enhancing sustainable development in sub-saharan africa: concepts, recommendations and illustrations

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Enhancing sustainabledevelopment in Sub-Saharan Africa: concepts,recommendations andillustrationsDaniel J. Gustafson a & Marcus D. Ingle aa Internmational Department Management Center(IDMC) , University of Maryland System , CollegePark, Maryland, 20742Published online: 26 Jun 2007.

To cite this article: Daniel J. Gustafson & Marcus D. Ingle (1995) Enhancingsustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa: concepts, recommendations andillustrations, International Journal of Public Administration, 18:9, 1341-1364, DOI:10.1080/01900699508525056

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ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: CONCEPTS,

RECOMMENDATIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Daniel J. Gustafson and Marcus D. Ingle International Development Management Center (IDMC)

University of Maryland System College Park, Maryland 20742

ABSTRACT

In recent years, the concept of sustainable development has received renewed attention. As global resources shrink and needs continue to grow, the staying power of development impact is becoming central concern of both governments and donors. Recent studies have shown that only a small percentage of projects throughout the world have achieved sustainability, and the need for improving the long-term vitality of development investments is growing. No area in the world has shown more need of this than Africa. This paper outlines a conceptual approach for analyzing sustainability and synthesizes the lessons learned from the application of this model in recent field work. The model is based on the theory that two preconditions must exist before sustainability can occur: 1 ) commitment to long term sustainable

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Copyright @ 1995 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

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1342 GUSTAFSON AND INGLE

development; and 2) beneficiary and stakeholder involvement via incentives which support achieving sustainability . Fieldwork-based recommendations to enhance sustainability include: 1) understand the long-term incentive structure that drives the project; 2) identify performance targets and communicate results early-on; 3) identify long-term recurrent costs and funding options; 4) build in flexibility to the project plan; 5) build-in ways for participants to support and "take ownership" of the project; 6) use local resources, both human and physical, and keep technologies simple; and 7) use marketing strategies to reinforce perceived, satisfactory benefits of the project. Case examples of successful African projects from West Africa, Burkina Faso and Kenya illustrate the application of the sustainability concepts. In the context of these illustrations, the sustainability framework appears useful for understanding and analyzing sustainability and provides a necessary addition to thinking about development projects and programs.

INTRODUCTION

Although most development projects in Sub-Saharan Africa are initiated with the hope of generating long-term, enduring benefits, practical results in this regard have been poor. In an era of shrinking resources and growing needs, the staying power of development impact has become a central concern of both governments and donors. The reason for this concern with sustainability is clear--the track record of most development projects in achieving lasting results has been woefully inadequate.

A recent World Bank study examined 550 completed projects throughout the world. Only 52 percent appeared to have achieved sustainability,(') 15 percent were rated unlikely to be sustained, 9 percent marginally sustainable, and 24 percent uncertain. A 1988 study by the United States Agency for International Development that reviewed 212 project evaluations (using different criteria) concluded that only 11 percent of the projects were considered to

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ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1343

have strong prospects for being sustained after the termination of U.S. assistance.@)

Although these numbers refer to the global situation, the need for improving the long-term vitality of development investments in Sub-Saharan Africa is perhaps the greatest in the world. This paper outlines a conceptual approach for analyzing sustainability and synthesizes the lessons learned from the application of this model in recent field work. These are then discussed in relation to several successful development efforts in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The Concept of Sustainability

Sustainable development is not a new concept, but it has received renewed attention in recent years. As Robert Repetto of the World Resources Institute put it,

"Sustainable development" is now the reigning development slogan, succeeding a long list of other ambiguous catchphrases that, at the least, have sustained writers of articles on development policy, but may also have roughly summarized the policy preoccupations of the time. "(3)

Although a variety of sustainability definitions have been proposed, recent studied4) have found that there are two general preconditions for sustainability: 1) commitment to long-term (beyond life of project) sustainable development; and 2) commitment made operational through beneficiary and stakeholder incentives that support achieving sustainability. From this, three principles can be seen as necessary for sustained impact to occur, as illustrated in Diagram 1:

1) Available resources for continued operations and reinvestment, including financial, physical and environmental, and human and organizational resources;

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DIAGRAM 1 Benefit Sustainability Model

Commitment at Policy Lcvcl to Sustainable Dcvclopment and Maximum Returns on Investment ,-- - - - --' - - - - - -- -A- - - - - - --A

Supportive Incentives/Minimum Disincentives for:

(1) Capacity (2) Learning1 (3) Market Driven Building Performance Demand Structure

Rewards i 1 I

r Y ! - 7 1 -

Available Rmurces 1. Financial 2. Phqsical/Nahual 3. I I d

olpnmtimal 4. Informational

I strategic Management

for:

1. Intemal efficiency &

accountability

2. Exkmal scanning

DemancCSupply

w- 1. Outputs paid for

by bcncficiarics 2. Outputs valued

by &kcholdem

. Sustainable Benetit Continnation

Development (hdicatcd by max. yielddreturns on

Process 1. Social economic

tP*

2) Stakeholdem support for conhution of rmstainablc system through

financial resources (comtq m u m e mobilizatim through progressive tax s h n c h and ~~~~ontablc/cfficicnt mechanisms prcfamd)

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2) Flexible mechanisms for continued production of goods and services that emphasize internal efficiency and accountability, and continuous learning from the external environment; and

3) Demand-supply responsiveness in which outputs are either paid for by those who benefit from them, or are valued by stakeholders so that value is translated into support for continuation.

Central to this concept of sustainability is the idea that valued products are necessary to generate resources to continue production. "Value" is decided by consumers or stakeholders; that is, all those individuals or groups who can affect or be affected by the investment. These include the consumers, clients, or beneficiaries who use the goods and services, as well as other groups (civil servants, politicians, local elites, etc.) with a stake in these transactions. In one way or another, all of these pass judgement on the utility of the changes introduced or the services and goods produced and influence whether or not the process continues. This dynamic is depicted in the diagram on the previous page.

In this sense, sustainability can be defined as the ability of an investment to produce outputs that are sufficiently in demand so enough inputs are supplied to continue production at a steady or growing rate. This definition underlines the dynamic nature of sustainability; that it is not an end-state but an ongoing process that balances some form of inputs and outputs.(5) It also highlights the fact that sustainability is not something to be pursued for its own sake, but a means to get to other development goals; i.e., economic growth with equity.

The concept of development sustainability is based on several assumptions regarding the organization that produces the desired outputs. The first is that the survival of an organization over time is affected by both its internal capabilities and its external

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environment. Both what goes on inside the organization and what happens in the environment in which it operates are important. The most important internal variables are the organization's technology and its structure. Generally speaking, the less complex these are the easier they will be to sustain. The external variables include indirect influences that affect the overall economic and political context, and the direct influences that relate specifically to the organization, program, or project.

Demand for the organization's output is probably the most critical direct environmental factor in the sustainability model. A "market" must exist for this output for it to continue operating. This can be a market in the sense of willing buyers of privately produced goods and services, or a market in the sense of clientele who are interested in using the goods or services that a public organization produces. In both cases, there must be a body of people that values the organization's product and is willing to continue to exchange other resources to obtain it.

The second major assumption is that the project or program must develop a plan of action or strategy which takes into account its own internal strengths and weaknesses and the external threats and weaknesses. If there is a mismatch, poor sustainability is likely. Although a consistent game plan is critical, it is also important that the organization learn from experience and make adaptations over time to remain responsive to changes in participant or client demands. This structured flexibility approach which integrates a blueprint to solution method of planning and management with a model based primarily on flexibility and iterative learning has proven successful in recent development efforts.@)

The Importance of Market or Market-like Incentives

This descriptive model of development sustainability encompasses a broad range of development projects, programs,

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and even policies. In all these cases, analysis of underlying incentives can weed out development efforts that fail to deliver value at reasonable cost and can help identify promising new investment options. Incentives can take a variety of forms and differentiate two categories of cases: those in which existing or potential market competition can provide private production and consumption incentives; and those in which market failure or the nature of the goods require building market-like incentives to promote responsiveness and accountability of the public sector.

In the first instance, the relevant objective may simply be ensuring financial sustainability, defined as the continuing realization of benefits through the competitive provision of goods and services, responsive to market incentives within a conducive and responsible policy and regulatory framework. This may include self-financing through direct sales, cost recovery, fees for services, or other arrangement in the public or private sectors, or through some form of publiclprivate partnership. These relations are illustrated in Diagram 2.

The need for public agencies to cover some or all of their recurrent costs through extra-budgetary means is increasingly called for in both developed and developing countries. Likewise, the creative use of the private sector in providing traditional public services has been growing throughout the world. Understanding how these market-driven mechanisms can be utilized and where they can be applied will be a key component to enhancing sustainability of development investments over the next decade.

Reliance on the private sector and competitive market forces to deliver the desired goods and services, however, is limited. The private sector is generally only interested in producing "private goods;" that is, those whose utility can be restricted to the persons paying for them, with non-purchasers easily excluded. "Public goods," on the other hand, whose benefits are dispersed and cannot be limited to those who pay for them, generate little interest in the private sector.

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DIAGRAM 2 Choosing Public or Private Mechanisms

NATURE OF GOODS

Private Public

NATURE High

DEMAND Low

Curative health Public safety services services

Preventive Environmental health services protection

Similarly, projects that have high public demand and a relatively rapid pay-out period have the greatest potential for private enterprise. An example of this type would be urban curative health services. Other areas with moderate to low demand but with a longer lead-time for benefits to be realized may have the potential for client support, but not at the initial stage of their development. Preventive health care would be an example. Projects like public safety, with high demand and a clearly public nature, are those that need to rely on public financing for their sustainability. Finally, projects that have low demand but embody important public policy objectives will require government intervention. Environmental protection and female education are examples. These relationships are illustrated in Diagram 11.

For a variety of reasons, market incentives cannot ensure the competitive production of all desired development goods and services. Even for those areas in which the private sector has a comparative advantage, market forces do not guarantee the sustainability of development benefits; they only ensure that poor performers fail and do not become "white elephants." In both

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cases, long-term viability will depend on producing outputs that are judged valuable by clients or stakeholders so that resources (from private consumers, governments, or donors) continue to finance productive activity.

Ways that may be used to accomplish this are presented in the following section, followed by illustrative examples from successful Sub-Saharan African experiences.

ENHANCING SUSTAINABILITY PROSPECTS

Based on this conceptual approach to sustainability and the quantitative and qualitative analysis of completed and ongoing development projectsm several recommendations emerge for enhancing the staying power of investment benefits.

1. Key to strengthening the viability of investments is understanding the long-term incentive structure that drives the project. For those activities in which the private sector can operate, the profit motive, client satisfaction, and competition are the main ingredients--within a conducive policy and regulatory environment. For those activities in the public sector, or that are performed by a mixture of public and private actors, it is important to discern what motivates decision makers and how they can be encouraged to back the activities over the long term. It is also consequential in this regard to assess who will win and who will lose from the success of the project, and to find ways to increase the number of "winners." "Public sector inadequacies in Africa are frequently attributed to the absence of sufficient managerial and technical capacity. The perception of inadequate capacity is, in turn, often used as an excuse for the failure of many public sector investment programs financed by international donor agencies. But perhaps more important is the structure of incentives for performance within each organization at each level of government. " W

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2. In building this long-term support, it is critical to identify sustainability benchmarks and communicate results early-on in the project. In this way, early appraisals of the implementation process can be effectively communicated to stakeholders and can have a powerful impact.(9)

3. Regardless of the funding source, it is important to identify long-term recurrent costs and funding options. The issue of recurrent cost financing is important everywhere in the world, and especially critical in Sub-Saharan Africa. Simply put, many current development activities are beyond the financial capacity of the governments to sustain them.''') Ultimately, it must be recognized that sustainability will depend on local resources, even though this may entail a long process of phasing out external assistance.

4. Projects that have a clear plan and build in flexibility and res~onsiveness have a better chance of sustaining their benefits. A clear idea of what the organization wants to do and how it will do it is important, while it is equally important to stay open to, and respond to new opportunities and make necessary corrections in response to client and stakeholder views. Learning and adaptation through trial and error, rather than sticking to a predetermined blueprint will contribute greatly to sustainability.(ll)

5. The benefits of participation to build ownershiv and support are well documented. The views of participants at all stages is important to reaffirm and build the support of staff and clients, to develop realistic plans, and to stay tuned in to the perceptions of those whose judgement will determine the long-term vitality of the effort. Also in this regard, it is important to decentralize to the extent possible, to bring production close to the "customer" where it can react to demand swiftly and accurately.(12)

6. Activities that have a greater dependency on local resources increase the odds of being sustained. This applies to human as

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well as physical resources. Similarly, simpler technologies have a greater chance of being sustained once external funding ceases than do more complex ones. Careful attention should be given to the methods and processes employed so that they can be used and repaired with the resources at hand.(13)

7. Although marketing is often more associated with the private sector, its value in raising resources in all sectors is considerable. Underlying sustainability is the idea that resources will continue to flow to an activity only in response to the perceived, satisfactory benefits that flow from it.'14) This is true for both the private and public sectors. There are really only two ways to raise inputs: either by selling outputs and keeping the revenue, or by convincing public funding agencies to supply funds. In both cases clients must value the outputs sufficiently to pay for them. Marketing can be an important tool in achieving this. Education and advertising may be needed to create demand or to publicize success.

All recurrent cost funding options should be considered. These include letting the private sector produce the goods and services; selling the goods and services or collecting users' fees; obtaining contributions from local sources with participants contributing labor, material, or funds; and establishing a long-term donor commitment with a phased in assumption of recurrent costs by government or clients.

No matter what the option, it is important to develop the capacity to identify, manage, and pay for recurrent costs during the project implementation phase--it will not happen automatically without specific actions that address this issue.

Much of the advice given above is a logical extension of generally accepted practice in managing development programs. The needed innovation is for practitioners to take a longer view than is customary, paying greater attention to the context of the project, to the incentives provided to the project's staff and clients,

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and to the probable future chain of events. In this way enhancing sustainability can be thought of as doing everything necessary for successful project or program implementation, with the added dimension of analyzing the long-term dynamics of what will be required over time to learn from experience, respond to changing demands, and continue to obtain resources and produce desired benefits.

AFRICAN SUSTAINABILITY ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCE

To be useful in orienting new activities, elements of the sustainability framework presented above should be easily recognized in successful experience, and absent in unsuccessful cases. Although Vedder reminds us of the limits of extracting general guidelines from successful case studies,(15) it remains true that while there is a multitude of things that can go wrong in development projects, there are relatively few things that appear to ensure success.(16) The utility of approaching development efforts from a sustainability perspective can be demonstrated by the congruence between the framework's precepts and the record of successful, sustained programs.

Now, there is a growing number of well-recognized, successful development projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. Detailed analysis of these and the lessons to be learned from them are available elsewhere and need not be repeated here. It is instructive, however, to apply the sustainability framework to several of these well-known successes, to test the fit and verify the utility of the sustainability perspective. The following examples illustrate various alternatives that drive the sustainability dynamic; that is, of producing valued goods and services so that more resources are forthcoming for continued production. These cover a range of options relating to purely public sector activities to those dealing primarily with private sector, market-driven operations.

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ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustained Public Sector or Donor Efforts

West African Onchocerciasis Control Program

An excellent example of a successful, sustained program is West African Onchocerciasis Control Program.''? The OCP was initiated in 1974 as a semi-autonomous branch of the World Health Organization (WHO) and is financed by several bilateral and multilateral donors. The goal of the program is to eliminate onchocerciasis (a parasitic disease affecting 20 to 30 million people) as a health problem and to ensure that no new outbreaks occur. The strategy adopted in achieving this was to interrupt the transmission cycle by killing the blackfly vector. The operations are complex but the target is simple: to kill flies. This objective was very direct and easily understood by everyone. Having a clear goal, strategy, and method of operation allowed the program to get off to a quick start and deliver early results that boosted morale of participants and confidence of the donors.

In addition to a clear goal, effective monitoring has allowed the program to demonstrate results. "Because everyone understands exactly what the project is supposed to accomplish and how, there is very little ambiguity in determining whether or not the OCP is 'delivering the goods. "'(w The ability of the program to demonstrate accountability has been one of its strongest points. Partly as a result of this readily apparent public accountability, the program's management has been characterized as flexible, responsive, and efficient. Employees are given precise goals to achieve and allowed considerable flexibility in deciding how to accomplish them.

This experience illustrates several important features of the sustainability framework. The first is the need to provide satisfactory outputs so that enough inputs are supplied by clients or stakeholders for continued operation. Not only has OCP been successful in "killing flies," it has been able to effectively

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demonstrate its accomplishments to those who control its resources. From the start, considerable attention has been given to communicating to donors and participating countries--in easily understood terms--the activities and accomplishments of the program. By having a clear objective and strategy, by monitoring to be able to measure results, and effectively communicating those results to stakeholders, the program has remained close to its "customers" and has been recognized by them as delivering valued results as promised.

The second sustainability feature of the program has been the long-term focus and commitment. Given the cycle of the disease, donors recognized the need for a twenty year program at the outset. According to Younger and Zongo, this long-term perspective has helped the program to 1) foster a learning-by-doing approach in which there was time to experiment with different technologies and adapt accordingly; 2) establish a good incentive system for staff who had the promise of a potentially long period of employment; and 3) cause the staff to maintain a forward- looking perspective, anticipating problems that would arise over time and devising plans for the long-term evolution of the program. (I9)

Proiet Agro-Forestier in Burkina Faso

The Projet Agro-Forestier (PAF) in the Yatenga region of Burkina Faso is another well-known example(20) that illustrates other sustainability lessons. PAF was initiated by Oxfam in 1979 in response to environmental degradation in this Sahelian area. The original idea was to create microcatchments of about one square meter to maximize the collection of run-off water. Trees would then be planted to prevent soil erosion. Farmers were impressed with the water harvesting potential of the basins, but preferred to plant crops rather than trees. Following this preference, the project evolved accordingly.

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Other advances have taken place over the years as farmers proceeded to develop other simple, related technologies, such as building bunds to direct water flows and devising simple tube levels to plan and execute land preparation for water harvesting. Throughout the evolution of the project, communication and respect for farmers' opinions and preferences have been high and the project has been responsive to them.

Like the OCP, this project demonstrates the need to deliver outputs that are valued by the clients so that resources (in this case, mainly local labor and materials) are supplied for continued operations. PAF also illustrates two other features of the sustainability framework: the advantages of simple technologies and the need to evolve in response to stakeholder demand.

The technology employed in the project is very simple, and consists of operations that can be performed with hand tools and nunual labor and relies on local inputs. All of these can be supplied and maintained almost entirely by the local population, who participate in the design, understand the technology, and carry out the work. The chances of this technology being sustained are infinitely greater than that employing heavy equipment operated by skilled workers without the participation or understanding of the community. Simple technologies do not by themselves guarantee sustainability nor productivity increases, but the contribution they make in this regard can be decisive.

The theme of evolution over time in response to stakeholders demand, to what they value, is the other dominant sustainability lesson of this successful experience. The idea of using microcatchments to plant trees and reduce soil erosion is sound--it was not, however, valued by the people needed to make it work. The response of the project to accommodate what the community did value is the key to the project's success. Beyond this original - modification, the project continued to respond to its stakeholders,

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to add new components, and change over time to make sustained-- and sustainable--improvements. in production and incomes.

Public-Private Partnership

Ex~ansion of Horticulture Ex~orts in Kenya

The development of horticulture production and export expansion in Kenya is another well-known success tale. As Shapiro and ~ainaina '~ ' ) point out, although Kenya has comparatively favorable climate, market, and service conditions, the key to the success of the effort was the way the program was carried out, particularly the role of the government in support of the private sector. What proved successful was the combination of government assistance in what it does best, and restraint in not interfering with market incentives.

The government established the Horticultural Crops Development Authority (HCDA) in 1967, which became operational in 1969. Although HCDA was given broad-ranging powers, it has concentrated its attention on providing necessary government support and supervision and letting the market work. Although the line between government support and interference is often unclear and the relationship between government and industry has not always been smooth, the success of the effort demonstrates the necessity of both market-driven incentives and a conducive policy and regulatory environment.

The role of HCDA has been to regulate exports, promote standardization, establish packing stations for stakeholders in different areas, supply horticultural research and extension, establish a market information system, and control quality with input supply and preshipment inspections. It has generally not interfered with prices and has attempted to remain in a facilitative

l and coordination role.

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The international horticulture market is intensely competitive and the future success of any country's horticulture sector is hard to predict. Kenya, like every other country, must remain responsive to international demand and preference changes to stay competitive. Nevertheless, the historical success of the expansion of the country's horticultural production and exports illustrates the roles that both public and private sectors must play in achieving sustainable results. Without adequate government regulation and market information Kenya's private sector growers would not have been able to take advantage of new business opportunities. Without market incentives to drive the system, the government's horticulture promotion efforts could have turned into an unproductive bureaucracy and a drain on scarce investment resources.

Utilizing the Private Sector to Provide Public Services

Examples of private sector provision of traditionally public services are evident throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. The most visible examples are privately run urban "public" transportation systems. These include the "gbakas" in Abidjan, the "bakassi" in Khartoum, the "matutu" in Nairobi, and the "chapa cem" in ~ozambique . '~~) These systems, although frequently discouraged by government authorities, provide transportation for a large segment of the population, generally those most in need of public transportation. Studies have shown that their costs and fee structures compare favorably to public sector urban transportation systems.

Other successful cases of private sector activity in areas where government traditionally has responsibility but frequently fails to deliver adequate services include water supply and garbage collection. A successful example of the former is the Societe de Distribution d'Eau de la Cote d'Ivoire (SODECI), which is jointly owned by private Ivorian interests, the government, and a French

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The international horticulture market is intensely competitive and the future success of any country's horticulture sector is hard to predict. Kenya, like every other country, must remain responsive to international demand and preference changes to stay competitive. Nevertheless, the historical success of the expansion of the country's horticultural production and exports illustrates the roles that both public and private sectors must play in achieving sustainable results. Without adequate government regulation and market information Kenya's private sector growers would not have been able to take advantage of new business opportunities. Without market incentives to drive the system, the government's horticulture promotion efforts could have turned into an unproductive bureaucracy and a drain on scarce investment resources.

Utilizing the Private Sector to Provide Public Services

Examples of private sector provision of traditionally public services are evident throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. The most visible examples are privately run urban "public" transportation systems. These include the "gbakas" in Abidjan, the "bakassi" in Khartoum, the "matutu" in Nairobi, and the "chapa cem" in Mozambique. (22) These systems, although frequently discouraged by government authorities, provide transportation for a large segment of the population, generally those most in need of public transportation. Studies have shown that their costs and fee structures compare favorably to public sector urban transportation systems.

Other successful cases of private sector activity in areas where government traditionally has responsibility but frequently fails to deliver adequate services include water supply and garbage collection. A successful example of the former is the Societe de Distribution d'Eau de la Cote d'Ivoire (SODECI), which is jointly owned by private Ivorian interests, the government, and a French

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firm. In this case, a public authority handles the construction of the system but contracts out its operation, maintenance, and collection of fees. The system is financed by a combination of fees and a water tariff, both related to the volume of water consumed. SODECI has consistently shown a profit and has expanded rapidly. An example of private garbage collection is the Togolese Refuse Collection Company (SOTEMA) that operates in Lome, in a contract arrangement with the government.

In these and other cases, the long-term success of the operations depends mainly, or exclusively, on the market. There is a direct connection between the value judged by clients or stakeholders and resources supplied for continued production. Relying only on market-driven competition to provide these urban services has obvious limitations. However, as these illustrations demonstrate, incorporating market mechanisms into the provision of urban services can be a powerful incentive to ensure the continuation their delivery.

CONCLUSION

The examples presented above provide illustrations of the range of options that exist for enhancing sustainability of development efforts in Sub-Saharan Africa. In all cases, however, the same theme is present: participants and stakeholders must value the goods and services produced in order for them to continue to allocate resources for sustained performance. The mechanisms for achieving this process can take a variety of forms, relying directly on market incentives, or by demonstrating accountability to purely public sources of funds, or a combination of these. In short, the case illustrations from development activities clearly reflect the main elements of the sustainability framework. In the context of these illustrations, the sustainability framework appears useful for understanding and analyzing sustainability. It thus provides a necessary addition to thinking about development projects and programs.

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The assessment also raises several key issues deserving further attention. First is the important realization that sustainability is only one, albeit a key, part of the development equation in the Sub-Saharan African context.'23) While sustainability considerations relate to the durability of development investments, other performance dimensions are also of concern during the development investment period. Indeed, long term durability will not be achieved if other performance criteria of efficiency, effectiveness and capacity development are not met. A better understanding is needed of the trade-offs between short term implementation performance and the long term provision of goods and services. Questions of timing and sequencing are also important but little understood. A related issue relates to the fact that sustainability is a means rather than a in itself. Attention always needs to be given to the question of what it is that is to be sustained. As Coralie Bryant notes ". . .while everyone is talking about 'sustainability development', one observes that there are two quite different problems -- first, in some instances, too little development occurring worthy of sustaining and second, in other instances, perverse institutions which impede the possibility or probability of development. "(24)

The challenge for development professionals with respect to both of these issues is to pursue approaches that will lead to the overall goal of sustainable development for the society they serve. Given the needs to handle the coinciding concerns of performance and sustainability as well as orchestration of internal and external factors, our best hope in this regard is increased reliance on strategic management processes and technique^."^)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research reported here was sponsored in part by the Cooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland System, and U. S . Agency for International Development (US AID) through

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the ASIA Bureau Agreement No. ANE-0259-A-00-9042-00. The views expressed are solely those of the authors and should in no way be attributed to the University of USAID. The authors would like to thank Chris Perkins and Charlotte Bentch for their helpful comments and editorial assistance.

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24. Ibid., p. 2.

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enhancing sustainable development in sub-saharan africa: concepts, recommendations and illustrations

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