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ENVIRONMENT:PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

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ENVIRONMENT:PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

D.K. ASTHANA, Ph.D.Deptt. of BotanyD.A.V. College,Kanpur (U.P.)

AND

MEERA ASTHANA, Ph.D.Deptt. of ZoologyA.N.D. College,Kanpur (U.P.)

S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.(AN ISO 9001: 2000 COMPANY)

RAM NAGAR, NEW DELHI-110055

[For the Students of B.Sc. Pass and Honours Courses of VariousIndian Universities]


S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.(An ISO 9001 : 2000 Company)Head Office: 7361, RAM NAGAR, NEW DELHI - 110 055Phone: 23672080-81-82, 9899107446, 9911310888Fax: 91-11-23677446Shop at: schandgroup.com; e-mail: [email protected]

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© 1998, D.K. Asthana & Meera AsthanaAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Publishers.t

F irs t E d itio n 1 9 9 8S u b s e q u e n t E d it io n s a n d R e p rin t s 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 3 , 2 0 0 9 , 2 0 1 0 , 2 0 1 2R e p rin t 2 0 1 3

ISBN : 81-219-1654-2 Code : 03 252PRINTED IN INDIA

By Rajendra Ravindra Printers Pvt. Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi -110 055and published by S. Chand & Company Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi -110 055.


PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The second edition of the book “Environment: Problems & Solutions” is devoted entirely tovarious aspects of the environment and associated problems. It provides a brief resume of theemergence of global concern and the development of legal framework to restrict activities detrimentalto wildlife and environment. The portion on biological diversity has been enlarged to cover various in-situ and ex-situ methods which are being adopted for the conservation of wildlife and Biodiversity.Damages caused by toxic exposures and the current practices adopted for evaluation of toxicity,assessment of the associated risks of exposures, acceptable and unacceptable risks etc. have beendiscussed. Procedures generally adopted for the assessment of impact of developmental activities ofman on the environment has also been included.

Methods usually adopted for the assessment of environment quality and the procedures ofanalyses of various components of the environment along with a description of the instruments usedhas also been provided in the last two chapters.

We hope that this edition of the book shall be a more comprehensive and complete resume ofvarious aspects of environment and the associated problems and shall be extremely useful for studentsand anyone who is interested in environmental problems.

AUTHORS


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PREFACE

Nature took 600 million years to develop the environment as it exists today but man in barelyone million years of his existence, has brought about such changes which threaten the very existenceof a healthy biosphere. On earth’s surface, both in water as well as on land these changes result inimpoverishment of biological systems and degeneration of biodiversity. In the atmosphere risingconcentration of carbon dioxide causes global warming while pollution of stratosphere has beeneating away the vital ozone shield. These changes are expected to make human life more and moremiserable in times to come.

Issues concerning environment now worry not only scientists but statesmen, rulers and generalpublic as well. A pressing need has been felt to educate the common man about problems ofenvironment. Environmental studies has been introduced in syllabi of schools, colleges and universitiesall over the world. However, much information concerning problems of environment lies scattered invarious research publications which are beyond the reach of common students.

The authors have tried to present a simple, comprehensible, well illustrated and documentedaccount of the issues concerning environment in the book “Environment: Problems and Solutions”.The book is meant for those who have a little background knowledge of science and biology, largelythe students of universities and colleges who should find it exceedingly helpful in their studies forannual or competitive examinations. However, even those without a background knowledge of scienceand biology shall find a wealth of simple, easily comprehensible information on the subject in thebook.

Authors are grateful to all friends and colleagues for their help, constructive criticism andconstant encouragement in writing this book. We wish to express our grateful thanks to M/s. S. Chand& Company Ltd., for suggesting the title and publishing this book

AUTHORS

Earth and its treasures belong to our children and grand childrenas much as they do to us. It is our prime duty to conserve them.

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ContentsCHAPTER PAGESPart One

THE ENVIRONMENT1. Components of The Environment 3—22

(I) Basic components of the Environment-3(II) The Atmosphere or the Air : (1) Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere-4;

(2) The Importance of The Atmosphere - 5; (3) Meteorological ConditionsAnd Air Circulation-5.

(III) The Hydrosphere : (1) Structure of Water Molecule And Its Properties-8; (2)The Importance of Water-8; (3) Global Distribution of Water-7;(4) Hydrological Cycle-9; (5) Lentic And Lotic Aquatic Systems-10;(6) Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Water Quality-13.

(IV) The Lithosphere or the rocks and soil : (1) Rocks in Earth’s crust-14;(2) Disintegration of Rocks And Formation of Soils-15; (3) Components ofSoil And Their Importance-16; (4) Importance of Soil to TheBiosphere-17.

(V) The Living Component of The Environment—The Biosphere :(1) Ecosystems-18; (2) Structure of An Ecosystem-18; (3) Flow of EnergyAnd Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycles-20; (4) State of Dynamic Equilibrium andSystem Homeostasis-20; (5) Diversity, Productivity And Stability inAn Ecosystem-20; (6) Circulation of Non-Essential And Toxic Substances-21.

(VI) Self Sustainability of Natural Ecosystems-21.

2. Impact of Biosphere on The Environment 23—34(I) Modification of Earth’s Environment By The Biosphere-23.

(II) Appearance of Man And Growth Of Human Population-24.(III) Activity of Modern Man And Environment at Degradation-25.(IV) The Effect of Human Activity on The Global Ecosystem : (1) Steady

Impoverishment of Biological Systems-26; (A) Reduction in EcosystemComplexity And Diversity-26; (B) Reduction in Genetic Diversity-27;(2) Changes In Global Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycles-27; 1. The Carbon Cycle-27; 2. The Oxygen Cycle-29; 3. The Nitrogen Cycle-30; 4. The PhosphorusCycle-30; 5. The Sulphur Cycle-31; 6. Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycles of TraceElements-32.

(V) Man As An Agent of His Own Destruction : (1) Hazardous Chemicals-33;(2) Mis-use of Biotechnology-33; (3) The Nuclear Dilemma-34.

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Part Two

NATURAL RESOURCES AND THEIR EXPLOITATION

3. Over-Exploitation of Natural Resources 37—41(I) Natural Resources-37.

(II) Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources-37.(III) Basic Human Requirements-38.(IV) Finite Nature of Natural Resources : (1) Limitations of Non-Renewable

Resources-39; (2) Limitations of Renewable Resources-39.(V) Man And The Global Resources- 39.

(VI) Lack of Sustainability of Modern Society-41.(VII) Towards Sustainable Development-41.

4. Fertile Soil And Sustainable Agriculture 43—51(I) The Basis of Sustained Fertility of The Soil-43.

(II) Wastage And Degeneration of Soils : (1) Modern AgriculturalPractices-44; (2) Deforestation-44; (3) Diversion of Prime Cropland to OtherUses-45.

(III) Conservation of Soil-45.(IV) Over Expansion of Agriculture- 46.(V) Intensive Cultivation-47.

(VI) Lack of Sustainability of Intensive Agriculture-48.(VII) Transforming Intensive Agriculture Into a Sustainable system-50.

(VIII) Agriculture In India-51.

5. Live-Stock And Fishery Resources 53—61(I) Animal Husbandry : (1) Traditional Practices of Live-Stock Management-

53; (2) Modern Trends in Animal Husbandry-54; (3) Problems OriginatingFrom Modern Practices of Live-Stock Management-55; (4) Improving Live-Stock Economy-55; (5) Animal Husbandry in India-56.

(II) Living Fresh-Water And Marine Resources : (1) Global Harvest From FreshAnd Marine Aquatic Systems-57; (2) Capture Fisheries-58; A. CaptureFisheries in Fresh Waters-58; B. Capture fisheries in Marine Waters-58;(a) Coastal Fishing-58; (b) Deep Sea Fishing-58; (3) Aqua-Culture-59;(4) Indian Fisheries-60; (5) Improving The State of Indian Fisheries-61.

6. Fresh Water 63—72(I) Global Distribution of Fresh Water-63.

(II) The Source of Fresh Water For Terrestrial Life-63.(III) Limits of Global Fresh Water Resources-64.(IV) Man’s Water Requirements-65.(V) The Future Scenario-66.

(VI) Causes of Wastage And Degeneration of Fresh Water Resources-67.(VII) Conservation of Fresh Water Resources-68

(VIII) Fresh Water Resources of India : (1) The Resource Base-70;(2) Requirement of Fresh Water in India-70; (3) Fresh Water Conservation inIndia-71.


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(IX) The Sickness of Indian Irrigation Sector-72.

7. Mineral Resources 74—82(I) The Formation of Mineral Deposits-74.

(II) Mineral Wealth of Our Planet-76.(III) Non-Renewable Nature of Mineral Deposits-76.(IV) The In-exhaustible Nature of Mineral Elements-76.(V) Human Consumption of Mineral Resources-77.

(VI) Consequences of Over-Exploitation of Mineral Resources-79.(VII) Conservation of Mineral Resources-81.

(VIII) The Ultimate Question-82.(IX) Indian Mineral Resources-82.

8. Energy Resources 84—99(I) Global Energy Consumption-84.

(II) Conventional Sources of Energy For Man-kind : (1) Biomass or Dried OrganicMatter-85; (2) Fossil Fuels or Coal, Oil and Natural Gas-85;(3) Nuclear Energy : 1. Nuclear Power Generation-87; 2. The Potential ofFusion Reaction-88; 3. Uncertain Future of Nuclear Energy-89; (4) Hydro-Electric Power-89.

(III) The Dependence of Human Society on Fossil Fuels-89.(IV) Consequences of Rapid Consumption of Fossil Fuels-90.(V) Alternative Sources of Energy For Man-Kind : (1) Wind Power-92;

(2) Energy From Oceans-92; 1. Tidal Energy-92; 2. Energy of Waves-92; 3.Thermal Energy of Oceans-92; (3) Geo-thermal Energy-93;(4) Direct Use of Solar Energy-93; (5) Bio-mass Based Energy-93;1. Bio-gas-93; 2. Petroplants-93; 3. Dendrothermal Energy-93;(6) Hydrogen as The Future Fuel For Man-Kind-93.

(VI) Energy Resources of India-94.(VII) Generation of Electric power in India-97.

(VIII) Development of Non-Conventional Energy Resources in India- 99.

9. Forest Wealth 102—113(I) Importance of Forests to Human Society-102.

(II) Global Forest Wealth : (1) Boreal Coniferous Forests-103; (2) Forests of TheTemperate belt-103; (3) Tropical Rain And Seasonal Forests-103.

(III) Deforestation- 104.(IV) Major Causes of Deforestation : (1) Expansion of Agriculture-105;

(2) Extention of cultivation on hill slopes-106; (3) Shifting Cultivation-106;(4) Cattle Ranching-106; (5) Fire Wood Collection-106; (6) Timber Harvesting-107.

(V) Consequences of Deforestation : (1) Soil Degradation And Erosion-107;(2) Changes in Climatic Conditions-109; 1. Maintenance of Humidity-1092. Regulation of Atmospheric Temperatures-109; 3. Moderation of WindVelocity-110; 4. Role of Forests in Enhancing Precipitation-110; 5. ForestCover and Global Warming-111; (3) Destruction of Habitats and Reduction


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in Biodiversity-111; (4) Destruction of A valuable Sink For Pollutants of theEnvironment-112.

(VI) Conservation of Forests-112.(VII) Forest Wealth of India-113.

Part Three

POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT10. Types of Pollution And Their Fate In Environment 119—126

(I) Major Categories of Environmental Pollution:(A) Pollution of Earth’s Surface : Land And Water-119; (1) Simple Bio-Degradable Pollutants-119; (2) Complex Bio-Degradable Pollutants-119; (3)Non-Degradable Pollutants-120; (4) Pollution Caused By Physical Agents :Noise, Thermal And Radio-Active Pollution-120; (B) The Pollution ofAtmosphere-120.

(II) Entry of Pollutants in The Environment-120.(III) Transfer, Transport And Dilution of Pollutants-120.(IV) Abiotic Transformation of Pollutants-121.(V) Entry of Pollutants Into The Biosphere-121.

(VI) Bio-Accumulation And Bio-Magnification of Pollutants-122.(VII) Bio-Degradation of Pollutants : (1) Agents of Bio-Degradation-123; (2)

Conditions Necessary For Bio-Degradation123; (3) Nature of Bio-DegradationReactions-123; (4) The Unique Dynamism of Bio-Degradation Reaction-124.

(VIII) The Fate of Pollutants in The Environment-126.

11. Pollution of Earth’s Surface : Land And Water 129—141(1) Simple Bio-Degradable Wastes(I) Problems Associated With Simple Bio-Degradable Wastes : (1) Odorous

Gases And Volatile Substances-129; (2) Abundance of Infectious Microbes-130; (3) Creation of Oxygen Deficit in Aquatic Systems-131; (4) Generationof Plant Nutrients And Accelerated Eutrophiction-132; 1. Eutrophication-132; 2. Accelerated Eutrophication-133; 3. Algal Blooms or Water Blooms-133; 4. Role of Nitrogen And Phosphorus in Eutrophication-134.

(II) Treatment And Disposal of Bio-Degradable Wastes-135.(I) Treatment And Disposal of Liquid Wastes : 1. Primary Treatment-136; 2.Secondary Treatment-137; 3. Tertiary Treatment-141;(2) Treatment And Disposal of Solid Bio-Degradable Wastes-141.

12. Pollution of Earth’s Surface : Land And Water 143—164 (2) Complex Bio-Degradable Substances

A. Pesticides And Allied Chemicals(I) A Brief History of Use of Synthetic Pesticides-144.

(II) Problems Associated With The Use of Pesticide144.(III) Ecological Effects of Pesticide Pollution-145.(IV) Persistence of Pesticides in The Environment-146.


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(V) Bio-Accumulation And Bio-Magnification of Pesticides-146.(VI) Classification of Pesticides : A. Insecticides : (1) Organo-Chlorine

Insecticides-147. (2) Organo-Phosphate Insecticides-149;(3) Carbamates Insecticides-149.B. Herbicides-150.C. Fungicides-152.

(VII) Special features associated with use of pesticides-153.(VIII) Chemical Basis of Toxicity of Pesticides-154.

(IX) Detoxification of Pesticides And Allied Chemicals-154.(X) Towards Safer Pesticides-155.

B. Crude Petroleum And Its Distillates(I) Oil Spills-158.

(II) Natural Oil Seeps-158.(III) Problems Associated With Crude Petroleum Pollution : (1) Light And Medium

Fraction of Crude Oil-159; (2) Heavier Fraction, Greases,Waxes And Tar Etc.-159; (3) Ecological Problems Caused by CrudePetroleum-160.

(IV) Fate of crude Petroleum in marine environment-160.(V) Oil spill cleaning operations-161.

C. Polymers, Plastics, Plasticizers And Other Wastes Resistant toDegradation

(I) Problems Associated With Solid Wastes Resistant to Degradation-162.(II) Management of Solid Wastes Resistant to Degradation : (1) Handling of

The Problem of Leachates-163; (2) Disposal of Solid Wastes Resistant toDegradation-163; 1. Incineration-163; 2. Pyrolysis And Vitrification of SolidWastes-164; 3. Microbial Degradation-164; 4. Sorting And Recycling ofsolid wastes resistant to deqradatum-164.

13. Pollution of Earth’s Surface : Land And Water 166—170(3) Non-Degradable Pollutants

(I) Natural Cycling of Toxic Trace Elements And Human Activity-166.(II) Trace Elements in A Biological System-167.

(III) Source of Trace Element in Toxic Concentrations : (1) Combustion of FossilsFuels-168; (2) Contributions from Industrial Activity-168;(3) Mining And Processing Wastes-168.

(IV) Problems Associated With Trace Element Pollution-169.(V) Some toxicologically Important Trace Elements. Aluminium, Arsenic,

Beryllium, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, cobalt, Flourine, Lead, Manganese,Mercury, Molybdenum, Nickel, Selenium, Zinc-170.


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14. Nuisance Caused By Harmful & Irritating Physical Agents :Noise, Thermal And Radio-Active Pollution 183—194(A) Noise Pollution :

(I) Mechanism of Hearing.-183.(II) Measurement of Sound-183.

(III) Noise Pollution - The Situation Today-184.(IV) Ill-Effects of Noise Pollution-185.(V) Prevention And Control of Noise Pollution-185.

(B) Thermal Pollution(I) Important Sources of Surplus Heat-186.

(II) Damages Caused By Heated Discharges on Aquatic Life-186.(III) Ecological Effects of Heated Waters on Aquatic system-187.(IV) The Control of Thermal Pollution-188.

(C) Radio-Active Pollutants

(I) Atom of An Element And Its Isotopes-188.(II) Radio-Activity And Radiations-188.

(III) Damages Caused to a biological system By Radiations-189.(IV) Sources of Radiation in The Environment-190.(V) Hazards Associated With Radio-Active Pollution-191.

(VI) Global Accumulation of Nuclear Wastes-192.(VII) Disposal of Radio-Active Wastes-194.

15. Pollution of The Atmosphere 196—216

(I) Major Pollutants of The Atmosphere : (1) Particulate matter-196; (2) Oxidesof Carbon-197; (3) Oxides of Sulphur-198; (4) Oxides of Nitrogen-198;(5) Ozone-199; (6) Hydrocarbons-199.

(II) Acute Versus Chronic Effects of Air Pollution-201;(III) Fate of Pollutants of The Atmosphere-201;(IV) Aerosol Accumulation in The Atmosphere : (1) Problems caused

by Accumulation of Aerosols in Atmosphere-202; (2) Aerosol andThe Respiratory System-203; (3) Clearance of Aerosols From TheAtmosphere-204.

(V) Fog, Smog And Reducing Type of Pollution-204.(VI) Acid Rains-205.

(VII) Photochemical Smog or Oxidizing Type of Pollution-207(VIII) The Green-House Effect : (1) Causes of Global Warming-208; (2) Gases

Responsible For Global Warming-209; (3) Stratospheric Ozone DepletionAnd Green House Effect-211; (4) Consequences of Global Warming-211.

(IX) The Problem of Ozone Depletion : (1) Ultra-Violet Radiations And Ozone-213; (2) The Ozone Layer-214; (3) Stratospheric Ozone Depletion-214;(4) Destruction of Ozone Molecules Over the Poles-216; (5) Causes ofStratospheric Ozone Depletion-216; (6) Consequence of Stratospheric OzoneDepletion-216.


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Part Four

BIODIVERSITY

16. Bio-Diversity and its Degeneration 221—243(I) What is Biological Diversity-221;

(II) Speciation, Natural Logivity of a Species and Optimum Biodiversity-222;(III) Uneven Distribution of Biological Wealth on our Planet-223;(IV) Megadiversity Countries of the World-224;(V) Endemism and “Hot-Spots” of Biological Diversity-224;

(VI) Importance of Biological Diversity-226;(VII) Reduction in Biological Diversity: the Sitaution Today-228

(1) The Pattern of Degeneration of Biodiversity-229;(2) Degeneration of Biological diversity-230;

(VIII) Major Causes of Reduction in Biological Diversity-234(1) Destruction of Natural Ecosystems.(2) Adverse Changes in Biotic or Abiotic Environment-235

1. Environmental Pollution-2362. Over-Exploitation of Selected Species-2363. Habitat Fragmentation-2374. Introduction of Exotic Species-2385. Natural Calamities-239;

(3) Chain Extinctions-240;(IX) Biological Diversity and Future Changes in Climate-240;(X) Repurcurssions of the Current Degeneration of Biological Diversity on Future of

Evolution-243.

17. Ex-Situ Conservation 244—264(I) What is Ex-Situ Conservation-244;

(II) The Strategy of Ex-Situ Conservation-244;(1) Identification of species for Ex-Situ conservation-245;

1. Vulnerability of Species to Extinction-245;2. Economic, Ecological and Aesthetic Importance of a Species-246;

(2) The Methods of Ex-Situ Conservation-246;1. Long-term Captive Breeding-246;2. Short-term Propagation and Release-247;3. Animal Translocations-248;4. Animal Re-introduction-249;

(III) Advanced Technology in Service of Endangered Species-252;(1) Chemical Immobilization and Anaestheria-252;(2) Nutrition, Maintenance and Health Care of the Animals-252;(3) Identification, Data Collection and Information Technology-253;(4) Advances in Reproductive Technology-253;


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1. Artificial Insemination-254;2. Embryo Transfer Technology-253;3. Cryopreservation of Gametes and Embryos-255;

(5) Advances in Population Biology and Molecular Genetics-256;(IV) Zoos and Botanical Gardens – Institution in transition-257;

(1) Zoological Gardens or Zoos-257;(2) Botanical Gardens-257;

(V) Conservation of Plant Diversity in Seed Banks, Gene Banks or Germ Plasm Reserves-259(1) Early Conservation efforts-260;(2) The Global Strategy-260;(3) Maintenance of Plant Germ Plasm for Long Durations-261;(4) Short-comings and Controversies-261;

(VI) Adverse consequences of Ex-Situ Conservation-262;(VII) Justification for continuing Ex-Situ Conservation-263;

18. In-Situ Conservation 265–280(I) Whats is In-Situ Conservation-265;

(II) Advantages and Disadvantages of In-Situ Conservation-265;(III) Strategy of in-situ conservation-266;

(1) Requirement for an ideal Protected Area-266;(2) Selection of site for Protected Areas-267;

1. Observations on Over-all Species Diversity-267;2. Observations on Endemic Species Diversity-267;3. Critical Faunal Analysis-268;

(3) Critical Size of Protected Area and Populations-268;(4) Management of Protected Areas-269;

1. Excluding Detrimental Human Interference-270;2. Excluding Exotic Species or Detrimental Biotic Interference-270;3. Using Limited Corrective Measures-271;4. Intensive Monitoring of Protected Areas-272;

(IV) Short comings in the existing system of protected areas.(V) Conservation Beyond Parks, Sanctuaries and Reserves: Habitat Conservation-274;

(1) Intensifying Agricultural Productivity-275;(2) Intensifying Forest Productivity and Reforestation-275;(3) Persuing a Vigorous Forest Policy-276;(4) Scrutinizing Developmental Projects Effecting Habitats and Wild Life-276;

(VI) In-Situ Conservation of Food Plants and their Wild Relatives-277;(VII) Restoration of Degraded Habitats-278;

(1) Recreation of Authentic Replica of Lost Ecosystems-279;(2) Recreation of Useful Production Oriented Ecosystems-279;


Environment : Problems And Solutions

Publisher : SChand Publications ISBN : 9788121916547Author : D. K. Asthana,Meera Asthana

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