA. This is a concise public document prepared by a federal agency that serves to

10.8 CHAPTER TEN





9/34

1. Provide sufficient analysis for determining whether an EIS or a finding of no significant impact isneeded

2. Aid in the agencys compliance with the NEPA when no EIS is necessary3. Facilitate preparation of an EIS when one is necessary.

Its format is similar to that of an EIS, except that its summary, lists of preparers, and appendix may beeliminated, and the level of detail required is less than that of the EIS. In the long run, it would be desirableto use the same general format for an EIA as is used for an EIS.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement. The draft EIS (DEIS) is a detailed written statement required bySection 102(2)(C) of NEPA. The DEIS undergoes a formal review process outlined by CEQ regulations.

Final Environmental Impact Statement. The final EIS is a detailed written statement as required by Sec-tion 102(2)(C) of NEPA, and it incorporates the results of a formal review of the draft EIS.

Finding of No Significant Impact. This document, referred to as a FONSI, is prepared by a federal

agency and briefly presents the reasons why an action, not otherwise excluded, will not have a significant ef-fect on the human environment and for which an EIS, therefore, would not be prepared. It should include ei-ther the environmental assessment or its summary and other related environmental documents.

The relationship between the documents discussed in the preceding sections is described in Figure 10.2.


FIGURE 10.2 EA/EIS and FONSI relationship.





10/34

Record of Decision. At the time of its decision or, if appropriate, its recommendation to Congress, eachagency should prepare a concise public record of decision. This record may be integrated into any other doc-umentation that is prepared by the agency for a similar purpose. This record should include

1. A statement of what the decision was.

2. Identification of all alternatives considered by the agency in reaching its decision, including specificationof alternatives that were considered environmentally preferable. An agency may discuss preferencesamong alternatives based on factors related to economic and technical considerations and to agencystatutory missions. The agency should identify and discuss all such factors, including any other essentialconsiderations of national policy that were balanced by the agency in making its decision; the agencyshould state how much these considerations entered into the decision-making process.

3. A statement of what practicable means to mitigate environmental damage under the selected alternativeswere included in the implementation of the action. If some practicable mitigation techniques were not in-cluded, the reasons for their exclusion should be stated. A monitoring and enforcement program designedto carry out the mitigation techniques identified should be summarized.

EIS Format and Content

The CEQ has provided a streamlined standard format for all agencies to follow unless the agency has deter-mined that there is a compelling reason to do otherwise. An outline for the CEQ-prescribed EIS format andcontent is provided in Figure 10.3. The following discussion outlines the content of each section.

Cover Sheet. The cover sheet should not exceed one page. Information required for the cover sheet is out-lined in Figure 10.3. An example cover sheet is also included in Figure 10.4.

Summary. Each EIS is required to contain a summary that adequately and accurately summarizes thestatement; it is suggested that the EIS format be used for organizing the summary. The summary should

stress major conclusions, areas of controversy (including issues raised by agencies and the public), and theissues to be resolved (including the choice among alternatives). In order to stress and highlight these points,it might be desirable to cover these topics as distinct subsections of the summary.

Table of Contents. Extra effort in organizing a table of contents can help the reviewers of the documentconsiderably. All headings and subheadings should be identified with the appropriate page numbers. Lists offigures and tables with appropriate page numbers can also be included. While it is common practice to de-fine each abbreviation, scientific notation, or Greek symbol used for the first time in the text, many readersreviewing or analyzing the document have difficulty with these abbreviations and symbols because they arenot familiar with them. It is suggested that these items be listed and defined as an inclusion in the table ofcontents section.

Purpose and Need. The ElS should contain a brief description of the need or requirement to which this ac-tion is responding. The purpose or objective for the action should relate directly to the need or requirementdiscussed.

Alternatives, Including the Proposed Action. CEQ considers this section to be the heart of the ElS. Someinformation for this section may have to be prepared after other sections are completed (for example, Sec-tion 7). In fact, many parts of the EIS are interdependent, and the preparers may have to work on more thanone section at a time and make changes as different sections are analyzed and completed.

A general outline for this section is given in Figure 10.3. In describing the various alternatives consid-

10.10 CHAPTER TEN





11/34


FIGURE 10.3 Outline for CEQ-prescribed EIS content.

COVER SHEET

SUMMARY (NTE 15 pages). (NTE = not to exceed)

TABLE OF CONTENTS (suggest NTE 6 pages).

PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE ACTION (sec 47, NTE 150 pages, 300 in special cases).

ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTION

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

LIST OF PREPARERS (NTE 2 pages).

AGENCIES, ORGANIZATIONS, AND PERSONS TO WHOM COPIES SENT

APPENDIX

INDEX

Native American

alternatives not under lead agency





12/34

ered, all alternatives not under lead agency jurisdiction should also be discussed. Also, the alternative of noaction is specifically required to be analyzed. Since those alternatives which are considered by the decisionmaker are supposed to be included in the EIS, there might be some difficulty in providing sufficient detailregarding an alternative which is not under the jurisdiction of the lead agency decision maker.

Usually, there are many alternatives which are considered initially, but not explored vigorously. Reasonsfor eliminating such alternatives must be included.

From the information developed in Section 7 (Environmental Consequences), environmental conse-quences of alternatives considered should be displayed in a comparative form. The purpose of this display is

10.12 CHAPTER TEN

FIGURE 10.4Example EIS cover sheet.





13/34

to sharply define the issues involved and to provide a clear basis for choosing among alternatives. Theagency and public decision makers can quickly compare and analyze the alternatives from this comparativedisplay. The agency can identify the preferred alternative or alternatives in this section unless another lawprohibits the agency from expressing such a preference.

Means to mitigate adverse environmental impacts can be included here; however, it would seem appropri-

ate to include mitigation measures only for preferred alternatives. A summary of this information on mitiga-tion measures must be included in the record of decision. Also, for mitigation measures to have any meaning,a plan and a framework for including these measures in the actual project or action must be developed.

For the implementation of these regulations, the CEQ has required an analysis that should show how al-ternatives were considered and whether decisions based on these alternatives will or will not achieve the re-quirements of Sections 101 and 102(1) of NEPA and of other environmental laws and policies. Since theCEQ considers this section to be the heart of the EIS, it would be desirable to include this information here.

Affected Environment. This section is what is commonly referred to as the environmental baseline. It isimportant to note that the baseline is not necessarily static. The affected environment, or the baseline, shouldbe described succinctly, and the information included should be relevant to the impacts discussed. In the

past, many EISs were prepared using verbose descriptions of the baseline; consequently, the CEQ has em-phasized in its new regulations that this information be consolidated and, if necessary, other documents ref-erenced in order to minimize EIS bulk.

Environmental Consequences. This section forms the scientific and analytic basis for the comparison ofalternatives included in the alternatives section. Environmental consequences or impacts to be consideredshould include direct, indirect, and induced impacts in the biological, physical, social, economic, and cultur-al environments. The discussion should include adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided, rela-tionships between short-term uses of the environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long-termproductivity, and any irreversible or irretrievable commitments of resources that would be involved shouldthe action be implemented. This section should not duplicate the discussion included in the alternative sec-tion. Environmental consequences resulting from the proposed action may be organized as shown in the out-line (Figure 10.3). Any mitigation measures not fully covered in the discussion of alternatives may be furtherdescribed here.

List of Preparers. Names and qualifications (expertise, experience, professional disciplines) of personswho were primarily responsible for preparing the EIS or developing background papers or basic analysiscomponents of the EIS should be included. Where possible, persons responsible for a particular analysis orsection of the EIS should be so identified. This list of preparers will

1. Provide a basis for evaluating whether a systematic, interdisciplinary approach was used in preparing theEIS

2. Increase the accountability and professional responsibility of those who were, in fact, responsible forpreparing any part of the EIS

3. Give due credit to and enhance the professional standing of the preparers

Agencies, Organizations, and Persons to Whom Copies Are Sent. The list may serve as a check for bothpreparers and reviewers in determining the range and adequacy of assessment coordination and solicitationof comments.

Index. Particularly for lengthy or complex statements, an index may facilitate the review and evaluationprocess. Since the indexing process can become a quite extensive undertaking, many preparers choose toomit this section in favor of expanded depth in the table of contents.






14/34

Appendix. The appendix should not become a dumping ground for inclusion of irrelevant or unnecessarypaperwork. Only the material that is prepared in support of the EIS and material substantiating analysis inthe main body of the EIS should be included. It is often necessary to perform extensive computations to de-termine some impacts. It would be appropriate to include such analytic computations and the scientific basisfor the computation in the appendix. Any material that is generally available in another document can be ref-

erenced and need not be included in the EIS. Among other things, the CEQ regulations differ in this regardfrom the old guidelines. The old guidelines required that the EIS document be an independent, completedocument, and not require undue reference to other documents. Also, the appendix may be circulated withthe EIS or be made available upon request.

Processing Environmental Documents

After an environmental document has been prepared, processing depends on the type of document and onspecific agency requirements. General processing requirements are outlined as follows.

Notice of Intent. This document should be published in theFederal Registeras soon as practicable after

the decision to prepare an EIS and before the scoping process. (Exception: When there is a lengthy periodbetween the agencys decision to prepare an EIS and the time of actual preparation, the notice may be pub-lished at a reasonable time in advance of draft DEIS preparations.)

Environmental Assessment. An EA is an intermediate document. If it is determined that no statement isrequired, then a FONSI results and the EA presents the substantiating evidence to support that conclusion.The EA or a summary is included in the FONSI. If a statement is required, the EA forms the basis for struc-turing the EIS.

Draft ElS. Draft statements shall be filed with the EPA (Attention: Office of Federal Activities [A-104],401 M Street SW, Washington, D.C. 20406). At the same time, they are transmitted to commenting agencies

and made available to the public. EPA shall deliver one copy of each statement to the CEQ, thus satisfyingthe requirement of availability to the President. The EPA will publish a notice of this filing in the Federal

Registerand will review the document as described in a later section of this chapter.Office of Management and Budget Circular A-95, through a system of clearinghouses, provides a means

of securing the views of state and local environmental agencies. After preparing a draft EIS and beforepreparing the final EIS, the agency should obtain comments from the following groups:

Federal agencies that have jurisdiction by law or special expertise State and local agencies authorized to develop and enforce environmental standards Native American tribes, when the action affects them or their reservations Any agency that has requested the draft EIS

The applicant, if the federal agency is issuing a lease, license, permit, or entitlement Public and conservation groups affected by or interested in the action

Federal agencies with jurisdiction by law or special expertise with respect to any environmental impactinvolved are required to comment on the draft EIS. A federal agency or a cooperating agency may reply thatit has no comment. In order to reduce unnecessary delays, agencies are required to provide their commentswithin the time period specified in the regulations.

The sequence of processing activities for draft and f inal EIS documents is shown in Figure 10.5.

Final EIS. The agency preparing the final EIS should assess and consider comments received on the draftstatement both individually and collectively. The agency should take advantage of this input and make the

10.14 CHAPTER TEN





15/34

necessary changes. When the comments do not warrant further agency response, an explanation should beprovided.

All substantive comments received on the draft EIS should be attached to the final EIS. Voluminous com-ments may be summarized. If changes in response to the comments are minor, only the comments, respons-es, and changes made need to be circulated. In other words, there may be no need to rewrite the draft EIS; in-stead, the draft EIS, along with this supplement prepared in response to the comments received, would

constitute the final EIS.The CEQ regulations require that the final EIS, together with comments and responses, or summariesthereof, be filed with the EPA, Office of Federal Activities, in Washington, D.C. The ElS should be madeavailable to commenting agencies and the public at the same time it is filed with the EPA (see Figure 10.4).To comply with the requirements of making the EIS available to the President, the EPA again will deliverone copy of the statement to the CEQ.

Finding of No Significant Impact. The agency should make this document available to the affected publicupon request. In certain limited circumstances, which the agency may cover in its NEPA procedures, theagency should make this document available for public review (including state- and areawide clearinghous-es) for 30 days before the action begins.


FIGURE 10.5 EIS processing.

agencies





16/34

Record of Decision. This document may be integrated into any other record prepared by the agency, in-cluding that required by OMB Circular A-95 (Revised), Part I, Section 6(c) and (d), and Part II, Section5(b)(4). Specific documentation, processing, and other follow-up procedures may vary, but the record of de-cision must be made available to the public.

Timing of Agency Action

Each week, the EPA will publish a notice in the Federal Registerof the EISs filed during the precedingweek. The minimum time periods set forth by the CEQ should be calculated from the date of publication ofthis notice. No decision on the proposed action should be made or recorded by a federal agency except asfollows:

1. Ninety days after publication of the notice for a draft EIS.2. Thirty days after publication of the notice for a final EIS. However, there is an exception for those rule-

making actions where an agency may announce a preliminary decision at the same time an EIS is filed.In such cases there must be a real opportunity to alter the decision. This means that the period for appeal

of the decision and the 30-day period required for the EIS process may be concurrent. An agency en-gaged in rulemaking under the Administrative Procedures Act or other statute for the purpose of protect-ing the public health or safety may waive this 30-day period.

3. The minimum 90 days required between the draft EIS and the final action (or recording of the decision)and the 30-day waiting period after the EIS may be concurrent. However, a minimum of 45 days must beprovided for comments by other agencies and the public.

4. The lead agency may extend these prescribed time periods. The EPA may reduce the prescribed time pe-riods at the request of the lead agency due to compelling reasons of national policy. Also, the EPA mayextend the time periods at the request of other federal agencies (other than the lead agency) in consulta-tion with the lead agency. The EPA is required to notify CEQ of any such extension or reduction of thetime periods. There are some other restrictions as well, and these are further described in the CEQ regu-

lations.

Ordinarily, until an agency issues a record of decision, no action concerning the proposed action may betaken that would have an adverse environmental impact or limit the choice of reasonable alternatives.

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

CEQ regulations state that agencies should make diligent efforts to involve the public in preparing and im-plementing their NEPA procedures. The council encourages federal agencies to use innovative techniquesbeyond the public hearing process to provide for effective public participation early in the planning stages offederal projects and actions. Presented in the CEQ regulations are many administrative techniques that fed-eral agencies can use to obtain such participation (3). The extent of public involvement would naturally de-pend on the scope of the project. For example, in the case of an action with effects of national concern, no-tice should include publication in the Federal Register and notice by mail to national organizationsreasonably expected to be interested in the action; in cases of actions having effects that are primarily of lo-cal concern, state- and areawide clearinghouses, as described in OMB Circular A-95, can be used.

The notice of intent required in the CEQ regulations serves as an early warning or early notice system forinforming the public of upcoming federal actions to which they may want to provide input. This is followedby the scoping process, which takes place early in the planning stages, into which input by federal, state,

10.16 CHAPTER TEN





17/34

and local agencies and other interested persons can be provided. This input assists in determining the scopeof significant issues to be addressed in the EIS. In addition, comments are specifically solicited by the fed-eral agencies on a draft EIS, and these comments are carefully evaluated and considered in the decision-making process. This provides another positive vehicle for public participation.

Effective Public Participation

Effective public or community participation has been defined as occurring when a community acts with fullinformation, equal access to decision-making institutions, and is able to implement its jointly articulated ob-jectives (2). Based on this definition, several important requirements should be met to attain effective publicparticipation.

First, the public should have easy access to all project-related information. There is often considerablemisinformation about the nature of most proposed projects, even when the withholding of information isnot practiced deliberately. This lack of communication precludes effective citizen participation in manycases.

Second, the community members must have access to the decision process. Allowing or encouraging

community involvement in problem identification and discussion, without influence on the ultimate deci-sion, is not very useful to the community or the agency.

Third, for community participation to be effective, the input provided by the citizenry should result in acourse of action consistent with the desires and needs of their fellow community members. The agency musthave the power to act on behalf of the citizens, and the decisions must reflect the joint objectives of theagency and the community.

The elements of an effective participation system are

1. Information exchange2. Access to decision making3. Implementation powers

Various types of communication exchange provide the elements of an effective program. For a communi-cation technique to function as a public participation tool, it must allow for citizens to become involved indecision making. This definition means that techniques that allow only one-way communication, such asnewspaper articles, are not very useful. Newspaper articles may, however, be one prerequisite communica-tion step in a public participation program that includes other forms of interaction with a well-informed pub-lic. A wide range of techniques contain some or all of the characteristics necessary for a public participationprogram.

Public Information and Public Involvement

Public information techniques and the level of public involvement vary depending upon the stage of devel-opment of the project, significance of the project to the public, and potential for environmental impacts. Inthe study initiation stage, public information techniques include

1. News releases, advertisements, and announcements through the news media2. Mailings to individuals or groups3. Information briefings to elected representatives and governmental agencies

During the planning stages, information and involvement techniques include the notice of intent an-nouncement followed by the scoping process as required by the CEQ regulations. These activities can be






18/34

supplemented by brochures and information sheets on the project, and site visits and field trips for the inter-ested groups.

During the design stages of a construction project, and during final execution plan development of othertypes of projects and actions, the information techniques are more specific and are focused on the critical is-sues identified during the scoping process. Information and involvement techniques include

1. Public hearings2. Public meetings3. Presentations to community groups4. Presentations to governmental agencies representing public interest in areas of their expertise or jurisdic-

tional responsibility5. Mailings to groups and individuals requesting specific information6. Workshops and seminars7. Focused meetings with public interest groups

Participation as a Group Member

Because of the complexity of projects, reviewing and intelligently commenting on an EIS can be a difficultundertaking for an individual. Participation as a group member can provide the necessary knowledge base tocomment meaningfully on an EIS and the necessary organizational strength to influence the agencys deci-sion-making process (6). For technical aspects of the project, persons trained in the field should be consult-ed to assist the public interest group. General statements without proper scientific foundation are not likelyto influence the agency or help the groups interests.

Benefits from an Effective Public Participation Program

The catalog of reasons why decision making should not occur in a public forum, but should reside in a cen-tral locus, is extensive. Centralized decision making leads to more rapid, cost-effective, conclusive deci-sions, thus permitting effective and efficient leadership. The military is built on this mode of decision mak-ing. Congress is often perceived to act on issues lethargically, appearing to be inefficient and ineffective incomparison with the executive branch. However, this slow action has a distinct benefit; it provides an oppor-tunity for diverse views to be accommodated. This perspective on the value of public participation suggeststhat decisions made on behalf of the public by centralized agencies can be substantially enhanced by provid-ing channels for public input.

There is a greater likelihood that more viable or innovative alternatives to a project will be identified byopening up the process to the public. Community members are well aware of their own resources, limitations(most often), and problems. The diverse perspectives of the communitys citizens provide input that could

otherwise be obtained only through extensive fieldwork by the agency sponsoring the project. There is, fur-ther, the possibility that there might be a closer integration of planning and development with existing areaplanning efforts in which major input has already been made by the public. A community may be expectedto react unfavorably when previous input to other pertinent plans is summarily disregarded by agency plan-ners and decision makers.

Active public involvement can also ensure that the f inal product, which the community helps to develop,will be successfully implemented. Implementation is much more likely where the community has taken anactive concern in planning problems and has played an important role in generating and evaluating alterna-tive solutions.

10.18 CHAPTER TEN





19/34

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

An environmental impact may be defined as a change in one or more of various socioeconomic and bio-physical characteristics of the environment. Environmental assessment is, therefore, a prediction of theprobable changes which may resuIt from a proposed or impending action. The following discussion de-

scribes some of the considerations to be made in the projection of environmental impacts.

Impact Types

With environmental impacts defined as changes in any component of the biophysical or socioeconomic en-vironment, an impact may be positive, negative, or it may have both beneficial and detrimental aspects si-multaneously. Impacts may be classified as direct, indirect, or cumulative.

Direct Impacts. Direct impacts are caused by a specific action and occur at the same time and location asthe action. As an example, erosion resulting from runoff from a newly cleared construction site is a direct

impact. Direct impacts are also referred to as primary impacts.

Indirect Impacts. Indirect impacts are caused by an action but are usually either (1) later in time or (2) fur-ther removed in distance. Indirect impacts, also called secondary impacts, may include growth-inducing ef-fects and other effects related to induced changes in the pattern of land use, population density, or growthrate and related effects on air, water, and other natural systems including ecosystems. The adverse effects onthe aquatic ecosystem caused by the erosion and soil loss described in the preceding paragraph are an exam-ple of an indirect impact.

Cumulative impacts. A cumulative impact is one that results from the incremental impact of the actionwhen added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency or

person undertakes such other actions. Cumulative impacts might result from individually minor or innocu-ous actions which may be collectively significant when taking place over a long period of time. Reservoirsiltation and ultimate reduction in storage volume resulting from the erosion described in the precedingparagraphs is an example of a cumulative impact.

Identification of Impacts

The identification of environmental impacts is the essence of the environmental assessment process. In orderfor impact identification to be accomplished, it is necessary to follow a sequence of steps as outlined below

1. It is first necessary to develop a complete understanding of the proposed action incorporated in this por-

tion of the analysis. A detailed description of what needs to be done or accomplished is required. Whatkinds of materials, workers, and/or resources are involved? Where will the action take place? When willthe various activities associated with the project occur?

2. It is then necessary to gain a complete understanding of the affected environment. What resource factorsin the biophysical and/or socioeconomic environments exist and are likely to be changed or affected bythe action?

3. Finally, it is necessary to superimpose the proposed action on the affected environment and project possi-ble impacts on the environmental characteristics, quantifying changes whenever possible and aggregatingthe impacts in order to prepare an environmental document describing the anticipated changes.






20/34

Several methods have been developed that may be utilized to accomplish the analysis in a systematicfashion. These methodologies will be discussed in a later section. It should be noted that identification ofenvironmental impact must be accomplished with the understanding that the environment is in a dynamicstate. That is, changes are occurring in virtually all aspects of the environment on a continuing basis. It is thefunction of the environmental assessment process to consider only those changes or impacts that would be

expected to result from the project.

Measurement of Impact

It is desirable to quantify impacts wherever possible. This may be accomplished through the use of instru-mentation, data acquisition, application of models or other acceptable quantification techniques. In situa-tions where quantitative measurements are not possible, impacts may be described through the use of quali-tative measurements. Relative changes and general comparisons, based upon expert judgment, may beutilized in the absence of adequate measurable parameters.

Aggregation

Prior to reporting results of an environmental assessment in an environmental document, it is necessary toaggregate or combine the impacts identified with the various aspects of the proposed project. In this aggre-gation two problems normally occur. The first involves the wide range of environmental characteristics orresource factors that are utilized to describe the biophysical and socioeconomic environment. The tradition-al problem of comparing apples and alligators results. The second problem involves the need to aggregateimpacts of various activities on a single resource factor. Finally, the combination of aggregative effects mustbe utilized to develop a comparative discussion for the decision-making process in the evaluation of differ-ent alternatives.

RESOURCE FACTORS

In order to facilitate the identification and description of impacts of the environment, it is useful to describethe environment in specific terms. Resource factors or attributes provide a mechanism for impact identifi-cation, measurement, and aggregation. In most assessment methodologies, an initial, basic list of environ-mental categories is utilized to develop an expanded list of detailed attributes that are specific and relevantto the proposed project and its alternatives in a given range of environmental settings. The discussion thatfollows provides a basic listing of formal resource factor categories and a higher level of attributes in eachcategory. These listings may be expanded and/or reduced as particular circumstances warrant.

Categories of Environmental Resource Factors

Basic environmental resource factors include both biophysical and socioeconomic considerations. For con-venience, the following discussion is broken into seven areas, with a short description of detailed attributeswhich may be considered in each category. The seven areas are

1. Atmosphere2. Water3. Land4. Biological environment

10.20 CHAPTER TEN





21/34

5. Sound6. Human aspects7. Economic aspects

It needs to be emphasized that the listing is an example set. Other resource factors may be added depending

on the complexity of the project and level of detail necessary for impact analysis.To make a list of attributes useful, it is desirable to further define them. For most of these attributes, awriteup covering the following items is available in Ref. 2:

1. Definition of the attribute2. Activities that affect the attribute3. Source of effect4. Variables to be measured5. How variables are measured6. Data sources for the attribute baseline information7. Skills and instruments required to collect the data

8. Evaluation and interpretation of data9. Geographical and temporal limitations10. Mitigation of impacts11. Secondary effects12. Other comments and additional references

Atmosphere. Impacts to air quality frequently head the list of concerns associated with environmental as-sessment. This is particularly so when such impacts are visible and/or of a toxic nature, leading to potentialhealth effects.

Diffusion Factor. The diffusion factor is related to the structural aspects of the air environment. It reflectssuch components as vertical temperature structure, wind speed, stability, topography, and climatic condi-tions. An understanding of the diffusion factor is necessary in determining the extent to which air pollutioncan build up in a given region.

Particulates. Particulates, one of the most prevalent air pollutants, exist in the form of individual particlessuspended in the air. Ranging in size from 0.01 to 100 m, particulates can produce health effects, visibilityproblems, structural and material deterioration, and property value reductions.

Sulfur Oxides. Generated primarily by the combustion of fossil fuels, sulfur oxides are usually a combi-nation of sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, sulfuric acid, and sulfurous acid. Undesirable results of sulfur ox-ides include health effects, increased corrosion of metals, plant injury, and production of acid rain.

Hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons include several organic compounds that are produced when petroleum fu-els are burned. Automobile exhausts produce approximately one-half the hydrocarbons emitted to the at-mosphere. Other hydrocarbons are produced from natural sources, such as decomposition of organic matteron land and in swamps and marshes. The primary concern associated with hydrocarbons lies in their role inthe formation of photochemical oxidants and smog.

Nitrogen Oxides.Nitrogen oxides are produced as a result of high-temperature combustion. In combina-tion with hydrocarbons, they produce photochemical smog. Although direct health effects are uncertain, ni-trogen oxides can affect vegetation, produce corrosion, and damage synthetic fibers and clothing. Further-more, nitrogen oxides may contribute substantially to the acid rain problem.

Carbon Monoxide. Carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materi-als in fuels, particularly in space heating and burning of refuse. Carbon monoxide is one of the most widelydistributed and most commonly occurring air pollutants. Adverse health effects are related to carbonmonoxide poisoning. However, vegetative or material effects usually are minimal.

Photochemical Oxidants. Products of atmospheric reactions between hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides






22/34

which are initiated by sunlight are called photochemical oxidants. Ozone is a product of these reactions, as isperoxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). Although the toxicological potential of photochemical oxidants on animal andhuman receptors is uncertain, acute and chronic injury may occur to vegetation. Also, photochemical oxi-dants may lead to the deterioration of materials such as polymers and rubber.

Hazardous Toxicants. The release of toxic substances such as elements or compounds of arsenic, as-

bestos, barium, chromium, lead, nickel, tungsten, radioactive wastes, mercury, and phenols may cause seri-ous damage to the health and welfare of an exposed community. These materials can create serious healthhazards and diseases of a chronic nature.

Odors. Although most malodors are considered harmless, they may cause loss of personnel and commu-nity pride, loss of social and economic status, discomfort, nausea, loss of appetite, and insomnia.

Water. The impacts on water quality, which are of particular importance in many projects, are of greatestconcern when the results reduce the benef icial use or the aesthetic appeal of water supplies.

Aquifer Safe Yield. The dependability of groundwater from a quantitative standpoint is dependent uponaquifer safe yield. This term relates the consumption rates to the recharge rates. If consumption is greaterthan recharge, the aquifer is, in effect, being minedan undesirable situation.

Flow Variations. Changes in the velocity of flow and in discharge rates are important from both quantita-tive and qualitative standpoints. Nutrient transport, silt and sediment loading, and downstream effects onaquatic life may result from changes in upstream land use.

Radioactivity. Since ionizing radiation is injurious when absorbed in living tissues in concentrations sub-stantially above that present in natural background, it is necessary to prevent excessive levels of radiationfrom reaching any organism. Radioactive sources may include power development, industrial operations,medical laboratories, and material disposal.

Suspended Solids. Suspended solids contained in water are those that are not in solution but which maybe removed through laboratory filtration tests. Solids may be floating, settleable, or nonsettleable, and maycontain organic or inert substances. Suspended solids may lead to undesirable aesthetic conditions, difficul-ties in water treatment and adverse impacts on fish and other aquatic life.

Thermal Discharge. When water is released into an environment at temperatures much higher or lowerthan those of the ambient conditions, thermal pollution may result. Since water temperature is closely as-sociated with physical, chemical, and biological conditions, the aquatic ecosystem may be significantly dis-rupted as a result of a thermal discharge.

Acid and Alkali. Discharge of wastes which significantly alter the pH of the aquatic environment may beextremely damaging to aquatic life. Social and economic losses in terms of reduced productivity, decliningrecreational activity, and treatment costs necessary to correct pH-related problems may also result.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). BOD is an indirect measure of the amount of biological degrad-able organic material present in water. Dissolved oxygen will be depleted in the process of satisfying BODrequirements. As oxygen is utilized, water conditions become septic and other water quality and aestheticproblems result.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO). DO is necessary in water to maintain aerobic conditions. Absence of DO leadsto the development of anaerobic conditions with their associated odor and aesthetic problems. Adequate DOlevels are necessary in surface waters to maintain growth of fish and other desirable aquatic life.

Dissolved Solids. Total dissolved solids or TDS is the sum of carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sul-fates, phosphates, nitrates, and various salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and other sub-stances. These salts in solution may alter the physical and chemical nature of water. High amounts of TDSare objectionable because of physiological effects, mineral tastes, or economic consequences.

Nutrients.Nutrients are, in essence, fertilizers; they include forms of nitrogen and phosphorus which areresponsible for eutrophication of water supplies. Eutrophic conditions are typified by dense algae growth,surface water scums, foul-smelling water, periods of anaerobic conditions, and fish kills. Many activities in-crease the supply of nutrients to natural waters.

10.22 CHAPTER TEN





23/34

Toxic Compounds. Toxic compounds may occur in wastes containing heavy metals, organic chemicals,cyanides, sulfides, and pesticides. Adverse effects that can result include damage to aquatic life, reductionof beneficial use of water, and more and extensive treatment requirements.

Aquatic Life. Aquatic life refers to the population of species which exists in a state of dynamic balance inwater supplies. Since any pollution tends to upset this natural balance, changes in the many previously listed

attributes will influence aquatic life.Fecal Coliforms. Fecal coliforms are single-celled bacteria found in the intestinal tracts of humans andother warm-blooded animals. Their presence in water is an indication of possible contamination by humanwastes and, thus, that the water may contain bacteria, viruses, or other disease-causing organisms.

Land. Most food and fiber resources come from the land; consequently, it must be used in a properlyplanned and controlled manner. Many activities affect the land resource and may preclude alternative uses.

Erosion. Erosion is a process whereby soil particles are dislodged and transported to another location bywind or water action. Erosion may be highly destructive and render land unproductive and/or may pose aphysical barrier to other activities. Water courses downslope from eroded areas may be adversely affected byexcessive sediment loads. Areas subjected to erosive forces may become barren and aesthetically unappeal-

ing.Natural Hazards.Natural hazards are those occurrences, brought about by the forces of nature, that resultin discomfort, injury, or death to humans; damage or destruction to physical structures; detrimental changesin physical character of the land, water, and air; or damage to plant and animal life in the affected area. Nat-ural hazards include floods, earth slides, wildfires, and volcanos. Other hazards, such as earthquakes andhurricanes, may cause great personal and physical damage when they occur in areas of concentrated humanactivity. In some cases, the occurrence of these hazards may be accelerated through human activity, e.g.,flooding. In other situations, the occurrence is unaffected by human activity; however, the degree of damagedone may be dictated by the location and magnitude of population centers and other developments.

Land Use Patterns. Land use patterns are natural or imposed configurations that result from spatialarrangement of the different uses of land at a given time. Historically, land use patterns evolve as a result of(1) changing economic considerations, (2) legal restrictions, such as zoning, and (3) changes in existing le-gal restrictions. Compatibility of use between one parcel of land and adjacent properties becomes a control-ling issue.

Biological Environment. The biological environment and its attributes can be utilized interchangeablywith the concept of ecology and the ecosystem. Convincing evidence exists that species diversity in anecosystem is closely related to the stability of that system. Greater species diversity indicates that theecosystem is more able to resist disturbance and stress. Although humans have made progress in providingfor their needs, the results are often accomplished at the expense of the total ecological balance of the envi-ronment. Since this balance is crucial to the long-term viability of human beings, species diversity must bemaintained.

Large Animals (Wild and Domestic). Large animals are those, both wild and domestic, that weigh typical-ly more than 30 lb when fully grown. These populations may be affected by food supplies, cover, water, nat-ural and artificial barriers, noise, and other activities.

Predatory Birds. Birds of prey are flesh eaters that typically obtain their food by hunting, killing, and eat-ing small animals, other birds, and fish. These birds are frequently impacted by loss of habitat, poisonings,or intrusion into or near nesting areas.

Small Game. Small game includes both upland game birds and animals that typically weigh less than 30lb as adults and which are hunted for sport. Many human activities result in habitat destruction or in otherimpacts to these animals.

Fish and Shellfish. Fish are cold-blooded aquatic animals that obtain oxygen through a gill system andinhabit saltwater and freshwater bodies and streams. Shellfish are aquatic animals that have an exoskeleton






24/34

shell. Since these species depend directly on water for some or all aspects of their existence, any activitywhich affects water quality and water level will impact on their well-being.

Waterfowl. Waterfowl are birds that frequent and often swim in water, nest and raise their young near wa-ter, and obtain at least part of their food from aquatic plants, animals, and insects. Because they depend di-rectly on water for all or some facets of their existence, activities which affect water quality and water level

will also impact waterfowl.Field Crops. Field crops are those commercially cultivated for the primary purpose of providing food andclothing for humans or food for domestic livestock. Activities which impact field crops include those that al-ter land use and those which affect crop production, including the application of herbicides or other toxicmaterials.

Natural Land Vegetation.Natural land vegetation is vegetation that uses soil as its growth medium andthat is not the subject of extensive cultural practices. Included are plants, trees, shrubs, grasses, herbs, ferns,and lichens. Native vegetation is established through a series of successional stages. Successional change isslow, and disruption frequently results in the least-desirable plant types becoming the first to be reestab-lished.

Aquatic Plants. Aquatic plants are those whose growth medium is primarily water, although they may be

rooted in soil. They include free-floating plants, all surface and submerged rooted plants, and swamp andmarsh vegetation whose roots are periodically or primarily submerged in water. Activities that causechanges in water level or water quality parameters have the greatest impact on aquatic plants.

Sound. The level of sound is an important indicator of environmental quality. Noise has been defined asunwanted sound in the environment.

Physiological Effects.Noise can affect physiology in three different ways. First, internal bodily systemsmay be affected; for example, extreme noises may constrict blood vessels, increase pulse and respirationrates, increase tension and fatigue, cause dizziness, and cause loss of balance. Second, the hearing thresholdmay be impacted with temporary or permanent hearing loss resulting. Third, sleep patterns may be disrupt-ed, with resulting irritability and often irrational behavior.

Psychological Effects.Noise exposure can have an impact on an individuals mental stability and psycho-logical response. This response may be manifested with signs of increased annoyance, anxiety, or fear. Im-portant variables of noise that result in psychological effects are its loudness, duration, and frequency con-tent.

Communication Effects. The presence of noise can adversely affect face-to-face conversation and tele-phone communication. Temporary interference or interruption can be annoying and occasionally harmful topersonal well-being.

Performance Effects. The presence of noise can affect the ability of a human to perform mechanical andmental tasks. This is manifested through increase in muscular tension, lapse in attention, diversion of atten-tion, masking of needed auditory signals, and startle response to high-intensity noises.

Human Aspects. This category refers to the way in which people interact with each other and the naturalenvironment. These interactions are frequently complex and their analysis requires careful scrutiny of all ac-tivities and interrelationships.

Life-styles. The social activities of humans often take on structural characteristics which eventually causethem to become organizations. The makeup of organizations may vary, depending upon the characteristics,interests, and objectives of the organizations population. The bases for these organizations might be ethnic,political, religious, or occupational. Changes in life-styles may be reflected by activities which affect em-ployment, standards of living, community development, and recreational opportunity.

Psychological Needs. Psychological needs of human beings are primarily those of emotional stability andsecurity. Activities which affect these needs are essentially the same as those which impact life-styles.

Physiological Systems. These systems include anything that is a part of a persons body or that plays a

10.24 CHAPTER TEN





25/34

part in a bodily function. They include respiratory, circulatory, and digestive organs; skeletal and excretorysystems; and all parts of the human body that contribute to its effective, efficient functioning. Any activitythat can harm or threaten the efficient functioning of any part of the human body must be considered in lightof its effect.

Community Needs. A community requires many services including housing; water supply; sewage dis-

posal; utilities, such as gas, electricity and telephone; recreational facilities; and police and f ire protection.Any change or impact that occurs will depend primarily on the degree to which a population is affected by aproposed activity.

Economic Aspects. In environmental impact analysis, the potential impact on the economic structure orchanges resulting from project activities comes primarily from the direct effect of purchases of goods andservices for project activities and from the indirect effects arising from goods and services purchased frompayrolls. Effects may reflect impact on industrial and commercial activities, the local government, and theindividual.

Regional Economic Stability. Stability refers to a resistance to change in the ability of a regions economyto withstand severe fluctuations or to the speed and ease an economy demonstrates in returning to an equi-

librium situation after receiving a shock. The more diverse an economy and the more closely related it is togrowth areas of the national economy, the more stable it is likely to be.Public Sector Revenues and Expenditures. This attribute consists of the annual per capita revenues and

expenditures of local and state governments and associated agencies in the region under study. Changes inthis factor can be interpreted as a measure of a change in economic well-being of the public sector.

Per Capita Consumption. The annual per capita personal consumption of goods and services by local cit-izens can be interpreted as a direct measure of personal economic well-being. Increases or decreases in localemployment, industrial reduction or deletion, and construction all have the potential to affect per capita con-sumption.

Environmentally Sensitive Areas

Several resource factors are particularly important due to their tendency to elicit strong public reaction.When impacts occur in these areas, it is essential that an environmental assessment adequately addressesprojected impacts due to all project alternatives. Furthermore, the assessment should contain a detailed dis-cussion of mitigation measures which would be implemented should the project be undertaken.

Human Health and Safety. Any activity that can adversely impact human health or increase the risk dueto accidental exposure must be considered. There are many possible sources of impacts. These range fromactivities that might impair the safety of individuals when placed in a workin