EnhancingOpportunitiesfor ExpatriateJob SatisfactionHR Strategies forForeign AssignmentSuccessDeirdre McCaughey, Nealia S. Bruning, Department of Business Administration,/.H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba

Increasing globalization

continues to drive corporate

expansion into new foreign

markets, requiring organiza-

tions to staff foreign manage-

ment positions using expatriate

employees. Incidents of expatri-

ate failure are high, however,

and can cause substantial loss-

es for the organization.

Although many organizations

pursue varying strategies to

minimize expatriate failure,

more organizations should cap-

italize on synergies between

expatriate programs, the tenets

of job satisfaction, and, indi-

rectly, predictors of turnover.

This article evaluates current

expatriate research studies and

builds upon that knowledge

base by linking organizational

support of expatriates to job

satisfaction. Research has

shown that many organizations

have mastery of the tenets of

job satisfaction with their

domestic employees; thus,

global organizations should

extend similar practices

to expatriate employees.

Recommended strategies

include organizational prac-

tices to enhance the accultura-

tion and adjustment of an

expatriate, thereby increasing

his or her job satisfaction, abili-

ty to complete the assignment

successfully, and reducing

turnover potential.

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28 4 21

Global corporations such as IBM., Exxon, Texacc iMcDonalds., andHewlett Packard report deriving over 55 percent of their revenuesfrom international operations (Forbes, 2000). In order to capitalize onthese global bu.siness opportunities, organizations are conriniiouslyturning towards employee foreign assignments as a strategic humanresource tactic (Brewster, 1997). The various types of foreign assign-ments include:

1. Relocating an employee and family to a target country(expatriates),

2. Developing management staff from the local country (inpatri-ates), or

3. Utilizing employees in frequent short-term assignments (flexpa-triates} to transfer area-specific knowledge (Brewster, 1997;Mayrhofer, et al., 2004a; Mayrhofer, et al.., 2004b).

Although utilization of inpatriates and flexpatriates is increasing,most international organizations continue to pursue expatriates forforeign assignments (Harris, 1999; Welch, 2003).

The costs of expatriate failure are substantial: Studies indicate fail-ure rates for expatriate assignments of approximately 25 to 40 percent(Hogan & Goodson, 1990; Solomon, 1994; Forster, 1997; Sanchez, etal., 2000). Estimates for expatriate relocation run from US $60,000 toUS $250,000 to repatriate one executive with family prematurely

tion might gain insight into causes of expatriate failure by evaluatinghow its human resource practices toward expatriates enhance jobsatisfaction and ultimately increase the probabilit>' of assignmentcompletion. Ratber than focus predominantly on rhe identificationand estahlishment of various programs that specifically contribute toexpatriate success, global organizations stand to gain tnore from anevaluation of their HR practices toward expatriates using the same jobsatisfaction lens as used with domestic employees (Harvey, 1997).

Although international assignments have specific characteristics,successful domestic and international relocations are dependent onorganizational support (Kraimer, et al., 2001). Additionally, many oftbe problems associated with relocating domestic employees are quitesimilar to those of international employees, namely inability of thefamily to adjust, family ties at the existing home location, potentialimpact on career, and disruption of a partner's employment/career(Runzheimer, 1998; Rushing & Kleiner, 2003; Mayrhofer, et al ,2004).

With the exception of foreign language and cultural training, manyemployee relocation challenges can be addressed by attention to jobsatisfaction dimensions. The incorporation of job satisfaction andutilization of domestic relocation experience will provide directionfor international organizations in their establishment of expatriateprograms. In the rest of this article, we detail the relationship between

An organization might gain insight into causes ofexpatriate failure by evaluating how its humanresource practices toward expatriates enhance jobsatisfaction and ultimately increase the probabilityof assignment completion.

(Ioannou, 1995; Kraimer, et al., 2001). Expatriate failure is defined aseither an expatriate's premature return from assignment or underper-formance while on assignment (Oddou, 1991; Baruch & Altman,2002; Welcb, 2003).

Although there are many reasons for expatriate failure, an averageof 30 percent of US and UK expatriate placements end in failurebecause of a disconnect between human resource management policiesand expatriate practices—a preventable cause of assignment failure.Some organizations fail to follow basic human resource practiceswhen assigning employees and their families to international assign-ments. These neglected practices include failure to provide cross-cul-tural training, gender equity wben evaluating potential assignmentcandidates, employment assistance to the employee's spouse, a mentorand network access to aid career development, and sufficient pre-assignment training such as language and cultural skill acquisition(Lineban & Walsh, 1999, 2001; Baruch & Altman. 2002; Mayrhofer&: Scullion, 2002; Global Relocation Services, 2004). Ongoing pre-mature repatriation of employees from international assignments alsodamages an organization's ability to staff its foreign operations witbthe best possible candidates. High levels of internal turnover dissuadeemployees from accepting foreign assignments (Harvey, 1997; Welch,2003).

Research studies have demonstrated that expatriate job satisfactionbas a distinct influence on assignment completion (Grant-Vallone &Ensher, 2001; Culpan &: Wright, 2002). We suggest that an organiza-

job satisfaction and employee turnover and link organization-con-trol led |ob satisfaction facets to pre-assignment preparation,assignment support, and repatriation support. Finally, we create atheoretical framework that outlines organizational best practice strate-gies that managers can adopt in order to enhance expatriates' levels ofjob satisfaction and subsequently reduce assignment turnover.

Job Satisfaction and Turnover IntentionJob satisfaction's many definitions include tbe degree to which an

employee is content witb his/bcr job, the difference between anemployee's perceptions about what be/sbe expects to receive and wbathe/she actually receives at work, and tbe degree of fit between what anemployee is seeking from an organization and what tbe organizationrequires from its employee (Mumford, 1972; Cranny, et al., 1992;Hellman, 1997; Spector, 1997; Pbillips & Connell, 2003). This defin-ition indicates that |ob satisfaction is multidimensional or multifacetedand subiect to the influence of the organization's human resourcestrategies (Cranny, et al., 1992; Spector, 1997).

The five principal facets of job satisfaction, as derived from the JobDescriptive Index, are satisfying work, equitable pay, promotionopportunity, and satisfaction with supervisors and coworkers (Smith,et al., 1969; Smith, 1992; Phillips tk Connell, 2003). These facets ofjob satisfaction originate from a wide range of additional variablessuch as the supervisor's management style, personal growth, beingtreated with respect, interesting work, organizational commitment to

22 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28 4

the employee, good workplace communication, work/family balance,workplace autonomy, employment market, welt managed company,trust in management, and type of employer (Ryan, et al., 1996;Spector, 1997; Abraham, 1999; Canadian Policy Research Networks,2000; Johnson, 2000; Hom & Kinicki, 200 i; Trevor, 2001; HarvardBusiness Essentials, 2002).

Clearly, employees are seeking meaningful employment, organiza-tion.il support,, work/family halancc, and career advancement asmajor determinants of their job satisfaction levels (see Exhibit 1).Although financial support is a factor in job satisfaction and inemployee willingness to accept either a domestic or an overseas assign-ment, the influence of other factors, such as fulfilling work, spousalwork, and work/family balance, are more central considerations(Runzheimer, 1998; I,inehan &c Walsh, 1999, 2001). Financial incen-tives are not being considered as a key factor in employee/expatriatejob satisfaction.

A major finding in the job satisfaction literature is its linkage toemployee turnover or turnover intentions (Heilnian, 1997; Hom 6cKinicki, 2001; Trevor, 2001; Nagy, 2002). Given that an expatriaterelocates to a different area of the organization, takes on a differentjob, is in a foreign location, is effectively interviewed/hired for theposition, requires training, and position socialization, the expatriate'sjob experience is similar to that of a new employee. Furthermore, if theexpatriate returns early from an assignment, this action is akin toturnover.

In a meta-analysis investigating job satisfaction and intent to leave,llellman (1997] found there was a significant negative relationshipbetween job satisfaction and turnover intentions. The magnitude ofthis relationship is such that every unit of decrease in job satisfactionresults in a one-half standard deviation unit increase in turnover inten-tion. Other studies have found similar results linking turnover todecreased levels of job satisfaction (Hom &L Kinicki, 2001; Trevor,2001).

Given the experience corporations have with domestic relocationand managing employee satisfaction, global organizations can benefitby considering their expatriate programs from the basic premises ofjob satisfaction. Thus, the relationship between job satisfaction and

EXHIBIT 1

Workplace SatisfactionVariables/Facets Under Controlof the Organization

Employees treated with respect

Sense of job accomplishment

Good workplacecommunications

Productive co-worker/supervisor relations

Trust in organization/management

Interesting/challenging work

Career advancementopportunities

Work/family balance

turnover dictates that organizations must consider what facets influ-ence expatriates' perceptions of their international assignment. Exhibit2 summarizes the known relationship of job satisfaction and turnover.Managers who acknowledge the job satisfaction-turnover relationshipare more likely to be able to manage tbeir expatriates successfully.

Organizational Facets Influencing Expatriate JobSatisfaction

The variables related to expatriate assignment success tend tocluster into three major areas: individual adjustment, environmentalissues, and position-related issues (Harvey, 1997). Individual adjust-ment considers what tbe expatriate brings to an assignment, suchas maturity, life experience, personality, and previous internationalexperience. Environmental issues revolve around the host culture,such as tbe culture's similarity to one's home culture and cultural/government restrictions on employment, visas, and work permits.Finally, position-related issues are concerned with tbe impact of tbeassignment on the employee, the adjustment to the host-countryoffice, assignment duration, and adequacy of training provided priorto departure (Harvey, 1997). Of tbese three areas, the one under tbedirect control of tbe organization is position-related issues. This areaprovides a foundation from whicb skillfully designed human resoLircepolicies can increase expatriate job satisfaction (Tung, 1979; Black, etal., 1991; Harvey, 1997; Barucb & Altman, 2002).

Position-rel a ted support actions are typically clustered as follows(see Exhibit 3):

1. Pre-assignment support (i.e., career development and training),2. Assignment support (i.e., mentors and partner employment),

and3. Repatriation support (i.e., knowledge, skills, and abilities uti-

lization).

EXHIBIT 2

Workplace Variables, JobSatisfaction, and TurnoverRelation

Workplace Variables:• Impact of assignment• Assignment duration

• Adequacy ot training• Work/family balance

Adapted from: Ryan, et al., 1996; Spector; 1997; Abraham, 1999;Canadian Policy Researcb Networks, 2000; Jobnson, 2000; Hom&C Kinicki, 2001; Trevor, 2001; Harvard Business Essentials, 2002.

Job Satisfaaion:• Sarisf\'ing work

• Equitable pay• Promotion opportunity

• Supervisor satisfaction• Co-worker satisfaction

Turnover Intentions

Adapted from: Smith, et al., 1969; Smith, 1992; Harvey, 1997.

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28 4

(Harvey, 1997; Farid & Buda, 1998; Linehan & Walsh, 2001; Baruch6C Altman, 2002; Mayrhofer & Scullion, 2002). Thesesupport strategies have heen shown to decrease employee depressionand anxiety and improve overall health., which subsequently influenceemployee effectiveness, cultural adjustment., and job satisfaction—allof which improves the likelihood of assignment success (Grant-Vallone & Ensher, 2001). Specific successful practices include supportfor family-work balance, mentoring, networking, and partnerassistance (Linehan &c Walsh, 2001). Overall, greater company sup-port equates to greater expatriate satisfaction levels and subsequentassignment success (Harvey, 1997; Kraimer, et al., 2001; Culpan &:Wright, 2002).

In determining what position-related strategies organizations canpursue to enhance expatriate adjustment, we can view rhe lifecycle ofan international assignment as having three distinct phases: pre-assign-ment, assignment, and reparriation (see Exhibit 4). Each phase reflectsdifferent employee needs and therefore requires varying types oforganizational support. The first phase in the international life cycle,expatriate pre-assignment preparation, has a profound influence onjob satisfaction.

ExpatrJate Pre-Assignment PreparatJon StrategiesPre-assignment support is the actions organizations take to

enhance an expatriate's adjustment and coping skills in advance of aforeign assignment. Pre-asslgnmcnt support focuses primarily on help-ing the expatriate acquire the skills necessary to perform well on theassignment; such as language training to facilitate adjustment to rhenew environment and career counselling to integrate the assignmentinto the expatriate employee's long-term career development.

Career Development. Career development is the sequence of relat-ed work activities directed at personal and organizational goals thatthe employee experiences (Hall, 2002). Companies that assist employ-ees in identifv'ing and developing their skills and abilities are rewardedwith employees who show greater loyalty and are more adept at theirwork responsibilities, thereby Increasing organizational productivity

EXHIBIT 4

Expatriates' Best Practices Framework

EXHIBIT 3

Expatriates' Best PracticesPre-AssignmentSupport

• Demonstrate valueof assignment

• Specific link toemployee careergoals

• Language andcultural training

• Identify deficitKSAs, providetraining

• Partner/familylanguage training,involvement

• Confirmedassignment length

Assignment Support

• Host/home-coun-tty mentors

• Workplaceacculturationsupport

• Relationshipbuilding

• Familyacculturation

• Partner employ-ment or careercounselling

RepatriationSupport

• Begin aheadof assignmentconclusion

• Position estab-lished to utilizenew KSAs

• Revised career plan

• Re-acculturationand re-integration

• Allow fortransition period

Assignment Support:• Host/Home Country Mentors• Partner Employment• Family Acculturation

Repatriation Support:• Career Linkage• Repatriation Plan

• KSA Utilization

ExpatriateJob Satisfaction

Pre-Assignment Support:• Career Planning

• KSA Deficit Training• Partner/Family Training

Assignment CompletiotiIntentions

(Griffith, 1998; Welch, 2003]. Organizations with formal policies forcareer management that are supportive of employee developmentresult in employee reports of higher loh satisfaction and improvedcareer success (Orpen, 1994; Culpan He Wright, 2002). The role of arelocation assignment with respect to career development is a criticalconcern in both international and domestic relocations (Runzheimer,1998). For expatriates to be satisfied with their assignment and its role

in their career development, they must under-stand how the potential foreign assignment willinfluence their long-term career goals (Harvey,1997; Baruch & Altman, 2002).

Expatriate career planning includes theactions and plans related to how the expatri-ate's assignment will influence his/her futurecareer (Earid & Buda, 1998; Welch, 2003).Eorty percent of expatriates in the GMACGlobal Relocation survey had no idea how aninternational assignment would influence theircareer (Global Relocation Services, 2004).Given that expatriates are being asked to relo-cate to a foreign country, remove themselvesfrom the mainstream company, and takeincredible risks with their established trackrecord, tbis is unreasonable. Understanding tbelinkage between tbe assignment and careerdevelopment facilitates acculturation andadjustment to the new position.

Earad and Buda (1998) identified specificcareer strategies tbat lead to job satisfactionand organizational commitment includingfacilitation of the expatriate's continuous acqui-sition of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and

2-1 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28.4

behaviours valued by the organization. This enhances decentralizeddecision making by the expatriate and increases tbe expatriate's auton-omy. Organizational commitment to career development, as evidencedby tbese factors, moderates tbe relationship between expatriateselection and assignment completion (Earld & Buda, 1998). Anempowered expatriate with a clear understanding of what he/she willgain from an international assignment will be effective at achievingcorporate objectives, resulting in feelings of accomplishment and sub-sequent job satisfaction.

Training. Training is another method by which organizationsenhance employee job satisfaction. Training is an ongoing process thatbegins witb a new employee's orientation and continues with ongoingdevelopment of the employee's knowledge, skills, and abilities (Mauer& Rafuse, 2001). Training programs help to ensure employees baverhe necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to function{..•ffecrively in tbe work environment {Cotton, 1993). Well-trainedemployees work more effectively with fewer errors, require less super-vision, bave bigber morale, and lower attrition rates (Gutteridge, et al.,1993). Organizations sending employees on domestic or foreignassignments must recognize tbe need to provide training that is effec-tive in providing tbe employee witb the necessary knowledge, skills,and abilities to function in his/her new assignment and, in tbe case ofan expatriate, relevant to the country of assignment. Having therequired job skills empowers the employee, aids in creating higb

Training in the host-country language is therefore key to the expatri-ate's ability to communicate with others and successfully interact withbost-country nationals, thereby aiding acculturation and adjustment(Mendenhall &i. Oddou, 1985). Citibank provides its expatriates withHR support for language and cultural training and the ChevronOverseas Petroleum C^ompany identifies cross-cultural issues ascritical to an expatriate's success (Solomon, 1994).

Otber noted areas of poor expatriate adjustment include personalthings sucb as: use of personal space, pace of life, and ways ofconducting oneself publicly (C^opeland &. Griggs, 1985). Problematicareas of workplace adjustment include: work attitudes, communica-tion, relationship roles, and power roles. Volard, et al., (1988)highlight a Japanese model of expatriation as a template for multina-tionals to adopt in order to enhance success opportunities. Japanesefirms typically train their expatriates for up to a year in advance of thea.ssignnienr and heavily emphasize learning the customs and culture ofthe assigned country as well as the host-country language.

Tailoring a training program to match tbe expatriate's KSA deficits,in addition to the requirements of rhe country and position of assign-ment, offers tbe best solution to prepare an expatriate effectively for aforeign assignment. Specific training programs facilitate expatriateacculturation to tbe new assignment, eliminate unnecessary frustra-tions, increase levels of job satisfaction, and aid in reducing incidentsof premature repatriation.

With respect to international assignments, the partner

and the family's cultural adjustment positively influences

the expatriate's adjustment; this is critical, as lack of family

adaptation is a major cause of expatriate failure.

morale, and engenders a belief that he/she Is capable of completing tbeassignment successfully, all of which directly influence )ob satisfaction(Grant-Vallone & Ensher, 2001; Rusbing Ik Kleiner, 2003). A majorchallenge for organizations is to identify exactly what t\'pe of trainingwill provide their expatriates with the requisite tools.

Pre-assignment training in areas of language skills, acculturation,company policies, technical skills specific to the expatriate's futureposition, and general skills related to managing in a remote locationare beneficial (Volard, et al., 198S; Tung, 1998; Kraimer, et al., 2001;Mayrhofer &; Scullion, 2002). Pre-assignnient training has an effectiveand positive influence on expatriate cultural adjustment and subse-quent satisfaction with the assignment. Despite this fact, many com-panies (40% in one survey) provide no cross-cultural training to tbeirexpatriates (Global Relocation Services, 2004). The need for trainingis evidenced as expatriate inability to adjust to the host-country is oneof the top two reasons for premature repatriation (Tung, I 979; Stone,1991; Cilobal Relocation Services, 2004).

Acculturating to a foreign country typically involves operating in anew language to develop ways in which to establish work relations,cope with language-induced stress, and communicate with co-workers(Oddou, 1991). Expatriate managers frequently identify assignmentproblems as being cultural in nature (Culpan and Wright, 2002).Strong communication skills and language fluency resolves workplaceproblems and aids in managing the overall cultural experience.

Partner/Family Involvement. Organizations must recognize theinfluence of the family's adjustment to tbe success of an employee'snew assignment. In the case of both domestic relocation and interna-tional assignment, studies bave shown tbat spousal resistance andfamily adjustment are major factors in employee relocation success(Lachnit &C Solomon, 2002; Rusbing & Kleiner. 2003; GlobalRelocation Services, 2004). With respect to internarional assignments,tbe partner and tbe family's cultural adjustment positively influencesthe expatriate's adjustment; tbis is critical, as lack of family adaptationis a major cause of expatriation failure (Tung, 1979; Stone, 1991;Selmer, 2001; Shaffer &: Harrison, 2001; Global Relocation Services,2004).

Takeuchi, et al. (2002), interviewed expatriates regarding the effectof partner adjustment on tbe expatriate and found tbat tbe partner'sgeneral adjustment spilled over onto the expatriate's personal andwork adjustment, resulting in a positive correlation witb both job andoverall satisfaction. Higher levels of adjustment belped to preventassignment failure and reduce desire for premature repatriation. Botbtbe Allen-Bradley Company and the Schering-Plough Corporationsuccessfully involve family members in cultural and language trainingas part of the preparation of tbeir expatriates for foreign assignment(Solomon, 1994). Organizations tbat facilitate partner involvement inacculturation training enhance tbe employee's probabilit>' of assign-ment success (Lineban &; Walsb, 1999; Sbafer & Harrison, 2001;

H U M A N RESOURCE PLANNING 28 .4

Culpan & Wright, 2002; Takeuchi, et al., 2002|. We suggest that expa-triates who have well adjusted and satisfied families will aiso be welladjusted and satisfied with their foreign assigmiient, thereby reducingincidents of expatriate failure.

Fatnily inclusion in the assignment process, the provision oflanguage training as appropriate, and consideration of the family unitenhance the probability of assigmncnt success. Clearly, in these areareas organizational support strategies can augment the family's poten-tial adjustment and the subsequent job satisfaction of the expatriate. Awell-prepared expatriate and family are now ready for the secondphase of the international life cycle: the assignment itself.

Expatriate Assignment Support StrategiesOrganizations face unique challenges with international postings in

ensuring expatriates remain part of the organization's home-countryculture, adapt to the new organizational culture as presented in theforeign work place, and are motivated to remain involved in theorganization. Research has shown that organizational support predictsexpatriate assignment adjustment (Cahgiuri, et ai, 1999; Shaffer, et al.,1999). Assignment support involves facilitating the expatriate's adjust-ment to the new work environment and the host-country through amentor, maintaining strategic (inks with the head office, and aiding theexpatriate's partner in pursuit of career opportunities.

Mentors. Meeting the challenges of involvement and organizationalacculturation involves providing the expatriate with assignmept assis-tance. Baruch and Altman (2002) found that lack of organizational

happening in the home office, involve the expatriate in corporatedecisions, provide a safe sounding board for the expatriate, offer advicein handling unfamiliar situations, and provide a iink into the corporatenetwork (Mendenhall &L Oddou, 1985; Mayrhofer &c Scullion, 2002).Mentors are especially valuable when they have expatriate experience,that is, having a repertoire of international experiences from which todraw upon to aid the new expatriate (Downes, et al., 2002). Studieshave demonstrated the value of attaining a mentor; expatriate man-agers clearly indicate that having a mentor is perceived to be a keycomponent of assignment success (Linehan &c Walsh, 1999, 2001).

A home-country mentor's influence in facilitating the expatriate'sadjustment, in keeping the expatriate in the loop, and in ensuring theindividual is not "forgotten" while on assignment demonstrates theinherent vaiue of assigning a home-country mentor to an expatriate.Additionally, having a host-country mentor provides the expatriatewith an individual who assists with the overall acculturation processand helps in the formation of new integrated relationships within thenew office. This organizational support strategy of mentoring theexpatriate is a critical intervention in keeping an expatriate motivated(Fontaine, 1997).

Partner Employment/Career Counseling. Given the changing work-place demographics, organizations have to manage the growing trendof dual career couples when considering employee relocation (Selmer&C Leung, 2003). Consideration of an employee's partner and his/hercareer prospects has been shown to be a major factor in the success ofboth domestic and international relocations (Runzheimer, 1998;

Home-country mentors are able to aid the expatriate's connec-

tion with what is happening in the home office, involve the

expatriate in corporate decisions, provide a safe sounding

board for the expatriate, offer advice in handling unfamiliar

situations, and provide a link into the corporate network

support, once the expatriate is in position, is a strong contributor toexpatriate failure rates.

A support strategy used by many organizations to aid ongoingemployee acculturation in work and social environments is the assign-ment of a host-country national to the expatriate. This person providesassistance in learning and understanding the culture of the assignedcountry (Volard, et al., 1988). In the case of an international assign-ment, host-country nationals function in a mentoring capacity byproviding the expatriate with hands-on training in cultural behaviour,introductions to valued business contacts, and assistance interpretingsituations (Kraimer, et al., 2001). Additionally, a host-country mentorprovides an arena for the expatriate to be involved in activities thatencourage interaction with other host-country nationals (MendenhallSc Oddou, 1985; Oddou, 1991). Local interactions give expatriates anopportunity to develop relationships and encourages confidence intheir communication skills, ultimately aiding their overall adjustmentand acculturation process. Confidence in one's skills engenders a beliefin one's ability to complete a task and results in increased job satisfaction.

In addition to host-country mentors, contact with the organization'shome office through a home-country mentor enhances the expatriateadjustment process (Mayrhofer &c Scullion, 2002). Home-countrymentors are able to aid the expatriate's connection witli what is

Rushing & Kleiner, 2003; Global Relocation Services, 2004).Expatriate managers reported that a major barrier to successful adjust-ment is the organization's lack of support for the trailing partner insecuring employment (Linehan & Walsh, 1999, 2001; Selmer &Leung, 2003). The problematic nature of the trailing partner in secur-ing employment and achieving overall adjustment is highhghted by thefact that 20 to 25 percent of Expatriate spouses fail to secure employ-ment during the tenure of an international assignment (Harvey, 1997).Therefore, partners who agree to relocate and put their careers on holdwill have difficulty adjusting to the foreign assignment if unable toattain viable employment (Culpan &c Wright, 2001). Organizationalsupport in aiding the partner of a dual-career couple to secure employ-ment enhances expatriate and partner satisfaction with the foreignassignment, yet it is an area expatriates frequently report as poorlymanaged by their organization (Harvey, 1997; Yavas & Bodur, 1999;Selmer & Leung, 2003).

Support strategies adopted by ot^anizations must provide the part-ner assistance in seeking employment, facilitate the expatriate's adjust-ment to his/her new office, and provide a link to the home officethrough the assignment of mentors. With these actions, organizationswill enhance the job satisfaction levels of expatriates and assignmentsuccess probability. The commitment to support an expatriate does not

26 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28.4

stop at the assignment, as organizations must continue their support oftheir expatriates through the last cycle of an international assignment:jhe repatriation process.

Expatriate Repatriation Support StrategiesOrganizational career development for international employees is

not only about career planning—it involves strategies for repatriation.Repatriation is an especially important component of an internationalassignment. The repatriation experience has the potential to undo all ofthe valuable development of the expatriate if he/she is not effectivelyintegrated into the home environment. Repatriation planning is critical;studies evidence up to 40 percent of expatriates report having no clear-ly identified position in their parent corporation upon repatriation and68 percent have no guarantee of a position upon repatriation (Oddou,1991; Global Relocation Services, 2004).

Repatriation is frequently identified as one of the most stressfulcomponents of a foreign assignment (Sanchez, et al., 2000). Expatriatesreport struggling to cope with the lack of autonomy they have becomeaccustomed to on assignment, feeling isolated by the lack of acknowl-edgement of their new multicultural identification, and having theirexpectations of being promoted upon return to the home-countryunmet (Sanchez et al., 2000). Further, repatriation difficulties involveexpatriates' becoming accustomed to prestige and elevated social statuswhite on assignment and tihe subsequent struggle with their decreasedroles upon returning to the parent corporation (Copeland 9c Griggs,1985). These feelings of disconnect that the repatriated employee expe-riences can be a source of discontent causing job dissatisfaction andpotentially leading the individual to seek employment elsewhere. Anaverage of 20 percent of repatriated employees leave their companieswithin six months of repatriation (Adlec, 1997).

Successful repatriation planning includes ensuring the expatriatehas confirmed assignment tenure, the organization has a specific planto utilize the expatriate's newly developed KSAs, and the organizationbegins the repatriation process well in advance of assignment termina-tion (Oddou, 1991). A well-organized repatriation program bas asmuch value to an employee as a well-organized career developmentplan (Oddou, 1991). In Yan, et al's (2002) model of organizationalexpatriate alignment, repatriation is a key part of attaining assignmentsuccess. Their model includes the following stages of repatriation:

1. Continued expatriate development2. Attractive future assignments3. Promotion upon return4. Enhanced employee responsibilities5. Repatriated employee retention6. Utilization of new expertise7. Knowledge transfer of new skills into the organization

This model highlights concrete strategies to combat repatriationproblems such as lack of autonomy, feeLings of redundancy, decreasein prestige, and frustration in not being acknowledged for newlydeveloped skills.

Resolving repatriated employee frustration aids his/her re-adjust-ment back into the head office, which ultimately increases job satisfac-tion and expatriate retention. A firm commitment on the part of theorganization towards the expatriate with respect to a career trajectoryand a home-country assignment that utilizes newly developed KSAswill help to ensure the expatriate concludes his/her internationalexperience in a successful manner, ultimately enhancing overall jobsatisfaction and organizational commitment.

ConclusionWe have highlighted research findings linking job satisfaction

to employee turnover intentions and identified a framework of bestpractices that organizations can utilize to improve their expatriate'sassignment experience (see Exhibit 3). Considering potential organiza-tional actions, evidence identifies the need for support strategies in theareas of expatriate pre-assignment support, assignment support, andrepatriation support. These strategies positively influence the ability ofan expatriate to acculturate and adjust to his/her new assignment,resulting in increased job satisfaction and decreased incidents ofpremature repatriation (Linehan & Walsh, 1999, 2001; Culpan 5cWright, 2002; Mayrhofer & Scullion, 2002).

Human resource managers who ensure their organizations establishan expatriation program that encompasses clear and distinct careerplanning will attain greater success with their expatriate programs.Having a repatriation plan for bringing the employee back into thehome office capitalizes on his/her newly acquired skills, facilitatesknowledge transfer back into the organization, and enhances post-assignment job satisfaction. Thus, employees realize the value ofaccepting a foreign assignment and will be more inclined to acceptinternational positions, thereby aiding an organization's internationalexpansion goals. The provision of extensive training programs, such aslanguage, communication, and cultural awareness, to the expatriateand applicable family members prepares the individual for the newlocation and facilitates faster acculturation.

Providing for an expatriate's needs should continue during theassignment in order to facilitate acculturation. Host-country mentorsare utilized as sources of language and cultural teaching, situationaladvice, and further introduction into the foreign business community(Kraimer, et al., 2001). Organizations must be aware of the isolatinginfluence of being in a foreign country and facilitate the expatriate'sneed for involvement, communication, and socialization within thecompany through the assignment of home-country mentors.

Finally, organizations must consider the inclusion of an expatriate'sfamily as part of the expatriation process. Aiding the partner in secur-ing employment, in addition to providing family language and culturaltraining, enhances foreign assignment adjustment. Ultimately, a well-adjusted family will positively influence the expatrfete and help facilitatehis/her acculturation and adjustment. Organizations must recognizethat a well-prepared and well-adjusted expatriate is more likely to havegreater job satisfaction and be less likely to repatriate prematurely.

Looking at expatriate practices through the lens of job satisfactionreveals successful strategies being used by organizations to supporttheir expatriates and actions managers can adopt to influence expatri-ate job satisfaction directly and influence indirectly the probability ofassignment success (see Exhibit 4). Employees, whether domestic orinternational, have a greater commitmeht to their organization and areless likely to leave their job/position/assignment when they are satisfiedwith the manner in which their organization treats them.

As organizations continue to pursue global operating advantages,employees will increasingly be required to fill foreign assignments(Brewster, 1997; Mayrhofer, et al., 2004). To meet these needs, futurestrategic human resource management tactics should include both thesuccessful management and support of expatriates and the considera-tion of alternative staffing options such as inpatriates and flexpatriates.The increasing prevalence of alternative approaches to global staffingidentifies critical areas of future human resource focus that will ulti-mately enhance the global competence of an organization's workforce.

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28.4 27

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES

Deirdre McCaughey is a PhD candidate in organizationalbehaviour at the University of Manitoba. Her research interestsinclude expatriate adjustment, the impact of employee-organizationalvaiue congruence, workplace diversity, and cognitive decision makingmodels.

Her dissertation work involves the psychology of safety in theworkplace and employee perceptions of work conditions. Deirdre haspresented her work at numerous North American conferences, includ-ing the Academy of Management, and has received best paper andposter awards for her research. She holds an MBA and a Bachelor ofMedical Rehabilitation, both from the University of Manitoba.

Dr. Sue Bruning is a professor of business administration in theAsper School of Business at the University of Manitoba. She teachescourses in organizational behaviour, organizational change and analy-sis, training and development, research methods, labour relations, andleadership. Professor Bruning has studied organizations and conduct-ed training in areas related to assessing organizational effectivenessand health, monitoring effective change processes within organiza-tions, and developing effective organizational processes. Her researchhas been funded through a variety of university, provincial, and feder-al funding agencies. Dr. Bruning has presented and published over 60articles in a number of academic and practitioner journals and at pro-fessional conferences. Her research has appeared in journals such asjournal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management journal,journal of Management, journal of Applied Social Psychology. Shehas also co-authored a textbook on organizational behaviour. Dr.Bruning has received local and international awards for both herteaching and research.

REFERENCESAbraham, R. (1*^99). "The Relationship between Differential Inequity, Job Satisfaction,Intention to Turnover, and Self-F^teem," Journal of Psychology, 133: 205-215.

Adler, N. (1997). Ittlerruiliotial Dimensions of Organized Behaviour, ird Edition.Cincinnati, OH: Southwestern Collef;e Publishing.

Baruch, Y., & Altman, Y. (2002). "Expatriation and Rcpatriatioti in MNCs: ATaxonomy," Hurmm Resource Management, 41: 239-2.i9.

Black, J.S., Mtndenball, M., & Oddou, G. (1991). "Toward a Comprehensive Model ofInternational Adjustment: An Integration of Multiple Theoretical Perspectives,"Academy of Management Review., 16: 291-317.

Brewster. C. (1997). "International HRM; Reyond Expatriation," Hunuin ResourceManagement lourtial, 7; 31-41.

Caligiuri, l'..M., Joshi, A., ik Ldzarova, M. (1999). "Eactors Influencing the Adjustmentof Women on Cilobal Assignments," Jntcrnatumal lournal iif Human ResourceManagement, 10: 163-179.

(.Canadian Research Policy Network'; (2(11)01. "It's More rhan the Money - WhatCanadians want in a job," Canadian Research Policy Networks Website.http:/lu'uii\iohquahty.ca!indicator_elreu'OOt.stm (date retrieved October 5, 2004).

Copeland, L. &: driggs, L. (19RS1. Going International. New Yoik, NY: Random HouseInc.

Cotton, J.L. (1993). Employee Involvement: Methods for Improving Performance andWork Attitudes. Newhury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Cranny, C.J., Smith, P.C:., & Stone. E.E (1992). job Satisfaction: How People Feel AhoutTheir Johs and How It Affects Their Performance. Don Mills, ON: Maxwell MacmillanCanada, Inc.

Culpan, O.. Si Wright, G.H. (2002). "Women Abroad: Getting tbe liest Results fromWomen Managers," International journal cif Human Resource Management, 13: 7H4-801.

Downs, M., Tboma!i, A.S., &; Singley. R.B. (2002). "Predicting Expatriate JobSatisfaction: The Rote of Firm Internationalization," Career Deivlopment Intemational,7: 24-36.

Harid, M., & Buda, R. (1*'98). "Enhancing the Link Between Expatriate Selection andSuccess: Organization Commitment to Glohal Career Develiipmcnt," Inteniatiunatjournal of Management., 15: 516-.S24.

Eontaine, G. (1997]. "Skills for Successful International Assignments to, from and withinAsia and the Pacific: Implications for Preparation, Support and Training," ManagementDeas(o«, 35:631-643.

Eorbes (2000). "Global Giants: The 100 Urgent U.S. Multinationals," horhes (July) 24:.335-337.

Eorster, N. (1997). "The Persistent Myth of High Expatriate Eailure Rates: AReappraisal," international journal of Human Resource Management. 8: 414-433.

Global Relocation Services (20(M). "Global Relocation Trends 2003/2004 SurveyReport," GMAC Global Relocation Service Website.http-./lwww.gmavcglobatrelocatiopn.ctim (retrieved March 3, 2005).

Grant-Vallone, E.J., & Ensher, E.A. (2001). "An Examination of Work and Personal Lifetk)nflict. Organization Support, and Employee Healtb Amoiif; InternationalExpatriates," International journat of Intercuttural Relations, 25: 261-278.

Griffith, C. (199H). "Building a Resilient Workforce," Training, 35: 54-59.

Gutteridge, T.G., Leibowirz, Z.B., Sc Shore, J. (1993). Organizational CareerDevelopment: Benchmarks for Building a World Class Workforce. San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.

Hall, D.T (2002). Careers In and Out of Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: SagePublications.

Harris, H. (1999). "Tbe C^banging World of tbe Expatriate Manager," Centre forResearch into tbe Management of Expatriation Website.h ttp:llwu'w.som. cran field, ac.u klsomlresearchtcentreslcremeldoi rntoads/cha ngingu 'or Id. doc(retrieved September 22, 2005).

Harvard Business Essentials (2002). Hiring and Keeping the Best People. Boston, MA:Harvard Business School Press, 75-76.

Harvey, M. (19971. "Dual-Career Expatriates: Expectations. Adjustments, andSatisfaction witb International Relocation,"/owr/zii/ of International Business Studies,28: 627-658.

Hellman. C M . (1997). "Job Satisfaction and Intent to L.eave." The journal of SocialPsychology, 137:677-689.

Hogan, G.W., &: Goodson, J.R. (1990). "Tbe Key lo Expatriate Success," Training &Development joiirnal. January: 50-52.

Hom, P.W.. and Kinicki. A.J. (2001). "Toward a Greater Understanding of HowDissatisfaction Drives Employee Turnover." Academy of Management journal, 44: 975-987.

Ioannou, L. (1995). "Unnatural Selection," International Busmess.,]\i\y\ SA-S7.

Jobnson, M. (2000). Wining the People Wars. London, UK: Pearson Education Limited,124-125.

Kraimer, M.L., Wayne, S.J., & Jaworski, R.A. (2001). "Sources of Support andExpatriate Performance: Tbe Mediating Role of Expatriate Adjustment," PersonnelPsychology, 54: 7 \-'^9.

Lacbnit, C , & Solomon, C M . (2002). "Relocation C'hanges to Fit Changing Times,"Workforce, SI: i4Ai).

Lineban, M., ^ Walsh, J.S. (1999), "Recruiting and Developing Female Managers forInternational Assignments," Journal of Management Development, 18: 521 -530.

Lineban, M., & Walsh, J.S. (2001). "Key Issues in the Senior Eemale InternationalCareer Move: A Qualitanve Study in a European Context," British journal ofManagement, 12: 85-95.

Maurer, T.J.. and Rafuse, N.E. (2001). "learning not Litigating: Managing EmployeeDevelopment and Avoiding Claims of Age Discrimination," Academy of ManagementExecutive, 15: 110-122.

Mayrhofer, W, & Scullion, H. (2002). "Female Expatriates in International Business:Empirical Evidence from the German Clothing Industry," International journal ofHuman Resource Management, 13: 815-836.

2H HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28.4

Mayrhofer, H., Hartmann, L.C., &: Herherr. A. (2004a). Career Management Issuesfor Flexpatriate International Staff," Thunderbird International Business Review, 46:647-666.

Mayrhoft-r, H., Hartmann, L.C., Michelitsch-Riedl, G., & Koilinger, L (2004b)."Hlexpatriate Assignments: A Neglected issue in Global Staffing," International journalof Human Resource Management, 15: 1371-1389.

Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1985). "The Dimensions of Expatriate Acculturation: AReview," Academy of Managemetit Review, 10: 39-47.

Mumford, E. {'[972). job Satisfaction: A Study of Computer Specialists. London, CB:Longman Group.

Nagy, M.S. (2002). "Using a Single-Item Approach to Measure Facet Job Satisfaction,"journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75: 77-86.

Oddou, G.R. (1991). "Managing your Expatriates: What the Successful Firms Do,"Human Resource Planning, 14: 301-308.

Orpen. C. (1994). "Tbe tffects of Organizational and Individual Career Managementon Career Success," International journal of Manpower, 15: 27-37.

Phillips, J.J., and Connell, A.O. (2003), Managing Employee Retention: A StrategicAccountability Approach, Boston, MA: Elsevier/Butterworth Heinemann.

Run/heimer (19981. "Runzheimer Reports on Relocation." Runzheimer website.http://u'U-u:runzheimer.com/dcrc/scripts/rroct^S.asp (retrieved Marcb 3, 2005).

Rusbing, K., and Kleiner. B.H. (2003). "New Developments in Executive RelocationPractices," Maiugement Research News, lb: 11-19.

Ryan, A.M., Schmit, M.J., and Johnson, R. (1996). "Attitudes and Fffecriveness:Examining Relations at an Organizational Level," Personnel Psychology, 49: 853-8S2.

Sanchez, J.I., Spector, P,E., & Cooper, CL. (2000). "Adapting to a Boundaryless World:A Development Expatriate Model," Academy of Management Executive. 14: 96-107.

Selmer, J. (2001). "Expatriate Selection: Back to Basics," International journal ofHuman Resource Management, 12: 1219-1233.

Selmer, J., Sc Leung, A.S.M. (21)03). "Provision and Adequacy of Corporate Support toMale Expatriates Spouses: An Exploratory Study," Personnel Review, 32: 9-22.

Shaffer, M,A., Harrison, D.A.. & Gilley, K.M. (1999). "Dimensions, Determinants, andDifferences in the Expatriate Adjustment Process," journal of International BusinessStudies, 30:557-581.

Shaffei M.A., & Harrison, D.A. (2001). "Forgotten Partners of InternationalAssignments: Development and Test of a Model of Partner Adjustment." Journat ofApplied Psychology, 86: 238-254.

Smith, P.C. (1992). "In Pursuit of Happiness: Why Study General Job Satisfaction?." InCJ. Cranny, P.C Smith, and E.E Stones (Eds.) Job Satisfaction: How People heel AboutTheir jobs and How it Affects Their Performance. Don Mills, ONT: Lexington Books,5-20.

Smith, I'.C. Kendall, L.M., & Hulin, CL. (1969). The Measurement of Satisfaction inWork and Retirement. Chicago, !L: Rand McNally.

Solomon, C M . (1994). "Success Abroad Depends on More Tban Just Job Skills,"Personnel Joumal. 73: 51-60.

Spector, P.E. (1997). /o/j Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Cause, andConsequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Stone, R.J. (1991). "Expatriate Selection and Failure," Human Resource Planning. 14:9-lH.

Takeuchi, R., Y'un, S., &; Tesluk, P.E. (2002). "An Examination of Crossover andSpillover Effects of Partner and Expatriate Cross-Cultural Adjustment on ExpatriateOutcomes," journal of Applied Psychology, H7: 655-666.

Trevor, C O . (2001). "Interactions Among .-denial Ease-of-Movement Determinants andJob Satisfaction in the Predictions of Voluntary Turnover," Academy of Managementjourjial, 44: 621-638.

Tung, R.L. (1979). "U.S. Multitiationals: A Study of their Seleaion and TrainingProcedures for Overseas .Assignments," Academy of Management Proceedings, 79: 298-301.

Tung, R.L. (1998). "A Contingency Eramework of Selection and Training of ExpatriatesRevisited," Human Resource Management Review, 8: 23-27.

Volard, S.V., Francis, D.M., & Wagner, EW. Ill (1988). "Underpertorniing U.S.Expatriate Managers: A Study of Problems and Solutions." Practising Manager, 9: 37-40.

Welcb. D.E. (2003). "Globalisation of Staff Movements: Beyond Cultural Adjustments,"Management International Review, 43: 149-169.

Yan, A., Zhu, C , &: Hall, D.T. (2002). "International Assignments for Career Buildii^:A Model of Agency Relationships and Psychological Contracts," Academy ofManagement Review, 27: 373-391.

Yavas, U., Sc Boduc, M. (1999). "Satisfaction Among Expatriate Managers: Correlatesand Consequences," Career Deiviopment International, 4: 261-269.

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 28.4 29