envir. engin. ii new (whole lectures)

8/13/2019 Envir. Engin. II New (Whole Lectures)

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LECTURE # o

Introduction to Environmental Engineering & Sciences

Environmental Science

Science can be differentiated into the social sciences and natural sciences .

Natural sciences include core sciences chemistry, biology, and physics Numerous applied sciences such as geology, meteorology, forestry,

and zoology. Environmental science is an integrative applied science that

draws upon nearly all of the natural sciences to addressenvironmental quality and health issues.

Environmental engineering uses environmental scienceprinciples, along with engineering concepts and techniques, to

assess the impacts of social activities on the environment, of theenvironment on people, and to protect both human andenvironmental health.

Environmental engineering requires a sound foundation in theenvironmental sciences.

The Interdisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science andEngineering

Groundwater contamination by leaking gasoline storage tanks materialscience, hydrogeology, geochemistry, microbiology, hydraulics !N"environmental engineering.

#rban air pollution chemical$mechanical$automotive engineering,meteorology, chemistry, !N" environmental engineering.

ey Elements of !odern Environmental Science and Engineering %ased on chemistry environmental quality described by chemical

composition of the system. &uantitative magnitude of the problem and feasibility of the solution are

described numerically. "riven by government policy, which is increasingly set on the basis of risk.

"rimary Topics 'ntroduction to environment (ater demand (ater quality (ater treatment (ater supply systems (astewater collection systems (astewater treatment


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Solid waste engineering ) management (ater quality modeling Global environmental issues National environmental issues !ir and noise pollution control

Environmental impact assessmentoo$s

Te%t oo$ (ater Supply ) Sewerage by E.( Steel and *cGhee +th, th, -th Edition.

whichever available/ 'ntroduction to Environmental Engineering 0hird Edition by "avis )

1ornwell, *cGraw 2ill. Environmental Engineering 3aboratory, by "r. 4hurshid !hmad.

Reference oo$s

(aste (ater Engineering, 0reatment, disposal, 5euse by *etcalf andEddy, 6rd Edition. !vailable in 5eference Section of *ain 3ibrary/

'ntroduction to Environmental Engineering Second Edition by "avis )1ornwell, *cGraw 2ill

Environmental !ssessment in 7ractice by ". 8wen 2arrop ) 9. !shleyNi:on

'ntegrated Solid (aste *anagement by George 0echobanoglous, 2ilary0heisen ) Samuel !. ;igil

Elements of public health engineering by 4.N "uggal (ater and (aste water Engineering by


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LECTURE # o'

(lo)al Environmental Issues 8zone depletion Global warming

Solid and hazardous wastes


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Solid ,aste Engineering & !anagement Systems "isposal

+actors

8pen burning 8pen dumping #nhygienic disposal "ispose off in open drains 'mpacts on environment

-a.ardous /aste management ! very sensitive issue ;ery comple: and dangerous to handle No proper guideline for disposal Sources are still not define

5esponse to environment is also comple: !dvance techniques are involved

,ater 0uality !odeling #nder ground water modeling Surface water modeling %8" ) "8 model ;ariation in %8" ) "8 concentration "issolved 8:ygen !nalysis=0idal rivers and Estuaries 3akes modeling Stream water standards 'mprovement of water quality

Ecology and the Environment0he 0echnology needed to satisfy that consumption, and dispose of the

waste generation. 0hese two factors decide how much environmental damage isdone per person. *ultiply by the third factor, population, and you arrive at thetotal level of damage.

1efinition 0he study of living organisms and their environment or habitats 2ow pollution impacts our environment

,hat is ecosystem 2 %asic study area for ecologists !n organism or a group of organisms and their surroundings 0ropic levels within an Ecosystem


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"opulation Effects of increased population

Energy consumption 't makes possible the higher standard of living en>oyed in the

more developed countries.

Energy consumption vs. population #S!/ ?@6 million ?A6B/ @+A million ?AAB/ Energy consumption increased by a factor of ?B in the past

+B years Estimating population Growth


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,hat 1oes a (reen 1esign Engineer 1o2 7revent pollution, waste !nalyze multi=faceted problems

Engineering and science Economics

7ublic policy "eal with uncertainty %uild tools computer models/ to solve problems and assist decision

makers

(reen 1esign Research 3ife cycle analysis or assessment Energy and electricity in the economy Green construction 2arvesting methane from landfills 0racking metals through the environment


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8:idizable compoundsH become food for microbes in distribution system 1ommonly used disinfectantsH

1hlorine 1hlorine "io:ide 1hloramines

8zone #; light

,hy ,orry *)out ,ater Supplies2 Supports virtually everything we doH agriculture, industry, energy, and

domestic needs. *a>or pathway into the body for contaminants. Easy to contaminate, difficult costly/ to remediate. E:pensive to transport, necessitating local supplies for most communities. "ifferent countries would respond in different ways to this question

#nited States, 3ithuania, )%angladesh/.

2ealth aspects in water are connected to many broader issues ofmanagement.

-o/ much /ater is in the /orld2

,ater Sources and Treatment (ater

1ycle

Groundwater Surface water 0reatment

,ater Cycle


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,ater Treatment !ethods +locculation3Sedimentation


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8riginally passed in ?AD+ and regulates ?DB,BBB public water systems in#.S.

Standards and 0reatment 5equirements E:panded in ?AA- in the areas of sole source water supplies, protection

and prevention, and public information.

1rin$ing /ater issue 4*rsenic in angladesh6 @BC of the countries wells affected ABB,BBB of the countryJs four million tube=wells were sunk with #N'1Euirements for "u)lic uildings 9ther ThanResidences

+ire 1emand

't is the quantity of water required for fire=fighting purposes. !s comparedto the total consumption, it is seldom more than = ?B per cent. 2eavydemands for brief periods are usually the deciding factors in fi:ingcapacities for pumps, reservoirs and service=pipes of distribution system.


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0he above formula usually gives quite high results. 0he following empiricalformula has been found to give satisfactory resultsH

0 ? ;'@84"6A=ectives are to?. 5emove hardness and other minerals@. Eliminate pathogenic organisms

0reatment technologies largely based on precipitation

Coagulation and +locculation GoalH 0o alter the surface charge of the particles that contribute to

color and turbidity so that the particles adhere to one another and arecapable of settling by gravity.

Coagulants !lumH !l@S8+/6.?+2@8


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(heres= settling velocitysF density of particle kg$m6/ F density of fluid kg$m6/gF gravitational constant m$s@/

dF particle diameter m/ F dynamic viscosity

9verflo/ Rate

(herevF overflow rate m$s/

QF water flow m6$s/AsF surface area m@/

Types of "article Settling Type I settling applies to particles that settle with constant velocity ==

particles will be removed if v > vs Type IIsettling if particles flocculate during settling, velocity generally

increases

sA

Qv=


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Type III !s particle concentration increases with depth, zone settlingoccurs

Type I:!t bottom of tank compression settling occurs

+iltration

0he final step in removing particles is filtration. 5emoval of those particles that are too small to be effectively removedduring sedimentation

*ultiple removal mechanisms depending on design Single mediaH sand "ual mediaH coal and sand *ultimediaH anthracite coal, sand and garnet

+ilter 1esign

(hereva= face velocity m$day/ or loading rate m6$daym@/QF flow rate m6$day/AsF filter surface area m@/

s

aAQv =


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Slo/ Sand +iltersvaF @.A D.- m6$daym@

Rapid Sand +iltersvaF O ?@B m6$daym@

5emoval mechanisms are different 5apid sand widely used in #S, slow sand more common in other countries !s particles are removed = filter becomes clogged head loss increases,

turbidity increases *ust backwash takes about ?B=? min/ done about once per day *ust design to handle flow with one filter out of service %ackwashing is accomplished by forcing water and sometimes air/ up

from the clear well back through the filter. 0he particles in the filter become suspended, releasing the trapped

particles. %ackwash water retreated or disposed of.


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LECTURE # o;

,ater and ,aste/ater 1isinfection

1isinfection

"isinfection is any process to destroy or prevent the growth of microbes *any disinfection processes are intended to inactivate destroy the

infectivity of/ the microbes by physical, chemical or biological processes 'nactivation is achieved by altering or destroying essential structures or

functions within the microbe 'nactivation processes include denaturizing ofH

proteins structural proteins, enzymes, transport proteins/ nucleic acids lipids lipid bi=layer membranes, other lipids/

"roperties of an Ideal 1isinfectant

%road spectrumH active against all microbes


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strong o:idantP relatively stable in water provides a disinfectantresidual/

1hloraminesH mostly N2@1lH weak o:idantP provides a stable residual 8zone, 86, strong o:idantP provides no residual too volatile and reactive/. 1hlorine dio:ide, 1l8@,, strong o:idantP unstable residual dissolved gas/

1oncerns due to health risks of chemical disinfectants and theirby=products "%7s/, especially free chlorine and its "%7s #; radiation

low pressure mercury lampH low intensityP monochromatic at @+nm

medium pressure mercury lampH higher intensityP polychromatic@@B=@KB nm/

reacts primarily with nucleic acidsH pyrimidine dimmers and otheralterations

Some +actors Influencing 1isinfection Efficacy and !icro)ialInactivation

*icrobial strain differences and microbial selectionH "isinfectant e:posure may select for resistant strains 7hysical protectionH

!ggregation particle=association protection within membranes and other solids

1hemical factorsH p2 Salts and ions Soluble organic matter 8ther chemical depends on the disinfectant

+actors Influencing 1isinfection Efficacy and !icro)ial Inactivation B,ater 0uality

7articulatesH protect microbes from inactivationP"issolved organicsH protect microbes from inactivationP consumesor absorbs for #; radiation/ disinfectantP 1oat microbe deposit onsurface/

p2H influences microbe inactivation by some agents free chlorine more effective at low p2 where 281l predominates

neutral 2813 species more easily reaches microbe surfaceand penetrates/

negative charged 81l= has a harder time reaching negativelycharged microbe surface

chlorine dio:ide is more effective at high p2 'norganic compounds and ionsH influences microbe inactivation by some

disinfectantsP depends on disinfectant


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Reactor 1esign5 !i%ing & -ydraulic Conditions"isinfection kinetics are better in plug=flow pipe/ reactors than in

batch back=mi:ed/ reactors

atch or ac$Bmi%ed Reactor

1isinfection inetics Chic$s La/ +irstB9rder or E%ponential inetics

!ssumesH all organisms are identical death inactivation/ results from a first=order or Qsingle=hitR or e:ponential

reaction.Chic$Ds la/B dN$d0 F kN

whereHN F number concentration/ of organisms0 F timeln Nt$NoF =k0where NoF initial number of organismsNt F number of organisms remaining at time F 0No F initial number of organisms 0 F B/!lsoHN$No F e=k0

1isinfection *ctivity and the Contact Time Concept "isinfection activity can be e:pressed as the product of disinfection

concentration 1/ and contact time 0/!ssumes first order kinetics 1hicks 3aw/ such that disinfectantconcentration and contact time have the same QweightR or contribution indisinfection activity and in contribution to 10

E:ampleH 'f 10 F ?BB mg$l=minutes, then 'f 1 F ?B mg$l, 0 must F ?B min. in order to get 10 F ?BB mg$l=min. 'f 1 F ? mg$l, then 0 must F ?BB min. to get 10 F ?BB mg$l=min. 'f 1 F B mg$l, then 0 must F @ min. to get 10 F ?BB mg$l=min.

1isinfectant

"lugBflo/ or "ipe Reactor

1isinfectant

+lo/


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0he 10 concept fails if disinfection kinetics do not follow 1hicks 3aw arenot first=order or e:ponential/

+actors Influencing 1isinfection of !icro)es

*icrobe typeH disinfection resistance from least to mostHvegetative bacteria viruses protozoan cysts, spores and eggs 0ype of disinfectantH order of efficiency against Giardiafrom best to worst

86 1l8@ iodine$free chlorine chloramines %#0, order of effectiveness varies with type of microbe

*icrobial aggregationH protects microbes from inactivation microbes within aggregates can not be readily reached by the

disinfectant

+ree Chlorine B ac$ground and -istory

1onsidered to be first used in ?AB in 3ondon %ut, electrochemically generated chlorine from brine Na1l/ wasfirst used in water treatment the late ?KBBs

5eactions for free chlorine formationH1l@ g/ I 2@8 F 281l I 2I I 1l=

281l F 2II 81l=

1hemical forms of free chlorineH 1l@ gas/, Na81l liquid/, or 1a81l/@solid/

5ecommended ma:imum residual concentration of free chlorine mg$3by #S E7!/

1oncerns about the to:icity of free chlorine disinfection by=products tri=

halomethanes and other chlorinated organics/

!onoBchloramines B -istory and ac$ground first used in 8ttawa, 1anada ?A?D/ became popular to maintain a more stable chlorine residual and to control

taste and odor problems and bacterial re=growth in distribution system in?A6Bs

increased interest in mono=chloramineH alternative disinfectant to free chlorine due to low 02* potentials more stable disinfectant residualP persists in distribution system secondary disinfectant to ozone and chlorine dio:ide disinfection to

provide long=lasting residuals

Reaction of *mmonia /ith Chlorine rea$point Chlorination 7resence of ammonia in water or wastewater and the addition of free

chlorine results in an available chlorine curve with a QhumpR !t chlorine doses between the hump and the dip, chloramines are being

o:idatively destroyed and nitrogen is lost between p2 -.=K./.


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9.one first used in ?KA6 used in +B (07s in #S in ?AAB growing use since then/, but more than

?BBB(07s in European countries

1olorless gasP relatively unstableP reacts with itself and with 82= in waterPless stable at higher p2


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1esign of 1isinfection Systems 1hicks 3awH

B dN$d0 F kN

(hereNF number of organismskF first=order rate constant day=?/

"esign requirements may include reduction in number of organisms e.g. AA.AC kill/ number of organisms allowed in finished water e.g. ?$?BB m3/ contact time residual chlorine

5equirements can be both at plant and at consumer.


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LECTURE # o

,ater Treatment and ,ater Supply Net/or$s

Sources of ,ater Supply

0he primary source of all water supply isPrecipitatinwhich is thewater falling from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth in the form of rain,snow, hail etc. 5ainfall is the most important part of precipitation. 'n falling onthe ground surface, it is carried off in four different ways as illustrated in


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transpiration and the balance goes back into the sea by surface run=off throughchannels and by percolation into the ground and then flowing throughunderground channels. !n outstanding property of the hydrological cycle is thatthe source is ine:haustible as it is available every year again and again in varyingquantities.

Classification of Sources of ,ater Supply Surface water

5ivers 3akes 'mpounding 5eservoirs

Ground water Springs 'nfiltration Galleries (ells

Rainfall and Runoff(ater from rainfall when used as a source of water supply isrequired to be collected and stored in underground reservoirs. 0he collection maybe either from the surface of the ground or from the roofs of houses. (hencollected from the surface of the ground as may be done in water scarcity areas inplains, catchments area should specially constructed to serve the purpose. 0hereservoir which is open, trapezoidal shaped has sides and bottom provided withimpervious lining to minimize losses or infiltration of subsoil water. 0he entirearea should be fenced to prevent the encroachment of both humans and animalswhich may cause pollution of the watershed.


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Rainfall !easurement0he amount of rain falling during a given period is measured on the

basis of the depth of water which would accumulate on a level surface if it allremained as it fell and none flowed, soaked, away or lost by evaporation.5ainfall is measured in inches or mm.) of depth in a standard rain gauge.Symonss rain gauge is the most commonly used in 'ndia. 0he rain gauge is fi:edin a masonry block -? cm cube with the top of the gauge pro>ecting 6B. cm abovethe ground level. 0he rainfall is admitted through a funnel into a glass bottlecontained in the body of the gauge. 0he contents of bottle are measured by meansof graduated cylinders reading up to ? mm.


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collection of rainfall in the gauge is affected by strong winds against which itsshould be protected.

*utomatic Recording Rain (auge


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:ariation in Rain +all0he variations in rainfall may be geographical, monthly or annual.

0he geographical variations are due to direction of prevailing winds and locationof mountain ranges. 0hey are not of much consequence in water supply problemas compared to the monthly and annual variations. 0he rainfall during summermonths is partly used up by vegetation. 0he remaining rainfall along with snowmelt is available for storage in reservoirs. Some rainfall during winter though insmall quantity may also be available for storage. 't is necessary to have rainfalldata spread over longer periods in order to know the amount of rainfall in a JdryyearJ and for a series of successive dry years in order that sufficient storage maybe provided to take care of deficiency in the supply of water from rainfall and toreplenish the ground water storage.0he actual quantities of rainfall from month to month and from year to year aresystematically observed and the record is usually kept with the *eteorological"epartment. Graphs are then plotted to show the monthly variations in differentyears and the annual variations in different decades.


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5un=off is the portion of rainfall which flows over the groundsurface to ultimately >oin drainage channels or streams. 't is measured, therefore,as a stream flow in the following unitsH

1ubic meter per second 'ectare#meter

5un=off is measured by the following methodsH 5ainfall=runoff records, Empirical formulae Gauging

RainfallBRunoff Record0he rainfall record for a number of years is first used to determine

the average depth of rainfall over catchments. 0he value when multiplied with asuitable coefficient gives the amount of runoff. 0his is mathematically e:pressedby the relationshipH5 F475 F run=off in cm7 F precipitation in cm4 F run=off coefficient

't is observed that relationship between rainfall and the resulting runoff is quitecomple: and is influenced by a host of factors related to the catchments andclimate. 0he rainfall=runoff relationship is therefore nonlinear and even non=deterministic because of the paucity of available data. 0his means strictlyspeaking, cannot be regarded as a constant coefficient 2owever, the formulacould be used as an appro:imate evaluation of the runoff for a catchmentsprovided suitable values of are assumed. 'n practice is found to have a wide

range from as low as B.B to as high as B.K.

Empirical +ormulae0hese essentially involve relationship between rainfall and runoff

with the introduction of third or fourth parameters to account for climatic orcatchments characteristics, suitable for particular regions. %ased on this we havethe following important empirical formulae.

4hoslas


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!ass 1iagram0he run=off records are the most important data required for

determining the quantity of water which will flow from a given drainage basinduring different periods of time. 0he longer the duration of the records, the moreaccurate will be the estimate of the quantity and variations of the run=off. 0herun=off record of the stream for different months of the years is often made use ofin constructing the '*dr grap' showing a graphical relationship between them.'n practice, an integrated hydro graph or mass diagram is found to be of greateruse, as it shows the accumulated flow from month to month and year to year inunits of second=meter or hectare=meter.

Rivers


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0he water received from precipitation i.e. rain or melted snow is the surfacewater which flows in the form of rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. 'n 'ndia, manycities like "elhi, 1alcutta and !hmedabad derive their water supply from rivers.0he principal advantage of river as a source of water supply is the large quantityof water available for supply throughout the year. 2owever, since water has to

travel a long distance from the source located in mountains where it is fairly pureto the towns in plains, its quality deteriorates as river more or less serves as anatural drain for all discharges from the region. 0hough river water may be softerthan ground water, it contains large amount of organic matter.%esides, it picks up lot of suspended matter, clay, silt etc and becomes muddy inappearance. Some of the tributaries of 'ndus 5iver are known to contain harmfuldissolved salts like mica or magnesium sulfate in e:cess quantities which lead todiarrheic disorders in human beings. %eing easily accessible, rivers are freelyused for washing, bathing, etc. 'n 'ndia, it is usual for dead bodies to be burnt onthe banks of rivers. %esides, places of pilgrimage are normally situated on thebanks of rivers and pilgrims bath at a time causing pollution of water as a sourceof water supply. 7ollution may also be caused by discharges of trade effluentsfrom industries. 't is, therefore, necessary that river water should be thoroughlytreated and protected before it can be made as a source of water supply for towns.

Impounding Reservoir!n impounding reservoir may be defined as an artificial lake

created by the construction of a dam across a valley containing a water course.0he ob>ect to be achieved is to impound or store a portion of the stream=flow sothat it may be used for water supply. 0he reservoir essentially consists of threepartsH

a dam to hold back water, a spillway through which e:cess stream=flow may discharge, and a gate chamber containing the necessary valves for regulating the flew of

water from the reservoir.

1esign +actorsSince storage of reservoir is the essential principle on which an

impounding reservoir is based, the general factors to be considered in its designare

0he run=off or the quantity of water flowing from the drainage area forsuccessive intervals of time. 0his, as we have seen, would be determinedfrom the long=term records of the rainfall and run=off for the catchmentsarea considered

0he total demand of water for all purposes including the consumptionrequirements, loss of water due to evaporation from the surface ofreservoir, leakage, and percolation losses and the necessary withdrawalsto satisfy the demands of the riparian owners downstream for likeintervals of time.

Location of Impounding Reservoirs


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1onsiderations affecting the location of impounding reservoirs are H E:istence of suitable dam site. 0he shortest dam to impound the requisite

volume of storage is the best. 0his would be possible if the river flowsthrough a narrow gorge and the valley rapidly widens upstream from thesite.

0he quantity of water available. 't should be sufficient to meet all thedemands throughout the year. 0his would depend on the rainfall, run=offand the catchments area. 0he catchments area should be such as to drainoff waters from all points in the catchments.

"istance and elevation of the reservoir with reference to the point ofdistribution. ! longer distance means greater cost of the conduits whileproper elevation of the reservoir ensures adequate supplies throughgravity flow.

"ensity and distribution of population over the catchments area.


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!anagement of ,ells for 1rin$ing ,ater

"ossi)le ,ell Contaminants


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,ater Testing (ater testing is important becauseH

't monitors water quality and identifies possible health risks. *ost contaminants cannot be seen.

0est well water at least once a year forH %acteria. Nitrates. 0otal dissolved solids. p2.

Unused ,ells Need to be closed because theyH

7rovide a direct channel for waterborne pollutants to reachgroundwater.

7ose a hazard to small children.

!re potential health hazards to your familyU 1an be e:pensive to fi: if problems occur. %y 4entucky law, a licensed, registered well driller must be hired to close

any wells.

9vervie/ 'ntroduce the common methods used to construct wells. "iscuss the different types of wells "iscuss what types of wells a landowner plug. "iscuss reasons for hiring a contractor. 1onclusion

Introduction 0here are many different types of well construction methods. 0he method used for each well depends on geological formations.

,hat are the common !ethods Used to Construct ,ater ,ells2

2and dug "riven "rilled


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,ell Construction Techni>ues0here are eight different types of well construction techniques.

Type I F 1ug ,ell

Type II F 1rilled ,ell

Land Surface

Open Hole

Total Depth

Sealed Rock or Brick Lining as Casing

Land Surface

Casing

Open Hole

Total Depth

Seal

Cemented Annulus


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Type III F 1rilled ,ell

Type I: F 1rilled ,ell

Smaller Casing

Total Depth

Land Surface

Casing

Open Hole

Seal

Casing with Selected, erforated, Slotted, orScreened !nter"als

Cemented Annulus

Land Surface

Casing

Total Depth

Seal

#ra"el or Sand ack


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Type : F 1rilled ,ell

Type :I F 1rilled ,ell

Casing with Selected, erforated, Slotted, orScreened !nter"als

Cemented Annulus

Land Surface

Casing

Total Depth

Seal

#ra"el or Sand ack

Open Hole

Seal

Total Depth

Cemented Annulus

Land Surface

Large Casing

Smaller Casing with Selected, erforated, Slotted, or

Screened !nter"als


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Type :II F 1rilled ,ell

Type :III F 1rilled ,ell

Casing with Selected, erforated, Slotted, or Screened!nter"als

Cemented Annulus

Land Surface

Casing

Total Depth

Seal

#ra"el or Sand ack

Seal

Land Surface

Total Depth

Casing

#ra"el or Sand ack

Casing with Selected, erforated, Slotted, or Screenedinter"als


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,hat Type ,ells Can * Lando/ner "lug2 ! landowner can plug type '=; wells, assuming there is less than ?BB feet

of standing water in the well.

Even ,ith a Type IB: ,ell5 ,hy !ight It e etter to -ire *Contractor2

! contractor may have better equipment and understanding of the geologyconditions that affect how the well should be plugged.

Conclusion 3andowners have the authority to plug

type '=; wells if there is less than ?BBfeet of water in the well.

8nly licensed well drillers should plugtype ;'=;''' wells.


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'n some cases it may be better to hire a contractor for type '=; wellsLECTURE # oect area.

1omestic Se/age "roduction!s discussed above, per capita domestic sewage production will be

adopted as ?-B liters$dayP the day will be defined as @+ hrs.Industrial ,aste/ater "roduction

0he wastewater production hours will be considered as K hours in aday, from K.BB am to +.BB pm.

Se/age +lo/ :ariations0he following sewage flows will be considered for the design of

various treatment plant facilities mentioned belowH 7eak hour flow for 7umping equipment

7eak hour domestic flow will be equal to peak factor :average daily flow.

*a:imum day flow for Sludge pumping system and Sedimentationtank

*inimum hour flow for 3ow range of plant flow.

Influent Characteristics 0he characteristics of domestic wastewater have been considered inthe following ranges, the design parameters will be established after the sampletesting of wastewater.

Characteristic Concentration

= %iochemical 8:ygen "emand %8"s/= Suspended Solids SS/=


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0he discharge from workshops etc. will be considered to be free from substanceswhich will hinder the biological process or could not be removed through theprocess. Such substances will be removed at site by industry owners at their owne:penses before discharging effluent into the proposed sewerage system. 0hesubstances which hinder the biological processes are classified as followsH

or typical characteristicsH

Characteristic Concentration

%iochemical 8:ygen "emand %8"/Suspended Solids SS/NitrogenH !mmonia as N/Nitrate as N86/7hosphorus total as 7/


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2ydraulic 5etention 0ime2ydraulic retention time of reactor will be taken as more than @Bhours and will be calculated as underH

5eactor ;olume mV/250 days/ F ===============================*a:. "aily flow mV$day/

8rganic 3oading 5ate0he organic loading %8" rate will be less than B.6 kg$m6. day.

8rganic loading rateF%8" ;

(hereas%8"F%8" in kg$day;F;olume of reactor in mV

Sludge 3oading 5ate


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1isinfection of Treated Effluent"isinfection of treated effluent will be carried out through

chlorination which will be carried out through dry feed chlorinators and gas willbe fed in treated effluent tank.Treated Effluent Tan$

0reated effluent will be stored in a tank. 0he tank will be designedfor one day annual average/ retention time.

1isposal of Treated Effluent0he disinfected effluent will be utilized by the different users for

irrigation purpose. 'n case, conveyance of treated effluent is not possible throughgravity, pumps will be proposed to pump the treated effluent from storage tank.

Sludge Thic$ener3-olding Tan$1ircular gravity thickeners/ will be provided for gravity settling of

sludge. 0he basis of design is given as underH

Solid loading rateH 6B kg$m@. day Sludge concentration H@ 6C i.e. @B6B kg$m6/ =Sludge production rateHB.+ B.- kg$kg %8" removed

Sludge 1rying eds1onventional sludge drying beds will be provided to dewater the

stabilized sludge. 0he basis of design will be as underH

0hickness of wet sludge H @B mm Sludge retention time H ?+ days

Sludge 1isposal0he dewatered sludge through drying beds will be transported

through vehicles and disposed off at landfill siteP the site should be of sufficientcapacity to store the sludge minimum for ?BB days.

Interconnecting "ipe !aterial%uried pipes will be of 2"7E pipes, however e:posed pipes will be

of "'.

STRUCTUR*L 1ESI(N

Code and Standards !ll reinforced concrete structures including water retaining

structures shall be designed in accordance with the provisions ofthe latest editions of %ritish Standards %.S. K??B, %.S 66D andother relevant Standards and 1odes of 7ractice.

!ll material used shall conform to the latest %ritish Standards.


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'n addition, loadings, design procedures and material specificationsmay also fulfill the requirements of !merican Standards and 1odesi.e. !1'$!NS'$!S1E$!S0* etc.

!aterial Strengths

1oncrete0he grade of concrete appropriate for use shall be selected from thepreferred grades in %S 6@K.

5einforcing Steel!ll reinforcing steel to be used in reinforced concrete works shallconform to %S +++A and %S D@A having a minimum yield strengthfy/ of +-B *7a --,-B 7si/.

Units and 1esign LoadsUnits

0he 'nternational System of #nits S.'. #nits/ shall be used for the pro>ect.1esign Loads

0he structures should be so designed that adequate means e:ist to transmitthe design ultimate dead, wind, and earthquake and imposed loads safely fromthe highest support level to the foundations. 0he characteristics load in each caseshould be the appropriate load as defined in and calculated in accordance with %S-6AA.

1ead Loads0he dead loads on the structure will be computed from the unit weights of

the materials.


56/296

E>uipments3!achinery*achine and equipment loads shall conform, to the requirements of the

*anufacturer.,ind Loads

0he wind loads on the structures will be calculated using the following

formulaH(k F B.-?6 ;sW N$mW(here,;sF "esign wind speed in m$sec F ; S?S@S6; F %asic wind speed in m$sec F + m$secS? F *ultiplying factor relating to topologyS@ F *ultiplying factor relating to height above ground and wind%reakingS6 F *ultiplying factor related to life of structure.

Earth>ua$e Loads!cceleration coefficient for seismic loads shall be taken as recommended

in the Geotechnical 'nvestigation 5eport of the pro>ect and 2ighway "esign*anual.

Temperature Effects0he temperature effects will be investigated against a ma:imum

differential temperature of I @B degree centigrade and included in the design.#nless otherwise specified, the ma:imum daily temperature shall be assumed as X1. !ccording to the location of site/

Load Cases and Load Com)inations0he design will be based on #ltimate 3imit State using %S K??B.

Load Cases

1ase ? Earthquake YE

1ase @ ".3 self I imposed/

1ase 6 3.3

1ase + Earth 7ressure YE.7

1ase 0emperature 0 F @B X1/

1ase - (ater pressure in tank


57/296

1ase ?B ?.+ "3I?.- 33/

1ase ?? ?.+"3 I ?.- 33I ?.+ E.7/

1ase ?@ ?.+ "3I ?.+ E.7 I ?.+ (/

1ase ?6 ?.@ "3 I ?.@ 33I ?.@ E.7 I ?.@ (/

1ase ?+ ?.+ "3 I ?.+ E7 I ?. E/


58/296

Status3*larms 7umps and blower running Status/ 7umps and blower stopped Status/

!easurements 0emperature

p2 value (ater levels in screening chamber, sedimentation andstorage tanks


59/296

LECTURE # oH,*TER SU""LG SGSTE!S

!ethods of !oving ,ater "irect pumping

Gravity 1ombination systems most communities use combination systems/

Treatment +acilities *ethods includeH coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, chemicals,

introducing bacteria$ organisms. Spring and well water generally do not need further purification. *aintenance errors, loss of power, or natural disasters concern fire

departments as they may reduce volume and pressure of water.

,ater 1istri)ution Systems

"elivers water from the pumping station throughout the area. "ead=end hydrant receives water from only one direction 1irculating=feed hydrant receives water from two or more directions Grid systems provide circulating feed from several mains

(rid Systems 7rimary feeders = ?- inch +BBmm/ pipes Secondary feeders = ?@ inch 6BBmm/ pipes "istributor = K inch @BBmm/ pipes 2ydrants

Recommended "ipe Si.es ?@ inch 6BBmm/ = main streets K inch @BBmm/ = business and industrial - inch ?Bmm/ residential

"ipe Capacities + inch ?BBmm/ per ?BBB ft main F @ gpm - inch +BBmm/ per ?BBB ft main F D+B gpm K inch @BBmm/ per ?BBB ft main F ?D gpm ?@ inch 6BBmm/ per ?BBB ft main F +-B gpm

,ater !ain :alves 'ndicating = identifies valve seat open, closed, or partially closed No indicating = does not identify position 1ontrols water flow *aintained at least once per year


60/296

+riction Loss

1efinitionH that part of the total pressure lost as water moves through thesystem or hose.

7ipe construction cast iron, ductile iron, asbestos cement, steel, plastic, or

concrete/ cause different levels of friction loss due to internal surfacematerial and resistance to water flow Size of pipe Encrustation from mineral deposits and sedimentation


61/296

"ipeline Systems

"ipe Net/or$s (ater distribution systems for municipalities *ultiple sources and multiple sinks connected with an interconnected

network of pipes. 1omputer solutions[

4Tpipes (ater1!" 1yberNE0 E7!NE0

,ater 1istri)ution System *ssumption Each point in the system can only have one pressure 0he pressure change from ? to @ by path a must equal the pressure change

from ? to @ by path b

b

1 2

Lhzg

Vpz

g

Vp+++=++ 2

2

221

2

11

22 a

aa

Lhzg

Vz

g

Vpp+= 2

2

2

1

2

112

22


62/296

Same for path b[

a

7ressure change by path a

8r sum of head loss around loop is zero

7ipe diameters are constant or 4.E. is small

*odel withdrawals as occurring at nodes so ; is constant betweenNodes.

"ipes in "arallel

&?&total ! %

&@


63/296

Net/or$ *nalysisunction

AB.6@ m6$s B.@K m6$s

?

A B

C DB.?B m6$s

B.6@ m6$s B.@K m6$s

B.?+ m6$s

@BBm

100m

A B

C DB.?B m6$s

B.6@ m6$s B.@K m6$s

B.?+ m6$s

B.6@

B.BB B.B+

!rbitrary


64/296

1alculate the head loss in each pipe

0he head loss around the loop isnt zero Need to change the flow around the loop

the clockwise flow is too great head loss is positive/ reduce the clockwise flow to reduce the head loss

Solution techniques 2ardy 1ross loop=balancing optimizes correction

#se a numeric solver Solver in E:cel/ to find a change in flow thatwill give zero head loss around the loop #se Network !nalysis software E7!NE0/

Numeric Solver Set up a spreadsheet as shown below. the numbers in bold were entered, the other cells are calculations initially & is B use QsolverR to set the sum of the head loss to B by changing & the column &BI & contains the correct flows.

fFB.B@ for 5e@BBBBB

2

25

8Q

gD

fLhf

=

fh kQ Q=

339

)25.0)(8.9(

)200)(02.0(8

251

=

=

kk

?,k

6F66A

k@,k

+F?-A

A B

C DB.?B m6$s

B.6@ m6$s B.@K m6$s

B.?+ m6$s

1

4 2

3

mh

mhmh

mh

mh

i

f

f

f

f

f

i53.31

00.039.3

222.0

7.34

4

1

4

3

2

1

=

==

=

=

=

Sign convention I1(

Q 0.000

pipe f L D k Q0 0+ hf

P1 0.02 200 0.25 339 0.32 0.320 34.69

P2 0.02 100 0.25 169 0.04 0.040 0.27

P3 0.02 200 0.25 339 -0.1-0.100 -3.39

P4 0.02 100 0.25 169 0 0.000 0.00

31.575Sum Head Loss


65/296

Solution to Loop "ro)lem

Net/or$ Elements 1ontrols

1heck valve 1;/ 7ressure relief valve 7ressure reducing valve 75;/ 7ressure sustaining valve 7S;/


66/296

"ressure Relief :alve

(here high pressure could cause an e:plosion boilers, water heaters,/

"ressure Regulating :alveSets ma:imum pressure downstream

Similar function to pressure break tank

;alve will begin to open when pressure in the pipeline\E:ceed a set pressure determined by force on the spring/.

1losed

relief flow

8pen

3ow pipeline pressure 2igh pipeline pressure

;alve will begin to open when the pressure downstream is less than the set=

point pressure determined by the force of the spring/.

closed open

2igh downstream pressure 3ow downstream pressure


67/296

"ressure Sustaining :alveSets minimum pressure upstream, Similar to pressure relief valve

+lo/ control valve 4+C:6 3imits the flow rate through the valve to a specified value, in a specified

direction 1ommonly used to limit the ma:imum flow to a value that will not

adversely affect the providers system

"ressure rea$ Tan$s 'n the developing world small water supplies in mountainous regions can

develop too much pressure for the 7;1 pipe. 0hey do not want to use 75;s because they are too e:pensive and are

prone to failure. 7ressure break tanks have an inlet, an outlet, and an overflow.

Net/or$ *nalysis E%tended 0he previous approach works for a simple loop, but it doesnt easily e:tend

to a whole network of loops Need a matri: method

'nitial guess for flows !d>ust all flows to reduce the error in pressures

;alve will begin to open when the pressure greater is upstream than the sets=point pressure determined by the force of the spring/.

1losed 8pen

3ow upstream pressure 2igh upstream pressure


68/296

"ressure Net/or$ *nalysis Soft/are E"*NET

E"*NET net/or$ solution

>unctionpipe

5eservoir

A B

C D0.10m3/s

0.32

m3

/s

0.28

m

3

/s

0.14m3/s

0.21

80.102

0.202

0.062

1

4 2

3

2n

i j ij ij ijH H h rQ mQ = = +

0ij ij

Q D =AH = F

ii ij

j

A p= ij ijA p=

11

2ij n

ij ij

pnr Q m Q

=+

2

5 2

8f

fLh Q

gD

=

5 2

8fLr

gD

=

2n=

5 2

1

82

ij

ij

pfL

QgD

=


69/296

( ) ( )2

sgnn

ij ij ij ij ijy p r Q m Q Q= +

( ) ( )2

sgnn

ij ij ij ij ijy p r Q m Q Q= +

( )ij ij ij ij i jQ Q y p H H =


70/296


71/296

E>uivalent Resistance5

E%ample "ro)lem

7!F ?@K psi$F B.B@

$%& cfs

%& cfs

$ cfs

'&((), *+

$&((), +

-((()

*+

'((()

+

.(((), .+

-&((), &+A B

D/

C


72/296

-ardyBCross !ethod 4"rocedure6 "ivide network into number of closed loops.


73/296

"ipes0here are three categories of pipesH

!ains0runk = not tapped and "istribution *ains supply water.0hey have relatively large diameter and are used for conveyance

and distribution. *aterials used include cast iron, spun iron,asbestos, cement, or steel. Service "ipes 'ndividual supply lines to farms, houses and

hospitals or standpipes. *aterials used include copper, steel,plastics 7;1 or polyethylene/.

"lum)ing 7ipe work within the building.

"ressure Classes of "ipes0here are three important pressures associated with pipes.

,or$ TestH @ to 6 times the working pressure. 't is the pressureused to test manufactured pipes.

!a%imum +ield TestH 8ne and half time the working pressure.0he specified design pressure should be tested in the field.

!a%imum ,or$ing "ressureH *a:imum pressure derived inthe field. 0here are three classes of ma:imum working pressurese.g. polyethylene 1lass %= - bars, 1lass 1 = A bars and 1lass " ?@bars.

"ipeline 1esign 0he selection of pipes is an economic tradeoff between large diameter

which will give high capital cost and low friction losses and low pumpingcosts if there is pumping/ 9Rsmall diameter, which will involve lowcapital cost, more head losses and more pumping cost.

Energy cost is a function of head losses while pipe cost is a function ofdiameter.

*llo/a)le -ead Losses !llow ? m for big pipes/ to ?B m small pipes/ head loss per ?BBB m

of mainline #sing velocity as criteria as head loss effects is related to velocity.

Normal practice in water supply for irrigation is to keep velocity within B.- to ?.m$s. !bove that, there can be Ywater hammer or high rates of corrosion. (aterhammer is transient high pressure waves due to rapid valve closure. %elow B.-

m$s, there may be silting or sediment deposition.7ipe diameter can be chosen using head losses and velocity using charts orequations.

"ipe Layout Types of 1istri)ution Systems Individual "ipesH 1onnects two points in the distribution system say

from a reservoir to the point of use.


74/296

E%ample! reservoir Shown in


75/296

nominal internal/ diameter 1lass 1 low density polythene pipe wouldsatisfy these requirements.

;elocity is about B.K m$s which is acceptable within B.- and ?. m$s/.

ranching System

0he advantages are relatively few >oints and the system is easy to build anddesign. 0he disadvantages are that sediments may accumulate at dead ends of the

pipe. Secondly, it there is pipe bursts, a total cut off for zone beyondfailure results.

0his means that in case of bursts, the system will be cut off. !lso there are limitations in adding to the system beyond a certain point. %ecause of these disadvantages, branch system is used in small community

pro>ects.

E%ample

Solution

7ipeSect.


76/296

!% @.A DBB 6@ 6.6 B.K @6 ! @-B% @6D

?KA +- 8.4

%1 B. K@ ?A ?.- B. ?6 % @6D1 @@+

@?A 9ust8.4

E%planation of Ta)le 0he average of the ma:imum and minimum pressure required at ! is

+? m. 'f you subtract the minimum pressure needed at % m/ from +? m, you

get 6- m. Since the length of the pipe is DBB m, the hydraulic head loss is 6-$DBB F

B.B? F $?BB F ?$@B.

(ith the discharge of @.A m6$h and head loss of ?$@B, the ne:t higherdiameter of pipe is 6@ mm from the chart.

(ith now 6@ mm diameter pipe chosen from the 0able, and the same flowrate, the actual head loss is now ?$6B from the chart which is 6.6 m$?BBmas shown in table.

0he flow velocity is about B.K m$s which is acceptable. 0he head loss is now 6.6 : DBB/$?BB F @6 m. !t !, the elevation of the

hydraulic grade line is now +?m I ground elevation @?A m/ F @-B m.


77/296

8nly some parts of the system will be cut off. 0here are also more evenpressures throughout the system.

0he disadvantages are that the designs are more complicated and there aremore pipes and more fittings.

"ipe Net/or$ *nalysis Using the -ardy Cross method = 0he 2ardy 1ross system is used for water flow analysis in a more comple:system than the dead end system.

"rocedure for *nalysis !ssign assumed flows to each pipe segment in network such that at each

>unctionH 1alculate hffor each pipe using for e:ample 2azen (illiams equationH

hfF ?B.-D 12 =?.K "= +.KD &?.K 3

(here h fis head loss m/, 12 is roughness coefficient of pipe materialP "is diameter of pipe m/, & is water flow rate m6$s/ and 3 is length of pipe m/.

"rocedure Concluded


78/296

Example0 O2tain the flow rates in the network shown 2elow%

6( l7s

A && .(( m B

*&

-& .(( m'&* mm

.(( m C C$&' mm $&

$& .(l7s...(( .(( m

/ .(( m & D $&' mm$&' mm

'&* mm$(

:"e.((

$&' mm

Solution !%"E is one loop as shown above and %1" is the second loop. Note that the clockwise water flows are positive while the anti=clockwise

ones are negative. 7ositive and negative flows give rise to positive and negative head losses

respectively


79/296

Solution

Circuit Pipe L (m) D (m) Q (m3/s) hf(m) hf/Q Q

AB .(( (%'&* : (%(&& '%9' *6%*&

! BD .(( (%$&' : (%($ $%*' $*'

D/ .(( (%$&' ; (%((& ; (%-6 9 0.00

/A .(( (%$&' ; (%(-& ;$*%*' *$'

!otal " #0.$% $#.&'

BC .(( (%'&* : (%(*& $% *$%

!! CD .(( (%$&' ; (%($& ; -%($ '((%.9 0.00&

DB .(( (%$&' ; (%($( ; $%*' $*'

!otal " 2.'' 3&.&%

Sample Calculation0 illiams /5uation in Step ' 0

hffor pipe AB ? $(%.9 4 $-&@ $%& 4 (%'&* ;*%9 4 (%(&&$%& 4 .(( ? '%9'

slx

Q

slx

Q

hm

hQ

f

f

&400359.047.38485.1

55.2

&80084'.045.'8185.1

'7.10

2

1

===

===

=


80/296

Correct the flows as shown 2elow0

6( l7s

A .- B

*6

'9C

.( 77s

$$/ - D

-( l7s

$*


AB .(( (%'&* : (%(.- -%& &&%&

! BD .(( (%$&' : (%($* '%.9 $6(%9$

D/ .(( (%$&' : (%((- (%$&- &$ 0.002

/A .(( (%$&' ; (%('9 ; %6' --(%-9

!otal " 2.$ $#.&'

BC .(( (%'&* : (%(*6 '%' **%6

!! CD .(( (%$&' ; (%($$ ; $%.6 $&-%.* 0.003DB .(( (%$&' ; (%($* ; '%.9 $6(%9

!otal " 2.'' 3.2'

sLx

Q

sLx

Q

hm

hQ

f

f

&3003.025.38985.1

1'.2

&2002.058.'2785.1

'.2

2

1

==

=

===

=


81/296

Correct flows again for the third trial

6( l7s.&

A B&'

'&

C

.,

/ & D-( l7s

$-


AB .(( (%'&* : (%(.& -%9' &9%'

! BD .(( (%$&' : (%($- '%-$ $99%9

D/ .(( (%$&' : (%((& (%-6 9, 0.00#

/A .(( (%$&' ; (%('& ; 9%9 -(,

!otal " #.2 $20.

BC .(( (%'&* : (%(&' '%*. **%6

!! CD .(( (%$&' ; (%((, ; (%6* $&-%.* 0.003

DB .(( (%$&' ; (%($- ; '%-$ $6(%9

!otal " 0.% 3&2.'

Qh

mh

Q

xl s

Qx

l s

f

f1

2

1 28

1 85 '20 90 001 1

0 79

1 85 342 50 00125 1

=

= = =

= = =

.

. .. &

.

. .. &


82/296

+inal ,ater +lo/s

inal *ater lo+s

6( l7s

.. l7s

&- l7s

'* l7s

.

9

-( l7s . l7s

,ote0 A computer programme e4ists for anal3sis using the Hard3 Cros

$- l7s

,ater Consumption & 1emands 1ommon water supply systems

1old water system 7otable$fresh water


83/296

7m F 7robability of occurrence

!nd n is the total number of fittings having the same probability and m isnumber of fitting in use at any one time. "esign flow considerations

! small increase in demand over design level will cause a slightreduction in pressure$flow unlikely to be noticed by users/

E:ceptional cases, such asH 1leaners sinks #rinal flushing cisterns constant small flow/ 0eam changing rooms at sport clubs Special events

Loading units and design flo/ rates

mnm

m PPmnm

nP

= )1()(


84/296

"ipe Si.ing & ,ater Storage 7ipe sizing procedure

!ssume a pipe diameter "etermine the flow rate "etermine the effective pipe length

1alculate the permissible loss of head "etermine the pipe diameter #sually, flow velocities shall be 6 m$s 0he higher the temperature of the water, the lower would be the limit of

flow velocity

SIIN( 7ipe reference =*ark pipe reference on the schematic drawing and enter

the pipe reference on the table 3oading units= "etermine the loading units according to the outlet fittings


85/296

(ater storage allowance depends onH 0ype and use of buildings Number of occupants 0ype and number of fittings


86/296

Stratification of Supplied ,ater Need to consider these factorsH

!ny stratification of the stored water

"ump Systems & "erformance 1entrifugal pumps are commonly used 0wo types of systemsH

1losed systems 5ecirculation

8pen systems 8pen to atmosphere


87/296

"ump "ressure Effects in an 9pen System

"ump Systems & "erformance 7ump considerations

7ractical suction lift is m ma:imum !lso known as net positive suction head N7S2/

7ump location is important for both closed and open systems 8pen systemH not e:cessive to avoid cavitations

7ower 1lose systemH 'nfluence water level of open vent pipe ) the

magnitude of anti=flash margin temp. difference between water )its saturation temp./

YSelf=priming to evacuate air from suction line 7ump characteristics

1haracteristics curves e.g. from catalogue/H 0otal head efficiency

No=flow conditions flow F zero/ 1lose valve pressure Need to prevent over=heat


88/296


89/296

& F


90/296


91/296

7ump characteristics 7umps with steep characteristics

1hange in pressure = small change in flow rate #seful where pipes tend to scale up

7umps with flat characteristics 1hange in flow = small change in pressure #seful where e:tensive hydraulic balancing is needed


92/296


93/296

Energy conservation 'nsulation of hot water pipe, fittings ) vessels #se of fresh water for cooling tower make=up

9ther +riction Losses

:alves and +ittings

(oals 1alculate frictional losses in a system containing valves, fittings, and

sudden e:pansions and contractions E:press frictional losses in terms of velocity head !ssess relative contributions of different sources to total viscous

dissipation

Sudden E%pansion


94/296


95/296

!echanical Energy alance!ssume turbulentH a? F a@ F ?

+inal Result

5ecall *ass %alance 5esultH

NotesH ;elocity head is based on smaller cross section (hat if flow becomes laminar in large pipeU

1ombining

( ) ( ) fabaabb hpp

zgVV +

++=

22

2

1

pVV

ppVVh

ba

babaf

+

=

+

=

2

2

22

22

b

aab

S

SVV =

21

22

a

b

af

V

S

Sh

=

( )[ ]babbaf VVVVV

h += 222

1

2

( )2

2

2

2

22

ba

bbaa

VV

VVVV

=

+=


96/296


97/296


98/296


99/296

E%ample(ater is pumped at @B gpm from tank ? to tank @ as shown. 1alculate

the required power input to the pump assuming a pump efficiency of DBC.

Solution

a

e

c

Tank $

L2-#0 ft

' Sch. &0 Steel

e

? -( psi

Tank 'd

2

L'?6( ft

* Sch% *( Steel

Ea2

? ;$( ft

E2c

? :(%& ft

Ecd

? :9& ft

Ede

? :$& ft

gate "al"e 8openF

0045.0

0003'.0

12

047.5

00015.0&00015.0

105'.1

107197.'

4.'20.412

047.5

0.41390.0

1

48.7'0

in1

in250

5

4

3

2

3

9======= f%f%Dk sf%l b f%l bsf%f%& f%galf %sgal m m'(


100/296

0042.0

00045.0

12

02'.4

00015.0&00015.0

109'.1

107197.'

4.'23.'12

02'.4

3.'

0884.0

1

48.7'0

in1

in

250

5

4

3

2

3

94

=

=

=

=

=

== f%

f%Dk

sf%lb

f%

lb

s

f%f%

&

f%gal

f%

s

gal

m

m

'(

( )

( )

f

m

"

m

f

f

m

"

pf

""

a

f

f%

f%

slb

lbf%

s

f%

ansi!nfi%%ingsD

Lf

g

V

lb

lbf%

f%

f%

slb

lbf%

s

f%

n"!n%ra"%i!fi%%ingsD

Lf

g

V

hg

zg

g

VP

423.40.117.075.02

12

02'.4

)90(0042.04

2.322

3.'

e:*4

2

20'.04.00

12

047.5

)10(0045.04

2.322

0.4

4

2

2

2

2

4

2

4

2

2

5

2

5

2

=

+++

=

++=

=

++

=

++=

=++

+


101/296

Study of +lo/ in Circular "ipes

8b>ective 0o measure the pressures drop in the straight section of smooth,

rough, and packed pipes as a function of flow rate. 0o correlate this in terms of the friction factor and 5eynolds

number. 0o compare results with available theories and correlations. 0o determine the influence of pipe fittings on pressure drop 0o show the relation between flow area, pressure drop and loss as a

function of flow rate for ;enturi meter and 8rifice meter.

*pparatus used for analysis in la)oratory 7ipe Network 5otameters *anometers

( )

Hp

Hps

lbf%

lblbf%

slb

P

s

lb

gal

lb

s

galm

lb

lbf%

lb

lbf%f%

f%lb

f%

in

in

lb

hg

zgP

f

m

fm

mm

p

m

f

pm

f

m

f

pf

"

e

9.13

)70.0(550

4.15471.34

71.3433.8

'0

in

in250

4.154

'29.415755.010

4.'2

14430

3

2

2

2

=

=

=

=

=

=+++++

=++


102/296


103/296


104/296


105/296

RE0UIRE!ENT 9+ ,*TER "omestic water consumption

"esign7opulation

7er capita consumption per dayinclusive of unaccounted for

water/#pto ======= BBB ?B gallons

BBB ======= ?BBBB ? gallons

?BBBB ======= @,BBB @B gallons

?BBBB ======= @,BBB 6B gallons with seweragefacilities/

@BBB ======= ? lac +B gallons with seweragefacilities/

!bove ? lac B gallons with sewerage

facilities/

Industrial /ater consumption0he requirement of any industry be assessed separately andincluded in total requirement of water.

Institutional /ater consumption +or institutions

Such as hospitals, hostels, schools etc. an allowance ] ?B gallons perboarder and ] gallons per day scholar is to be made.

Short term variation in demand*a:imum day demand ?. times the average day

demand7eak hour demand ?. times the average day

demand

TER!IN*L "RESSURE


106/296

6 feet for all sizes of pipes e:cept in hilly areas. 2owever all road cuts areto be filled in with pit sand $ river sand.

"ULIC ST*N1 "9STS 4"S"6 0he location of the stand=posts shall be made in such a manner that it is at

an appro:imate distance of about 6B feet from the end consumers in therural areas and many be avoided in the urban $ semi urban areas as far aspossible to reduce losses.

Each stand=post shall serve about @BB persons. 7S7 to be provided only after study of 5esources 1ollection ZZ concerned

village.

+IRE -G1R*NTSect Source is more than ,BBB feet away from village "ifference of level between source and village is more than ?BB feet.

1apacity of reservoir will be ?$-th of the average daily demandsub>ect to minimum of BBB gallons.

!*C-INERG Spare parts, tools are recommended to be provided. 3arge units are economical. 't may be kept in view that combination of

unit is possible for average and peak flows. (orking hoursH

0ube wellsH5ural K=?@ hours#rban ?- hours

*achinery at treatment worksH


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C-L9RIN*TIN(B.? 77* residual at the farthest end of the distribution system

-I(- LE:EL T*N 4R*, ,*TER68ne hour capacity of average daily requirement.

Slo/ Sand +ilters

i. 5aw water storage BC of @? days average

ii. 5ate of filtration +B gallons per day per Sft. 8fsand area

iii. "epth of filter sand 6B to 6- inches.

iv. Effective size of sand d?B/0op of filter

B.6 mm B.6 mm

gravel to ? feet B.6 mm B.6 mm ? to @ feet B.@ mm B.6B mm

0op layer A inches minimum B.?K mm B.@@ mm

v. #niformity 1o=efficient ofsand

Not greater than @. d -B$d ?B/

vi. "epth of water over thesand

6 + feet

vii. ;elocity of water in underdrainage system

Not more than B.D feet $second.

viii. *inimum number ofsedimentation tanks in watertreatment plant will be two.

i:. Sedimentation tanks will beconstructed in series to achievestage sedimentation prior tofiltration.

:.


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"ro7ection of "ipes*.S. pipes should be provided with bituminous coating and polythene

wrapping

,ater Standards

S#%S0!N1E 8512!5!10E5'S0'1S

#N"ES'5!%3EE


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Strom ,ater 1rainage

0he capacity of storm water drainage be calculated according to %urklizieglerformula taking into consideration, slope of calculated area, type of developmentand intensities of rainfall based on rational assessment of the last ?B years

covering KBC of rain storms.0his discharge is calculated as followsH \\\\\

& F !51 : + S$! (hereH

& F "ischarge in cusecs! F "rainage area in acresS F !verage slope of the water shed in feet per thousand feet1 F 1o=efficient of impermeability5 F !verage intensity of rainfall in inches per hours.

;alue of Q5R depends upon the time of concentration i.e. 0, which is the timetaken for water to flow from omits of the area under consideration to a specificpoint of the sewer. 0his also includes time of entry whose usual values are asbelowH

3arge mansions is very large plots @ min Semi detached houses ? min 1losely built area ?` min

!ccording to 7un>ab Engineering 1ongress paper No. @A ?A@/ on analysis ofheavy rainfall in short periods at 3ahore by 5. S.*. Naqvi.

:alue of RM =;8BA=AA'

0his formula is applicable only to ma:imum intensity of rainfalls and is limited toa duration of + minutes, (here 0 F "uration of heavy rainfall in minutes.


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0he percents of imperviousness of various types of surfaces very commonlyused are those of 4uichiling which are shown belowH Q;ide page 6++ of book(ater Supply ) Sewerage by E.(. Steel, ?A+DR

0ype of Surface 1o=efficient of

impermeability

(ater tight of roof surface B.DB B.A

!sphalted pavements in good order B.6=B.AB

Stone, brick and wood=block pavement with tightlycemented >oints

B.D=B.K

Same with un cemented >oints B.DB=B.KB

'nferior block pavement with un cemented >oints B.DB=B.KB

!tomized roadways B.@=B.BB

Gravels roadways ) walks B.?=B.6B

7arks, gardens, lawns, meadows, depending andsurface slope and character of sub=soil.

B.B=B.@

0he percent of imperviousness for the whole area is then arrived at after

estimating on ascertaining the proportions of the various surfaces to the wholearea.

acent well built up sections B.B = B.DB

5esidential areas with detached houses B.@ B.BSub urban sections with few buildings B.?B B.@


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S(* *achinery ?B years

0ractors$0rolleys ?B years

0ractors$0rolleys 6 years

1ivil works @ years

*achinery and electricalcomponents of *otor vehicles

?B years

"opulation E:isting 7opulation

!s per "istrict 1ensus 5eport of year ?AAK, population growth rateof the *1 under study e.g district 1hiniot/ during the period from ?AK?=?AAK

was @.A6C which is near about the national average, which is @.KC. 7opulation of0own for the year ?AAK is ?D@,@@ and present population is estimated as @?D,6-Bpersons using growth rate of @.A6C.

"ro7ected "opulation0he formula used for population pro>ection based on compound method is

given below.

"n ? "o 4'Or6n

(hereH7n F 7ro>ected population for required year7o F 7opulation of base year, year of known populationr F !nnual population growth raten F No. of years, counted from base year

0he baseline data used for the population pro>ection is taken from the "istrict1ensus 5eport ?AAK/, 1hiniot. 0he pro>ected populations of 1hiniot town, forplanning horizon are given in 0able. 0he graphical representation is shown in


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1ensity of Solid ,aste at 1ifferent Stages

Stage 5ange4g$m6/

!dopted ;alue4g$m6/

(heel %arrows ?B 6BB @B

m6 1ontainers +BB -BB +BB

2oist 0rucks +BB -BB +BB

0ractor=0rolleys +BB -BB +BB

"isposal ?BBB ?6BB ?@BB

Criteria for Selection of Land +ill Site 3and area and volume to provide thelandfill capacity should be adequate

to meet pro>ected needs for at least twenty years, so that costlyinvestments in access roads, drainage, fencing and weighing stations are>ustified.

0he land area should not be at locations where adequate buffer zones arenot possible or in areas immediately upwind of a residential area in theprevailing wind direction s/.

!rea characterized by steep gradients, where stability of slopes couldbe$are problematic.

0he seasonally high table level i.e. ?B years high/ of the ground watershould be below the proposed base of any e:cavation or site preparation toenable landfill development. Soils above the groundwaterJs seasonablehigh table level are relatively impermeable less than ?B=- cm$spermeability when undisturbed/.

No environmentally significant wetlands of important biodiversity orreproductive value, sensitive ecological and$or historical areas should bepresent within the potential area of the landfill development.

None of the areas within the landfill boundaries should be part of the ten=year groundwater recharge area for e:isting or future water supplydevelopment.

0here should be no private or public irrigation, or livestock water supplywells e:ists down=gradient of the landfill boundaries because they will beat risk from contamination.

!rea should not be in close pro:imity to significant surface water bodiese.g. (ater courses or dams.

No ma>or power transmission mains or other infrastructure e.g. sewer,water supply lines/ should be crossing the landfill development area,unless the landfill operation would clearly cause no concern or rerouting iseconomically feasible.


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No residential development should be ad>acent to the perimeter of thelandfill site boundary. 0he waste disposal site should be away at leastoutside a radius of one thousand meters from a residential or commercialarea and water sources.

3andscaping and protective berms should be considered$included into the

design to minimize visibility of operations from residentialneighbourhoods. #nstable areas are not recommended i.e. there should not be any

significant seismic risk within the region of the landfill which could causedestruction of berms, drains or other civil works, or require unnecessarilycostly protective measures.

0here should not be fault lines or significantly fractured geologicalstructure that would allow unpredictable movement of gas or leachatewithin BB meters of the perimeter of theproposed landfill development.

Groundwater quality monitoring facilities should be provided during thesite development phase. 1onsideration has to made for when there will bethe need in the future to install a gas monitoring system near to buildingsclose to the site which may become at risk from gas migration once wastelandfill filling has started.

'n areas falling under the >urisdiction of the concerned municipality, itshould be the responsibility of concerned municipality to identify thelandfill sites and hand over the sites to the concerned operator foroperation and maintenance.

Selection of landfill sites shall be based on e:amination of environmentalissues. 0he concerned 7rovincial Environmental 7rotection !gency shallcoordinate with the concerned operator for obtaining the necessaryapproval and clearances.

0he land fill sites shall be selected to make use of nearby wastes processingfacility. 8therwise, wastes processing facility shall be planned as anintegral part of the landfill site.

%iomedical wastes should be disposed of in accordance with theGuidelines for 2ospital (aste *anagement @BB@, issued by theEnvironmental 2ealth #nit, *inistry of 2ealth, Government of 7akistan,as amended from time to time.

! buffer zone with no development shall be maintained around landfill siteand shall be the part of concerned municipalitys land use plans.

3andfill site shall be away from airports. Necessary approval of airport orairbase authorities like 1ivil !viation !uthorities of the Government of7akistan prior to the setting up of the landfill site shall be obtained in

cases where the site is to be located within ?B km of an airport boundary.


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+acilities at the Landfill Site 3andfill site shall be fenced or hedged and provided with proper gate to

monitor incoming vehicles or other modes of transportation. 0he landfill site shall be well protected to protect entry of unauthorised

persons and stray animals.

!pproach and other internal roads for free movement of vehicles andother machinery shall e:ist at the landfill site. 0he landfill site should have wastes inspection facility to monitor waste

brought in for landfill and office facility for record keeping and shelter forkeeping equipment and machinery including pollution monitoringequipments.

#tilities such as drinking water preferably bathing facilities for workers/and proper lighting arrangements for easy landfill operations when carriedout in night hours shall be provided.

Safety provisions including periodic health inspections of workers atlandfill site shall be made.


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Groundwater occupies pore spaces below the surface. Surface water is found inlakes and streams.

0he water table is simply the top of the saturated zone in which water fills porespaces and cracks in rocks or sediments.Soil moisture above the water table is not considered part of ground=water.Groundwater is derived from downward percolation of rainfall through the soiland in some areas from seepage of surface water.! porous body of material containing groundwater is called an*0UI+ER='f the water table is free to rise with additional water, the aquifer is said to beUNC9N+INE1 if there is an impermeable layer overlying the aquifer, it is

described as C9N+INE1Such impermeable layers are called *0UICLU1E and they are particularlyimportant in segregating relatively clean groundwater from brackish orcontaminated groundwater.Surface water and groundwater flows from high to low elevations.Surface waterflows according to the shape of the land, following channels to the sea.%ut groundwater flows according to the slope of the water table and thepermeability of the materials through which it moves.#sually, the shape of the water table appro:imately parallels the shape of theland, so that groundwater flows from uplands toward lowlands, but this is notalways the case.

,ater Supply and Its :aria)ility Spatial ;ariation in Surface Supply 0emporal ;ariability (ater Supplies and Storage


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'n mid=latitude climates, low=flow periods usually occur in the summerbecause plants are using more water at this time.

%ecause of this temporal variability, the amount of water we can count onwithdrawing from a river is much less than the total amount that flows init over the year.

'n addition, precipitation variations from one year to the ne:t furtherreduce the amount of water we can depend on from rivers.

Surface ,ater :ariations

0he average annual peak discharge of the *issouri 5iver shows considerablevariation, even though seasonal variation has been eliminated from this graph.

,ater Supplies and Storage 0he natural supply of water in the world is highly variable, with some

countries like %razil/ having very large renewable supplies of water percapita and others like 1hina/ having to divide a modest amount of wateramong a large number of people.

%ut natural supply alone does not ensure water availability.


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,ater Supply Systems

! typical water=supply system includes both natural and engineered components.'ts overall capacity is limited by the component with the lowest capacity.

'n virtually all cases, the collection system is naturalH it is the drainagebasin of a river, a groundwater aquifer, or some combination of the two.

Storage is necessary to smooth out the natural variations in wateravailability and to save surplus water from high=rainfall seasons for dryseasons or periods of high demand.

Surface=water storage is accomplished by constructing dams on rivers andimpounding water in artificial lakes behind the dams.

0ransportation and distribution systems can be of many types, dependingmostly on the distance between collection site and use area and the nature

of final use. 'n many cases, transportation distances are so short that the entire system

is essentially >ust a distribution system. 0hese facilities include canals, pipelines, and natural river channels, or any

combination of these. 0hus, although water supply is constrained by natural factors, water

development in the form of engineering works also affects wateravailability.

8ne indication of the e:tent of water use can be gained by comparingwithdrawals to natural runoff.


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California *>ueduct

0he 1alifornia !queduct. 0his aqueduct carries water from the northern SierraNevada to agricultural lands in 1alifornias 1entral ;alley

(lo)al ,ater ,ithdra/als


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Terms 1escri)e ,ater Use ,ithdra/al is the removal of water from a surface or groundwater

source for a variety of purposes such as municipal, industrial, or irrigationuse.

Consumptive use is the use of that water in such a way that it is not

returned to the stream or aquiferP instead, it is returned to the atmosphereby evapotranspiration. InBstreamuses do not require removal of the water from a river or lakeP

these include navigation, wildlife habitat, waste disposal, andhydroelectric power generation.

(ithdrawals can e:ceed stream flow because not all of the waterwithdrawn is consumedP some is returned to the stream. Nonetheless,these withdraws place a heavy demand on water resources.

'n densely populated areas of the country, the most important in=streamuse is maintenance of water quality. Sufficient flow must be available todilute and transport sewage effluents and other pollutants, as well as toprovide habitat for aquatic life.

Navigation is another important in=stream use that competes with otherin= and off=stream uses for the water in our rivers

"epletion of stream flows caused by consumptive off=stream use,particularly irrigation, is a ma>or problem in semiarid and arid portions ofthe #nited States.

(round/ater Groundwater is a more important storage of water for human use. 0he total volume of water stored in relatively accessible groundwater

aquifers is estimated at about ABBB km6, or roughly one=fourth of globalannual runoff.

*uch more=perhaps as much as + million km6e:ists in deeper aquifers,though most of this amount is not economically accessible.

*ost small=scale and domestic water=supply systems use groundwater,whereas large industrial and commercial users depend mainly on surfacewater.

0ypically, groundwater storages are replenished relatively slowly, takingyears to centuries or more to replace the total volume of a given aquifer.

!s a result, it is possible to withdraw water much faster than it is replaced,a practice known as ground/ater mining.

'n a few countries in the *iddle East, total withdrawals of water e:ceedthe renewable supply, indicating significant overdraft of groundwater at

the national level. 8ne impact of groundwater overdraft is declining well levels, often

requiring that wells be deepened for withdrawals to continue. 'n coastal areas, usually a boundary e:ists between fresh water and salt

water in the ground. Salt water is denser and thus is found underneath thefresh water.


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! decline in the elevation of the freshwater table causes salt/aterintrusion, an inland movement of the salt$fresh boundary, whichcontaminates wells and makes them unusable for drinking water.

The 1emand for ,ater

(ater demands fluctuate from year to year, depending on weatherpatterns. 'n wet or cool years, demand is usually lower, whereas in dryyears demand is greater.

5egional #S demand is greatest in the western states, especially 'daho,*ontana, and (yoming. 0here states have the largest per capitawithdrawals, with water used for irrigating.

0he smallest withdrawals are in the Northeast, where most of this water isused for industrial purposes and steam electrical generation.

+resh/ater ,ithdra/als over Time

1onsumptive use continues to be a small proportion of total withdrawals in the#.S.

9ffBStream Uses (ithdrawal and consumptive uses of water are often defined by specific

types of use. 0his includes public supply, rural supply domestic and livestock/,

industrial supply, irrigation, and hydroelectric power generation an in=stream use/.


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7ublic and rural supplies include both domestic and commercial uses ofwater, including those familiar to us in our everyday lives at home or atwork=washing, cooking, drinking, lawn watering, sanitation, and the like.

!gricultural uses, principally irrigation, consume more fresh water thanany other use. (orldwide, agriculture uses about D?C of total freshwater

withdrawals. 0his portion tends to be higher in developing than inindustrialized countries. 'n the #S, about +@C of water withdrawals are for irrigation. 0o conserve

more of the water, irrigation system must become more efficient. Irrigation efficiency is defined as the volume of applied water in the

root zone that is used by the crop. 't is e:pressed as a percentage of thevolume of water diverted from surface sources or pumped fromgroundwater supplies.

"rip irrigation is one of the most efficient application methods, whileflood, furrow, and sprinklers average between -B=KBC efficiencies.

'ndustry takes the second=largest share of the worlds water withdrawals,about @BC.

'ndustrial uses include a wide range of activities, including water used forwashing products in the manufacturing process, removing wastematerials, and cooling. 0he greatest withdrawals of water in the industrialsector are for cooling thermal electric power plants.

'ndustrial users are turning away from once=through systems towardwater=recycling systems.

"omestic uses take the least water, generally less than ?BC, e:cept inurbanized regions with relatively less industry and irrigation, such asSouth !merica and 8ceania.

!mong the important domestic uses are cooking, laundry, bathing, toiletflushing, and, in North !merica, lawn irrigation. "omestic water use is notheavily consumptiveonly about KC in the #S, and much of this is inirrigating lawns.

InBStream Uses 'n addition to these off=stream uses, many important water uses take place

in rivers or lakes, without withdrawing water from them. (hile these uses do not result in any removal of water from the

environment, they do require considerable amounts of water, and thusthey compete with off=stream uses.

(ithin a river basin, water taken in one area may not be available inanother.

,aste 1ilution 0he most important in=stream use of water is for waste dilution. ;irtually all rivers in populated areas are used to remove wastes. 0he more water present and flowing in a river, the lower the

concentration of pollutants will be, and thus the better water qualitywill be.


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Navigation 0he ma>or rivers of the world, especially in industrialized countries,

carry large amounts of freight. 'n #S, for e:ample, inland waterways carry about the same amount

of freight as is delivered to or from ocean ports.

-ydroelectric "o/er 2ydroelectric power is generated by storing water behind a damand releasing it through turbines when electricity is needed.2ydroelectricity supplies about ??C of #S electric production, orC of total energy production.

%ecause electricity cannot be stored in large quantities, timing ofhydro=electric power production is relatively infle:ible.

'n addition, the large dams best suited to generating electricityinundate large areas and alter river habitats, causing additionaleconomic and ecological dislocations.

,ildlife -a)itat and +isheries

!lthough many rivers are severely degraded by pollution, thesesystems contain habitats necessary for the maintenance ofimportant ecological communities and sport and commercialfisheries.

0hese habitat values depend on maintaining good water quality,which in turn depends on water quantity. 'f the flow in a river isdepleted to the poi

envir. engin. ii new (whole lectures)

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