english language terminology - advanced features
DESCRIPTION
This presentation is a development from basic word classes (http://www.slideshare.net/keepitsurreal/english-language-terminology-word-lasses) and explores the following: similes and metaphors, types of listing, idioms, collocations, oxymorons, levels of formality, prosody, onomatopoeia, alliteration, rhyme, assonance, cohesion, reference, identification, ellipsis, conjunction, repetition, and graphology / layout. The simple explanations will clarify any misunderstandings, with the help of clear bullet points, concise definitions, and examples. The presentation is perfect for English Language A Level at both AS and A2.TRANSCRIPT
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Similes and metaphors• Similes are comparisons that involve the use of
like or asFor example:
bold as brass swim like a fish
• Metaphors describe the person, object, situation etc. as if it were another thing
For example:A hail of criticism rained down on their heads
• If a metaphor is sustained over a considerable portion of the text it is called an extended metaphor
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Asyndetic listing• Listing which does not involve the use of
conjunctionsFor example: he dropped his pencil case and everything fell out, pens, pencils, paper, rulers
• Listing which involves the use of conjunctions
For example: she missed the bus and the next bus and the next bus after that
Syndetic listing
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Idioms • An idiom is an expression whose
meaning cannot be understood from the meanings of the individual words that make up the expression
For example: face the music, put a sock in it
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Collocations • Groups (usually pairs) of words that
are commonly found alongside each other
For example:Spick and spanLong dayTerraced houseA dark and stormy night
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Oxymoron • An oxymoron is an expression in
which words of contradictory or opposite meaning have been collocated e.g. bitter sweet
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Levels of formality• Informal language is language that is relaxed,
familiar and conversational• Formal language has a more serious, distant and
impersonal tone• The vocabulary is a key hint about the level of
formality, as well as grammar (elaborately constructed sentences suggest a more formal tone)
Questions to ask when discussing formality: Where exactly is the formality/ informality evident? Is the same level of formality present throughout the
text? Why has this level of formality been chosen and what
effect does it have?
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Prosody …is non-verbal aspects of speech such as tone, intonation and stress
…occurs when the sound of a word echoes its meaning: splash, buzz, thump
Onomatopoeia
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Alliteration …is when two or more words begin with the same letter/ sound: crisp, crunchy cornflakes
…occurs when words have similar endings
Rhyme
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Assonance …is the repetition of vowel soundsFor example, “She sells seashells by the seashore” contains the repetition of short E and long E sounds So is the old slogan for Hoover vacuum cleaners: “It beats as it sweeps as it cleans.”
• There is no actual rhyme there, in the English sense, but there is the repetition of vowel sounds.
• If the vowel sounds clash with each other, producing a discordant effect, this is known as dissonance
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Cohesion
The techniques and devices used to connect different parts of a text with each
other
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Grammatical cohesion
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Reference • Reference often involves the use of third
person pronouns (he, she, it, they)For example:
My grandfather was an Irishman. He was born in Dublin
He is cohesive because it refers back to grandfather
• When a word refers back to something that has already been mentioned it is called an anaphoric reference
• References forward are known as cataphoric references
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Identification • This is the use of determiners such as
the, this or that to indicate that a noun has previously been mentioned
• When a noun is first used, it is often preceded by the indefinite article but later references will use the:A ship appeared on the horizon. When
Laura arrived later I pointed the ship out to her
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Ellipsis • This is where words are omitted
from a sentence• This becomes a cohesive device if an
earlier part of the text enables us to supply the missing elements:
Beer cans littered the floor, the television had been kicked in and
graffiti covered the walls. A bit of a mess.
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Conjunction • This refers to the use of conjunctions
and conjunctive adverbs as cohesive devices
• The words are also known as connectives and they link together parts of a text and indicate the relationship between them
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Lexical cohesion
This is cohesion achieved through word meanings rather than grammatical
structure
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Repetition • This has a cohesive effect because it forms
a link between different sentences• Sometimes, however, the word itself is not
repeated; a synonym is used
• This refers to the tendency for words to occur together
• This is cohesive because it involves the use of words that, because of their meaning, are already linked in the reader’s mind
Collocation
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Graphology This is the text’s visual
aspects
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Layout and overall presentation
• Is there a lot of dense text, or is the text broken up – if so, how? Are parts of the text separated from the rest by the use of devices such as boxed sections and speech bubbles? Is there a reason for this?
• Which part of the text immediately catches the eye? Does the design encourage you to read particular features first?
• Is there any use of juxtaposition? This means placing words, ideas and pieces of information next to each other: stories that are linked or contrast may be juxtaposed
• Does the text adopt the layout conventions of the genre? Or another genre – e.g. an advert could take the form of a recipe, letter etc.
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Typeface • The size of the words and individual letters can be
important: e.g. large lettering can draw attention to something
• The use of upper and lower case letters: upper case can be used to add emphasis or reflect meaning in some way, whereas sometimes lower case letters are used to appear stylish and unconventional
• Use of bold, italic, underlining etc. to highlight parts of a text
• The actual font used and the connotations of it, for example The Daily Telegraph has a conservative, traditional look whereas The Sun looks bolder and brashier
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Illustrations • Illustrations can take the form of
photographs, cartoons, drawings etc.• Study the relationship between the
illustrations and the text• Is there a contrast or do they add
impact to the points made in the text?