Englishes: British, Englishes: British, Scottish, GlobalScottish, Global

British EnglishBritish English

Many sociolects, idiolects Many sociolects, idiolects Regional dialects Regional dialects Britain: long, shared heritage, small Britain: long, shared heritage, small

areaarea vsvs USA: short shared past, vast territoryUSA: short shared past, vast territory Yet greater differences within the North Yet greater differences within the North

of England than in North America of England than in North America Linguistic Atlas of Britain (1948-61)Linguistic Atlas of Britain (1948-61)

British EnglishBritish English

No overarching authority or No overarching authority or ‘academy’ ‘academy’

Strong local identity Strong local identity Irregular spelling – legacy of dialects Irregular spelling – legacy of dialects ‘‘busy’ – ‘bury’ busy’ – ‘bury’ ‘‘one’, ‘once’one’, ‘once’ Spelling crystallised with printing Spelling crystallised with printing

Professor Higgins’s EnglishProfessor Higgins’s English

Received Pronunciation (RP) Received Pronunciation (RP)

(Received) Standard English, (Received) Standard English,

Oxford English, Public School English, Oxford English, Public School English,

BBC English BBC English

„„talking proper/posh”; „la-di-dah” talking proper/posh”; „la-di-dah”

1791: Critical Pronouncing Dictionary 1791: Critical Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language (John of the English Language (John Walker) Walker)

Standard EnglishStandard English

Educated London and S-E dialectEducated London and S-E dialect

Canterbury Tales, York Mystery Plays, Canterbury Tales, York Mystery Plays, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight:

no standardno standard

Standard English: no longer a dialectStandard English: no longer a dialect

Middle classes; printing, media; Middle classes; printing, media; education; Empire; EFLeducation; Empire; EFL

Standard EnglishStandard English

Imperial civil service Imperial civil service Education Act of 1870: rise of public Education Act of 1870: rise of public

schools schools Standardisation (stygmatising Standardisation (stygmatising

dialect) dialect) WW1 officers WW1 officers BBC: Lord Reith BBC: Lord Reith

Standard englishStandard english

- long ‘a’ (far, fast) - long ‘a’ (far, fast) - ‘oi’ (boil, soil) - ‘oi’ (boil, soil) - ‘- ‘ƏƏ:’ (curtain, certain) :’ (curtain, certain) - weakened ‘r’ (orator) - weakened ‘r’ (orator)

„„He wore a tattered brown trilby, grey He wore a tattered brown trilby, grey shabby trousers, crepe-soled shoes and a shabby trousers, crepe-soled shoes and a dark-coloured anorak. He carried a walking dark-coloured anorak. He carried a walking stick and spoke with a good accent, the stick and spoke with a good accent, the police say.” police say.”

„„It is impossible for an Englishman to open It is impossible for an Englishman to open his mouth without making some other his mouth without making some other Englishmen despise him.” (G. B. Shaw)Englishmen despise him.” (G. B. Shaw)

Paul Scott: Paul Scott: The Jewel in the CrownThe Jewel in the Crown

(Hari Kumar and Ronald Merrick)(Hari Kumar and Ronald Merrick)

Standard EnglishStandard English

BBC experiment in WW2 BBC experiment in WW2

Yorkshire entertainer Wilfred PicklesYorkshire entertainer Wilfred Pickles

Tom Leonard (Scottish poet): Tom Leonard (Scottish poet):

‘‘Six o’clock News’ Six o’clock News’

Standard EnglishStandard English

Not just linguistics: social, political Not just linguistics: social, political issue issue

Respected in US (rise of silent film) Respected in US (rise of silent film) Detested by many (language of Detested by many (language of

privilege, oppression, effeminacy: privilege, oppression, effeminacy: ‘lah-di-dah’) ‘lah-di-dah’)

Standard and non-standardStandard and non-standard

Change from 1950s Change from 1950s British new wave film (Tom Cortenay, British new wave film (Tom Cortenay,

Albert Finney) Albert Finney) Kitchen sink drama Kitchen sink drama 1980s: policy change in BBC1980s: policy change in BBC Film, tv, popular entertainment, stand-Film, tv, popular entertainment, stand-

up up Soap operas (East Enders, Brookside, Soap operas (East Enders, Brookside,

Coronation Street) Coronation Street)

Dialects, RP and societyDialects, RP and society

Thomas Hardy: Thomas Hardy: Tess of the D’UrbervillesTess of the D’Urbervilles: : Tess, „who passed Sixth Standard in the Tess, „who passed Sixth Standard in the

National School under a London-trained National School under a London-trained mistress, spoke two languages: the mistress, spoke two languages: the dialect at home, more or less, ordinary dialect at home, more or less, ordinary English abroad and to persons of English abroad and to persons of quality” quality”

dialect - accentdialect - accent

Non-standard language: Non-standard language: – vocabulary, vocabulary, – grammar, grammar, – pronunciation pronunciation

I didn’t have no dinner tonight. I didn’t have no dinner tonight.

I seen an accident before I come here. I seen an accident before I come here.

I shall stay here while she comes. I shall stay here while she comes.

(„Wait while lights flash.”) („Wait while lights flash.”)

Our teacher can’t learn us nothing. Our teacher can’t learn us nothing.

(OE ‘leornian’) (OE ‘leornian’)

Cockney English Cockney English

„„cockeneyes” (cock’s eggs) cockeneyes” (cock’s eggs)

Canterbury Tales: „cockenay” (milksop) Canterbury Tales: „cockenay” (milksop)

C17: Bow Bell Cockney C17: Bow Bell Cockney

‘‘born within the sound of Bow-bell’ born within the sound of Bow-bell’

C16: language of Londoners outside the C16: language of Londoners outside the Court Court

C18: pejorative (Dr. Johnson’s idea of C18: pejorative (Dr. Johnson’s idea of correct English) – rising middle classescorrect English) – rising middle classes

slander: Keats as a ‘Cockney poet’ slander: Keats as a ‘Cockney poet’

CockneyCockney

C19: working-class, debased C19: working-class, debased language (Shaw: language (Shaw: PygmalionPygmalion) )

Dickens’s Sam Weller (Dickens’s Sam Weller (The Pickwick The Pickwick PapersPapers))→literary stereotype (v/w) →literary stereotype (v/w)

Features of CockneyFeatures of Cockney(1) ‘th’ sounds (1) ‘th’ sounds →→f and v (muvver, barf, no f and v (muvver, barf, no

bovver)bovver)firty fahsn fevvers on a frush’s froatfirty fahsn fevvers on a frush’s froat

(2) dropping the aitch(2) dropping the aitch„„That’s an ‘edgeog. It’s really two words. ‘Edge That’s an ‘edgeog. It’s really two words. ‘Edge

and ‘og. Both begin with an aitch.”and ‘og. Both begin with an aitch.”(3) diphthongs: beat, fate, great, high, why, nice(3) diphthongs: beat, fate, great, high, why, nice(4) the glottal stop (4) the glottal stop (5) about – abaht; thousand – fahsn, Gawd(5) about – abaht; thousand – fahsn, Gawd(6) the linking ‘r’ (6) the linking ‘r’ (7) syllable-final ‘l’ vocalised: tewwim (tell him) (7) syllable-final ‘l’ vocalised: tewwim (tell him) (8) question tags („innit”) (8) question tags („innit”) (9) intonation, pitch, tone („Ay-ee, Ba-yee, Cy-(9) intonation, pitch, tone („Ay-ee, Ba-yee, Cy-

ee”)ee”)

sources of Cockney vocabulary sources of Cockney vocabulary Romany: pal, chavvy, mushRomany: pal, chavvy, mushYiddish: shemozzle, nosh Yiddish: shemozzle, nosh Arabic and other Oriental: bint, cushy, Arabic and other Oriental: bint, cushy,

dekko, shufti, doolallydekko, shufti, doolallyFrench (WW2): parleyvoo, San fairy ann French (WW2): parleyvoo, San fairy ann

((çça ne fait riena ne fait rien)), toot sweet (, toot sweet (toute suitetoute suite))Mate, chum, guvnor, cock, love, me old Mate, chum, guvnor, cock, love, me old

duck duck Blimey (Gorblimey), Cor, Wotcha Blimey (Gorblimey), Cor, Wotcha aggro aggro

Literary Cockney Literary Cockney Sam Weller in Dickens’ Sam Weller in Dickens’ The Pickwick The Pickwick

PapersPapers (Wellerisms: „Bevare of (Wellerisms: „Bevare of vidders”)vidders”)

G. B. Shaw: G. B. Shaw: PygmalionPygmalion Kipling: Kipling: Barrack-Room BalladsBarrack-Room Ballads East EndersEast Enders (soap); (soap); Only Fools and Only Fools and

HorsesHorses (sitcom) (sitcom)

Cockney (rhyming) slangCockney (rhyming) slang

Adam and EveAdam and Eve Brahms and Liszt Brahms and Liszt Rosy Lee Rosy Lee trouble and strife trouble and strife butcher’s; cobbler’sbutcher’s; cobbler’s Jimmy Riddle; Bristols Jimmy Riddle; Bristols to rabbit; raspberryto rabbit; raspberry Joe Strummer, Hampdon roar, Salisbury Joe Strummer, Hampdon roar, Salisbury

CragCrag BACK-SLANG (yob, nevis) BACK-SLANG (yob, nevis)

Geordie EnglishGeordie English

‘‘Geordie’: Northern nickname for Geordie’: Northern nickname for George George

talk, walk – wahktalk, walk – wahk

Clear ‘l’ Clear ‘l’

Uvular ‘r’ Uvular ‘r’

Don’t, goat, know Don’t, goat, know

Down, town Down, town

Scouse(r) EnglishScouse(r) English

„„lobscouse” (sailor’s dish) lobscouse” (sailor’s dish) Fair=fur, spare=spur Fair=fur, spare=spur ‘‘r’: alveolar tap (rabbit, grass, carry) r’: alveolar tap (rabbit, grass, carry) Matter – ‘marra’ (Norra lorra fun) Matter – ‘marra’ (Norra lorra fun) k/x/ing, back/x/, d/z/ad, bad/z/ k/x/ing, back/x/, d/z/ad, bad/z/ Adenoidal speech Adenoidal speech BrooksideBrookside (soap opera) (soap opera)

Yorkshire dialectYorkshire dialect

Fast, car, pathFast, car, path House, down – hoos, doon House, down – hoos, doon Up, cut, much Up, cut, much ‘‘th’ sounds th’ sounds Summat Summat Norse words: beck, lake (laik) Norse words: beck, lake (laik)

ScotlandScotland

continuum: continuum: Standard English – Scottish English – Standard English – Scottish English –

Scots – [Gaelic] Scots – [Gaelic] strong regional differences strong regional differences

Scottish English, ScotsScottish English, Scots

‘‘r’ sound („rhotic”) (laird, beard, bird) r’ sound („rhotic”) (laird, beard, bird)

Vowel length rule Vowel length rule

Rise vs rice, brewed vs brood, Rise vs rice, brewed vs brood,

Do, poor, use – boot, tool Do, poor, use – boot, tool

Voiceless velar fricative Voiceless velar fricative χχ (loch) (loch)

Where, while Where, while

Scots vocabulary Scots vocabulary

Gaelic: clarsach, loch, pibroch, cairn, Gaelic: clarsach, loch, pibroch, cairn, clachan, capercailzie, sloganclachan, capercailzie, slogan

ceilidh, slainte, glaikit ceilidh, slainte, glaikit Old E: bairn, wee, bide, dicht, heuch, Old E: bairn, wee, bide, dicht, heuch,

glaikitglaikit Norse: ain, aye, blether, kirk, lass, Norse: ain, aye, blether, kirk, lass,

lowp, maun lowp, maun Dutch: pinkie, callan, coft Dutch: pinkie, callan, coft

Literary Scots (Lallans Literary Scots (Lallans Scots)Scots)

Debated statusDebated status no Bible translation no Bible translation Robert Burns (18th cent.)Robert Burns (18th cent.) Scottish Renaissance (1920s, 30s) Scottish Renaissance (1920s, 30s) Literary Scots: more archaic Literary Scots: more archaic Hugh MacDiarmid: The Eemis Stane Hugh MacDiarmid: The Eemis Stane

Global EnglishesGlobal Englishes

India since 1947: 3-language formulaIndia since 1947: 3-language formula

Tristan da Cunha Tristan da Cunha

South Africa South Africa

Singlish (Singaporean) Singlish (Singaporean)

Global EnglishGlobal English

English enrichedEnglish enriched

Hindi loanwords: bungalow, pundit, Hindi loanwords: bungalow, pundit, pukka, juggernaut, jungle, pukka, juggernaut, jungle,

the Hobson-Jobson (dictionary, 1886)the Hobson-Jobson (dictionary, 1886)

Afrikaans: Afrikaans:

trek, spoor, veldttrek, spoor, veldt

Creole EnglishesCreole Englishes

Jamaica and West IndiesJamaica and West Indies: : Continuum: Jamaican English – Jam. Continuum: Jamaican English – Jam.

Patois/ Creole Patois/ Creole

„„Di kuk di tel mi mi faamin, bot it nat Di kuk di tel mi mi faamin, bot it nat so.” so.”

(the cook told me I was shamming (the cook told me I was shamming sick, but it was not so)sick, but it was not so)

NO RIGHT TURN NO RIGHT TURN NO TON RAIT NO TON RAIT SCHOOL ZONE BEGINS SCHOOL ZONE BEGINS SKUUL ZUON SKUUL ZUON

BIGINBIGIN NO ENTRY NO ENTRY NO ENTA NO ENTA KEEP LEFT KEEP LEFT KIP LEF KIP LEF NO PARKING BETWEEN THESE SIGNS NO PARKING BETWEEN THESE SIGNS

NO PAAK BITWIIN DEM SAIN YA NO PAAK BITWIIN DEM SAIN YA NO OVERTAKING OR PASSING NO OVERTAKING OR PASSING NO NO

OUVATEK NAAR PAASOUVATEK NAAR PAAS

Creole and pidginCreole and pidgin

West AfricaWest Africa: Krio (Sierra Leone) : Krio (Sierra Leone)

Pidgin Englishes Pidgin Englishes

(eg. Tok Pisin [talk pidgin] in New (eg. Tok Pisin [talk pidgin] in New Guinea)Guinea)

Pidgin: contact language, language of Pidgin: contact language, language of trade trade

Small and specified vocabulary, Small and specified vocabulary, reduced grammar reduced grammar

Global English back in Global English back in BritainBritain

Nation Language Nation Language (Kamau Braitwaite): the work of (Kamau Braitwaite): the work of

artists from the Caribbean and artists from the Caribbean and African diaspora African diaspora

Preferred to ‘dialect’ Preferred to ‘dialect’ Dub poetry Dub poetry Linton Kwesi Johnson Linton Kwesi Johnson