english grammar - spoken english institute - lucknow
TRANSCRIPT
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English Grammar 1
Confidence, Fluency & Personality
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English Grammar 2
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INTRODUCTION TO CDI
The Career Development Institute was established to achieve the following objectives:
Youmight have a professional degree ,you might be a good student you might be verygood in the subject knowledge but if you lack communication you will not be able to
communicate your knowledge to the other person henceforth losing out on the future
prospects even if you get through it you would not get the desired package.
Recognizing the importance of English Language Fluency is the success of every career,CDI has introduced a range of programs to enhance English communication skills for
Individuals. Whether you wish to start learning English as a beginner or whether you are a
student, Executive, House wife, we have the right learning package for you, based on your
level.
CDI teaches English in a very easy way making it as a part of your daily life. The instituteemphasize in teaching British English because it is the most acceptable language over the
world with the use of correct grammar and neutral accent.
CDI offers programs catering to various levels of learners from the basics to the advanceslevel.
Other career Options - In todays work culture every carrier option would require anindividual to be good in communication as well as in interpersonal skills no matter how
qualified you are in the respected subject of interest.
Various Job Fields- Information Technology, Management, Retail Industry, Mass
Communication, Bioinformatics, Biotechnology, Fashion design, Allied health, Telecom,
Hospitality, Banking and Commerce, Army, Infrastructure, Sales and Marketing, Aviation,
Finance, Legal, Manufacturing and Engineering, Acting and Sports.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic Name Page NoTopic No
1 The Sentence 3 11
2 Noun 12 18
3 Adjective 19 30
4 Articles 31 35
5 Adverb 36 - 41
6 Case 42 44
7 Clauses 44 49
8 Conjunction 50 51
9 Determiners 52 52
10 Gerunds and Infinitives 53 56
11 Preposition 57
62
12 Pronouns 63 65
13 Direct and Indirect Speech 66 69
14 Pluralisation Guide 70 71
15 Punctuation Guide 72 74
16 Asking Questions 75 80
17 Spelling Guide 81
82
18 Prefixes and Suffixes 83 86
19 Tenses 87 98
20 Verb 99 113
21 Grammar Chants 101 - 102
22 1000 Most Common Phrases 103 111
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CHAPTER 1 - THE SENTENCE
Lets take two Examples
Sentence No 1 Ram is a Good Boy.
Sentence No 2 Boy is good Ram.
Now can you tell which sentence is correct Sentence 1
or Sentence 2?
The answer is Sentence 1 because the group of wordsin Sentence 1 in making sense (you can understand)
So a group of words like this, which makes complete
sense (you can understand), is called a Sentence.
A sentence is a group of words which starts with a
capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question
mark (?) or exclamation mark (!). A sentence contains
or implies a predicate and a subject.
KIND OF SENTENCES- Sentences are of 4 kinds
Assertive or Declarative Sentence Those which
make statements or assertions; as,E.g.: Humpty
Dumpty sat on a wall.
Interrogative Sentences Those which ask questions;as, E.g. Where do you live?
Imperative Sentences A sentence that expresses a
command or an entreaty. E.g. - Be Quite, Stand Up.
Exclamatory Sentence - A sentence that expresses
strong feeling. E.g. how cold the night is!
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
When we make a sentence
- We name some person or thing and- Say something about that person or thing
In other words, we must have a subject to speak about
and we must say orpredicate something about that
subject.
Hence every sentence has 2 parts
SentenceLucknow is a Beautiful city.
SUBJECT PREDICATE
PARTS OF SPEECH
Lets take an example
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Red
Green
Yellow
Blue
PenViolet
Purple
Apple
Mango
Banana
Orange
SpinachGrapes
Guava
January
April
July
September
DecemberMonday
June
Assertive or
Declarative
Sentence - They
make statements
Imperative
Sentences -
Expresses a
command
Interrogative
Sentences -
Ask Questions
Exclamatory
Sentence -
Expresses strong
Feeling
The part which namesa person or thing
Subject
The part which tellssomething about thesubject
Predicate
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Now can you tell which is the odd word in these
groups?
Group 1 Colors - Pen
Group 2- Fruits - Spinach
Group 3 - Months - Monday
By this example we can observe that everything has its
own category and if something comes in between we
come to know about it.
Similarly English Grammar has 8 categories of
speeches which are also called as Parts of Speech. Lets
learn them.
There are 8 parts of Speech -
1. Noun2. Verb3. Pronoun4. Adjective5. Adverb6. Conjunction7. Interjection8. Articles
Sentences contain clauses.
Simple sentences have one clause.
Compound sentences and complex sentences have two
or more clauses.
Sentences can contain subjects and objects.
The subject in a sentence is generally the person orthing carrying out an action. The object in a sentence is
involved in an action but does not carry it out, the
object comes after the verb.
For example:
The boy climbed a tree.
If you want to say more about the subject (the boy) or
the object (the tree), you can add an adjective.
For example:
The young boy climbed a tall tree.
If you want to say more about how he climbed the tree
you can use an adverb.
For example:
The young boy quickly climbed a tall tree.
The sentence becomes more interesting as it gives the
reader or listener more information.
There are more things you can add to enrich your
sentence.
Parts of a sentenceDescription
Adjective Describes things or people.
Adverb Alters the meaning of the verb slightly
Articlea, an - indefinite articles
the - definite articles
Conjunction Joins words or sentences together
InterjectionA short word showing emotion or
feeling
Noun Names things
Preposition Relates one thing to another
Pronounused instead of a noun to avoid
repetition
Proper noun
(subject)
The actual names of people or places
etc.
Verb Action or doing word
For example:
WHAT MAKES A COMPLETE SENTENCE?
If it helps you, think about a sentence as if it were askeleton, the skeleton contains various bones and these
bones are put together to form different parts of the
body. So are sentences formed by words, the words
http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/clausetext.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Simplehttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Compoundhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Complexhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Subjectshttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Objecthttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Objecthttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Subjectshttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Complexhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Compoundhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Simplehttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/clausetext.htm -
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are the bones and they are put together in different
ways to form sentences.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence contains a single subject and
predicate. It describes only one thing, idea or question,
and has only one verb - it contains only an
independent (main) clause.
Any independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
It has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought.
For example:
Jill reads.Even the addition of adjectives, adverbs, and
prepositional phrases to a simple sentence does not
change it into a complex sentence.
For example:
The brown dog with the red collar always barksloudly.
Even if you join several nouns with a conjunction, or
several verbs with a conjunction, it remains a simple
sentence.
For example:
The dog barked and growled loudly.COMPOUND SENTENCES
Compound sentences are made up of two or more
simple sentences combined using a conjunction such
as and, oror but. They are made up of more than one
independent clause joined together with a co-
ordinating conjunction.
For example:
"The sun was setting in the west and the moon was
just rising."
Each clause can stand alone as a sentence.
For example:
"The sun was setting in the west. The moon was just
rising."
Every clause is like a sentence with a subject and a
verb. A coordinating conjunction goes in the middle of
the sentence, it is the word that joins the two clauses
together, the most common are (and, or, but)
For example:
I walked to the shops, butmy husband drove. I might watch the film, orI might visit my friends. My friend enjoyed the film, butshe didn't like the
actor.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
Complex sentences describe more than one thing or
idea and have more than one verb in them. They are
made up of more than one clause, an independent
clause (that can stand by itself) and a dependent
(subordinate) clause (which cannot stand by itself).
For example:
"My mother likes dogs that don't bark."
Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or
adjectival.
THE ANATOMY OF A SENTENCE
THE VERB
The verb is the fundamental part of the sentence. The
rest of the sentence, with the exception of the subject,
depends very much on the verb. It is important to
have a good knowledge of the forms used after each
verb (verb patterns), for example: to tell [someone] TO
DO [something]
Here we can see that the verb to tell is followed
immediately by a person (the indirect object, explained
later), an infinitive with 'to', and, possibly, an object for
the verb you substitute for DO.
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Verbs also show a state of being. Such verbs, called BE
VERBS or LINKING VERBS, include words such as:
am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being, became, seem,
appear, and sometimes verbs of the senses like tastes,
feels, looks, hears, and smells.
For example:
"Beer and wine are my favourite drinks." The verb"are" is a linking (be) verb.
Fortunately, there are only a limited number of
different verb patterns. Verbs can descibe the action
(something the subject actually does) or state
(something that is true of the subject) of the subject.
For example:
ACTION: I play football twice a week. STATE: I've got a car.
Some verbs can represent both actions and states,
depending on the context.
For example work:
ACTION: David's workingin the bank. STATE: David works in a bank.
FINDING THE VERB
When you analyze a sentence, first identify the verb.
The verb names and asserts the action or state of the
sentence.
For example:
"Working at the computer all day made David'shead ache."
The main verb of the sentence is "made", not working.
Verbs identify our activity or state.
For example:
eat, sleep, run, jump, study, think, digest, shout,walk ....
THE SUBJECT
The subject is the person or thing the sentence is
'about'. Often (but not always) it will be the first part
of the sentence. The subject will usually be a noun
phrase (a noun and the words, such as adjectives, that
modify it) followed by a verb.
FINDING THE SUBJECT
Once you determine the verb, ask a wh...? Question of
the verb. This will locate the subject(s).
For example:
David works hard.o Who "works hard"?=David does=the
subject.
Beer and wine are my favorite drinks.o What "are my favorite drinks"? Beer and
wine are=the subjects.
The subject(s) of a sentence will answer the questions,
"who or what."
THE PREDICATE
Once you have identified the subject, the remainder of
the sentence tells us what the subject does or did. This
part of the sentence is the predicate of the sentence.
The predicate always includes the verb and the words
which come after the verb. For example:
Michael Schumaker drove the race car.o "Michael Schumaker" is the subject; "drove
the race car" is the predicate.
MORE ADVANCED TERMINOLOGY
THE OBJECT
Some verbs have an object (always a noun or
pronoun). The object is the person or thing affected by
the action described in the verb.
Objects come in two types, direct and indirect.
The direct object refers to a person or thing affected by
the action of the verb.
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For example:
"He opened the door. "- here the door is the directobject as it is the thing being affected by the verb to
open.
The indirect object refers to a person or thing who
receives the direct object.
For example:
I gave him the book." - Here him (he)is the indirectobject as he is the beneficiary of the action.
TRANSITIVE / INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Verbs which don't have an object are called
intransitive. Some verbs can only be intransitive
(disagree). In addition they cannot be used in the
Passive Voice e.g. smile, fall, come, go.
For example:
David disagreed. - intransitive.
Verbs that have an object are called transitive verbs
e.g. eat, drive, give.
For example:
David gave her a present.Some verbs can be transitive or intransitive e.g. sing
For example:
Xavier Nadu sings. - intransitive. Xavier Nadu sings pop songs. - transitive.
ADVERBIALS
An 'adverbial' or 'adverbial phrase' is a word or
expression in the sentence that does the same job as an
adverb; that is, it tells you something about how the
action in the verb was done.
For example:
I sometimes have trouble with adverbs. He spoke very quietly. I've read that book three times. She'sgone to the bank.
The first tells us the frequency of the action
(sometimes), the second how he carried out the action
(quietly), and the third how many times the action has
happened (three).
The fourth is a little different, as in this case the
adverbial (gone to the bank) is more or less demanded
by the verb (has).
To remember the form of such verbs use your
notebooks to write down the different forms.
For example:
to go [somewhere] to put [something][somewhere]
This information is also useful when deciding the
order of adverbials in a sentence. Unlike the previous
parts of the sentence, a sentence can contain an
indefinite number of adverbials, although in practice
it's a good idea to keep them few in number.
COMPLEMENT
A complement is used with verbs like be, seem, look
etc. Complements give more information about the
subject or, in some structures, about the object.
There are various definitions of 'complement', which
range from the very general (anything in the predicate
except the verb, including the direct object and
adverbs) to the much more restrictive one used here.
A complement is the part of the sentence that gives
you more information about the subject (a subject
complement) or the object (an object complement) of
the sentence.
The complement to be used, if any, is dependent onthe verb used in the sentence. Subject complements
normally follow certain verbs.
For example:
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He is Spanish. She became an engineer. That man looks like John.
Object complements follow the direct object of the
verb-
For example.
They painted the house red. She called him an idiot! I saw her standing there.
The complement often consists of an adjective or noun
phrase, but can also be a participle phrase, as in the
last example. It is often not very clear whether a
phrase is a complement or an adverbial.
SHORT FORMS IN ENGLISH
THE LONG AND THE SHORT OF IT
Verb conjugation and contraction - in other words;
"The short form".
In English we use the short form a lot. We say thingslike: I'm / you're / didn't etc. instead of I am / you are /
did not etc.
We also use these short forms in informal written
English. When we write in the short form, we use an
apostrophe (') for the missing letter(s).
Forms of the auxiliary verbs to be, to do and to have:-
To be - Simple Present Form
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long form Short form Long form Short form
I am I'm I am not I'm not
He is He's He is not He isn't orHe's not
She is She's She is not She isn't orShe's not
It is It's It is not It isn't orIt's not
You are You're You are notYou aren't orYou're
not
We are We're We are not We aren't orWe're not
They are They're They are not They're not
To be - Simple Past Form
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long form Short form Long form Short form
I was
---
I was not I wasn't
He was He was not He wasn't
She was She was not She wasn't
It was It was not It wasn't
You were You were not You weren't
We were We were not We weren't
They were They were not They weren't
To do - Simple Present Form
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long form Short form Long form Short form
I do
---
I do not I don't
He does He does not He doesn't
She does She does not She doesn't
It does It does not It doesn't
You do You do not You don't
We do We do not We don't
They do They do not They don't
To do - Simple Past Form
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Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it /you / we / they
did
---I / he / she / it /you / we / they
did not
I / he / she / it /you / we / they
didn't
To have - Simple Present Form
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long
form
Short form Long form Short form
I have I've I have not I haven't orI've not
He has He's He has not He hasn't orHe's not
She has She's She has not She hasn't orShe's not
It has It's It has not It hasn't orIt's not
You have You'veYou have
not
You haven't orYou've
not
We have We've We have notWe haven't orWe've
not
They
haveThey've
They have
not
They haven't orThey've
not
To have - Simple Past Form
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
had
I'd
he'd
she'd
it'd
you'dwe'd
they'd
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
had not
I hadn't orI'd
not
he hadn't or
he'd not
she hadn't or
she'd notit hadn't or
it'd not
you hadn't or
you'd not
we hadn't or
we'd not
they hadn't or
they'd not
The long and short forms of the modal verbs can, could,
shall, should, must, will and would
CAN
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
can
---I / he / she/ it / you
/ we / they cannot
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
can't
COULD
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
could
---
I / he / she/ it / you
/ we / they could
not
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
couldn't
MUST
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
must
---
I / he / she/ it /
you / we / they
must not
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
mustn't
SHALL
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Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it /you / we / they
shall
---I / he / she/ it / you/ we / they shall
not
I / he / she / it /you / we / they
shan't
SHOULD
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long form
Short
form Long form Short form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
should
---I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
should not
I / he / she / it
/ you / we /
they shouldn't
WILL
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
will
I'll
He'll
She'll
It'll
You'll
We'll
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
will not
I won't orI'll
not
He won't or
He'll not
She won't or
She'll not
It won't orIt'll
They'll not
You won't or
You'll not
We won't or
We'll not
They won't or
They'll not
WOULD
Positive Statement Negative Statement
Long formShort
formLong form Short form
I / he / she / it / you /
we / they would
I'd
He'd
She'd
It'd*
You'd
We'd
They'd
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they
would not
I wouldn't
orI'd not
He wouldn't
orHe'd not
She
wouldn't or
She'd not
It wouldn't
orIt'd not*
You
wouldn't or
You'd not
We wouldn't
orWe'd not
They
wouldn't or
They'd not
* Not "good" English, but you will hear occasionally.
CHAPTER 2 - NOUN
Is a name of the person, place or things. Here are some
examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico,
triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, John F.
Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag,
teacher, class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun
because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun
because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun
because it is the name of a thing.
Lets take some examples
Ram was a great king.
Allahabad is on the banks of river Ganga.
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The sunshines bright.
Note Things includes
All objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell.
Something that we can think of but cannot perceive by
senses.
Types of Nouns There are majorly divided into 2
groups -
Proper Noun Common Noun
Definition It is the
name of person or place.
It always starts with a
capital letter.
Some examples of proper
nouns are: Mexico, John
F. Kennedy, Atlantic
Ocean, February,
Monday, New York City,
Susan, Maple Street,
Burger King.
1. Sita is properNoun
2. Hari is a properNoun
3. Kolkatta is aproper noun
4. India is propernoun
Definition It is the
name given in common to
every person or thing of
the same class or kind.
Some examples of proper
nouns are: class, girl, boy,
city, country.
1. Girl is a commonnoun
2. Boy is a commonnoun
3. City is a commonnoun
4. Country is acommon noun
Some other Types of Nouns
Collecti
ve
Nouns
Abstract
Nouns
Countable
Nouns
Uncount
able
Nouns
Definiti
on
isthe
name of
the
Definition is
the name ofquality, action,
state.
E.g.
Definition
are the namesof objects,
People, etc.
That we can
Definiti
on
arethe
names of
the
number
(or
Collecti
on) of
personsor
things
taken
together
and
spoken
as one
E.g.
Crowd,
team,
heard,
army,
Fleet,
jury
,family,
nation,
Commit
tee.
A Fleet
Collecti
on of
ships or
vessels.
An
army
a
collectio
n of
soldiers
Quality
Goodness,
Kindness,whit
eness,
Hardness,brightness,
Honesty,
Wisdom,
Bravery.
Action
Laughter,
Theft,
movement,
Judgment,hatred.
State
childhood,
Boyhood,
youth, slavery,
Sleep,sickness,
death,
Poverty.
The names of
Arts and
Sciences are
also abstract
nouns (E.g.
Grammer,Mus
ic,
Chemistry
count.
E.g.
Book,Pen,Apple,boy,
Sister, doctor,
horse.
Countable
nouns have
Plural form
but
uncountable
nouns do not.
E.g. we say
Books but
we cannot say
milks
things
which
we
cannot
count.
E.g.
Milk, oil,
sugar,
gold,
honesty.
The Noun Gender -
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Masculine
Gender
Feminine
Gender
Comm
on
Gende
r
Neuter
Gender
Def. The
noun that
denotes
male.
E.g.
Boy,Lion,H
ero
Def.The noun
that denotes a
female.
E.g.
Girl,Lioness,Her
oine
Def.
The
noun
that
denote
s either
a male
or a
female.
E.g.
Parent,
Child,
Servant
Def. the
noun that
denotes
neither
male nor
female.
E.g.
Book,Pen,T
ree
The Noun Number
Singular Noun Plural Noun
Def. The noun that
denotes one person or
thing.
E.g. Boy,Girl,Cow
Def. The noun that
denotes more than one
person or thing.
E.g. Boys, Girls, Cows.
NOUNS
A noun is the word that refers to a person, thing or
abstract idea. A noun can tell you who or what.
There are several different types of noun:-
There are common nouns such as dog, car, chair etc. Nouns that refer to things which can be counted
(can be singular or plural) are countable nouns. Nouns that refer to some groups of countable
nouns, substances, feelings and types of activity
(can only be singular) are uncountable nouns.
Nouns that refer to a group of people or things arecollective nouns.
Nouns that refer to people, organisations or placesare proper nouns, only proper nouns are
capitalized.
Nouns that are made up of two or more words arecalled compound nouns.
Nouns that are formed from a verb by adding -ingare called gerunds
ABSTRACT NOUNS
An abstract noun is a noun that you cannot sense; it is
the name we give to an emotion, ideal or idea. They
have no physical existence, you can't see, hear, touch,
smell or taste them. The opposite of an abstract noun is
a concrete noun.
For example:-
Justice; an idea, bravery and happiness are all abstract
nouns.
Here is an a-z list of some common abstract nouns:-
adoratio
nartistry
belief bravery
calm charitychildhoo
dcomfort
compassi
on
dexterity
ego
failure faith feelingsfriends
hip
happines
shate honesty hope
ideaimpressi
on
infatuati
on
joy
http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncommon.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/noununcount.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/noununcount.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncollective.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nounproper.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncompound.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/noungerund.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nounconcrete.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nounconcrete.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/noungerund.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncompound.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nounproper.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncollective.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/noununcount.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/noununcount.htmhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncommon.htm -
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law liberty love loyalty
maturity memory
omen
peace prideprincipl
epower
redempti
onromance
sadnesssensitivi
tyskill sleep success
sympat
hy
talent thrill truth
wit
COLLECTIVE NOUNS / GROUP NOUNS
A collective noun is a noun that is singular in form but
refers to a group of people or things.
Sometimes they refer to a group of specific things:-
For example:-
Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the
collective nounfurniture.
Plates, saucers, cups and bowls are grouped under the
collective noun crockery.
These collective nouns are often uncountable.
Sometimes they are more general:-
For example:-
Groups of people - army, audience, band, choir, class,
committee, crew, family, gang, jury, orchestra, police,
staff, team, trio
Groups of animals - colony, flock, herd, pack, pod,school, swarm
Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump, pair, set,
stack
When such a group is considered as a single unit, the
collective noun is used with a singular verb and
singular pronouns.
For example - The committee has reached its decision.
But when the focus is on the individual members of
the group, British English uses a plural verb and plural
pronouns.
For example - "The committee have been arguing all
morning." This is the same as saying "The people in thecommittee have been ...."
A determiner in front of a singular collective noun is
always singular: this committee, never these committee
(but of course when the collective noun is pluralized, it
takes a plural determiner: these committees).
COMMON NOUNS
A common noun is a word that names people, places,things, or ideas. They are not the names of a single
person, place or thing.
A common noun begins with a lowercase letter unless
it is at the beginning of a sentence.
For example:-
People:-
man, girl, boy, mother, father, child, person, teacher,
student
Animals:-
cat, dog, fish, ant, snake
Things:-
book, table, chair, phone
Places:-
school, city, building, shop
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Ideas:-
love, hate, idea, pride
COMPOUND NOUNS
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or
more words. Most compound nouns in English are
formed by nouns modified by other nouns or
adjectives.
For example:
The words tooth andpaste are each nouns in their
own right, but if you join them together they form a
new word - toothpaste.
The word black is an adjective and board is a noun,
but if you join them together they form a new word -
blackboard.
In both these example the first word modifies or
describes the second word, telling us what kind of
object or person it is, or what its purpose is. And the
second part identifies the object or person in question.
Compound nouns can also be formed using the
following combinations of words:-
Noun + Noun toothpaste
Adjective + Noun monthly ticket
Verb + Noun swimming pool
Preposition + Noun underground
Noun + Verb haircut
Noun + Preposition hanger on
Adjective + Verb dry-cleaning
Preposition + Verb output
The two parts may be written in a number of ways:-
1. Sometimes the two words are joined together.
Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room =bedroom
2. Sometimes they are joined using a hyphen.
Example: check-in
3. Sometimes they appear as two separate words.
Example:full moon
A good dictionary will tell you how you should write
each compound noun.
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is the name of something or someone
that we experience through our senses, sight, hearing,
smell, touch or taste. Most nouns are concrete nouns.
The opposite of a concrete noun is an abstract noun.
For example:-
Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all
concrete nouns.
Countable / Uncountable Nouns
A noun can be countable or uncountable. Countable
nouns can be "counted", they have a singular and
plural form .
For example:
A book, two books, three books ..... An apple, two apples, three apples ....
Uncountable nouns (also called mass nouns or
noncount nouns) cannot be counted, they are not
separate objects. This means you cannot make them
plural by adding -s, because they only have a singular
form. It also means that they do not take a/an or a
number in front of them.
For example:
Water Work Information Coffee Sand
Countable
(use a/an or a number in
front of countable nouns)
Uncountable
(there is no a/an or number
with uncountable nouns)
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An Apple / 1 Apple Rice
I eat an apple every day.eat rice every day. (not I eat a
rice every day.)
Add (s) to make a countablenoun plural
There is no plural form foran uncountable noun
apples rice
I eat an apple every day.
pples are good for you.
eat rice every day. Rice is good
or you.
A computer= Computers are
un.
To make uncountable nouns
countable add a counting
word, such as a unit of
measurement, or the general
word piece. We use the form
"a ....... of ......."
An elephant=Elephants are
large.Rice=a grain of rice
Water=a glass of water
Rain=a drop of rain
Music=a piece of music
You can use some and any
with countable nouns.
Some dogs can be dangerous.
I don't use any computers at
work.
You can use some and any
with uncountable nouns.
usually drink some wine with
my meal.
don't usually drink any water
with my wine.
You only use many and few
with plural countable nouns.
So many elephants have been
hunted that they are an
endangered species.
There are few elephants in
England.
You only use much and little
with uncountable nouns.don't usually drink much
coffee.
ittle wine is undrinkable
though.
You can use a lot of and no
with plural countable nouns.
No computers were bought last
week.
A lot of computers were reportedbroken the week before.
You can use a lot of and no
with uncountable nouns.
lot of wine is drunk in France.
o wine is drunk in Iran.
Making uncountable nouns countable
You can make most uncountable noun countable by
putting a countable expression in front of the noun.
For example:-
A piece of information. 2 glasses of water. 10 litres of coffee. Three grains of sand. A pane of glass.
Sources of confusion with countable and uncountable nouns
The notion of countable and uncountable can beconfusing.
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable
depending on their meaning. Usually a noun is
uncountable when used in a general, abstract meaning
(when you don't think of it as a separate object) and
countable when used in a particular meaning (when
you can think of it as a separate object).
For example:-
glass - A glass of water. (Countable) | A window
made of glass. (Uncountable)
Some supposedly uncountable nouns can behave like
countable nouns if we think of them as being in
containers, or one of several types.
This is because 'containers' and 'types' can be counted.
Believe it or not each of these sentences is correct:-
Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two coffees a
day.
(Here coffees refers to the number of cups of coffee)
You could write; "Doctors recommend limiting
consumption to two cups of coffee a day."
The coffees I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian.
(Here coffees refers to different types of coffee)
You could write; "The types of coffee I prefer are Arabica
and Brazilian."
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!Note - In good monolingual dictionaries, uncountable
nouns are identified by [U] and countable nouns by
[C].
GERUND NOUNS
A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun
formed from a verb by adding -ing. It can follow a
preposition, adjective and most often another verb.
For example:
I enjoy walking.
PREDICATE NOUNS
A predicate noun follows a form of the verb "to be".
He is an idiot. (Here idiot is a predicate noun because
it follows is; a form of the verb "be".)
A predicate noun renames the subject of a sentence.
Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister. (Margaret
Thatcher is the subject and Prime Minister is thepredicate noun - notice it follows 'was' the past tense
of 'to be'.)
PROPER NOUNS
Proper nouns (also called proper names) are the words
which name specific people, organisations or places.
They always start with a capital letter.
For example:-
Each part of a person's name is a proper noun:-
Lynne Hand - Elizabeth Helen Ruth Jones...
The names of companies, organisations or trade marks:-
Microsoft - Rolls Royce - the Round Table - WWW
Given or pet names of animals:-
Lassie Trigger Sam
The names of cities and countries and words derived from
those proper nouns:-
Paris - London - New York - England - English
Geographical and Celestial Names:-
the Red Sea - Alpha Centauri - Mars
Monuments, buildings, meeting rooms:-
The Taj Mahal - The Eiffel Tower - Room 222
Historical events, documents, laws, and periods:-
the Civil War - the Industrial Revolution - World War I
Months, days of the week, holidays:-
Monday - Christmas - December
Religions, deities, scriptures:-
God - Christ - Jehovah - Christianity - Judaism - Islam -
the Bible - the Koran - the Torah
Awards, vehicles, vehicle models and names, brand names:-
the Nobel Peace Prize - the Scout Movement - Ford
Focus - the Bismarck - Kleenex Hoover
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CHAPTER 3 - ADJECTIVE
Is often defined as a word which describes or gives
more information about a noun or
pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such
qualities as size, color, number, and kind.
In the sentence
The lazy dog sat on the mat, the word lazy is an
adjective which gives more information about the
noun dog.
We can add more adjectives to describe the dog as well
as in the sentence
The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug.
We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in
the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the
beautiful, expensive, new rug.
The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or
structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more
information about the dog and the rug.
As you can see in the example above, when more than
one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the
adjectives.
Lets take some more examples
He is a brave boy. (Boy is Noun and Adjective Brave
tells about boys personality)
There are twenty boys in this class. (Boys and class are
nouns here and twenty, this (Adjectives) because they
are adding information.
Sita is a cleverGirl. (Girl of what kind) clever shows
what kind of girl Sita is; or clever describes Sita
I dont like thatboy. (Which Boy?) that points outwhich boy is meant.
He gave mefive mangoes. (How many mangoes)
five shows how many mangoes he gave me.
There is a little time for preparation. (How much time)
little shows how much time there is for preparation.
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
Descript
iveAdjectiv
es
Or
Adjectiv
es of
Quality
Adjectives of
Quantit
y
Adjectives of
Number
s
Exclamatory
Adjectiv
es
Emphasizing
Adjective
s
Show the
kind or
quality ofa person
or thing
E.g.
(a) India
is a vast
country.
(b)
Harish
Chandra
was a
truthful
man.
(c) Kabir
Dar was
agreat
poet.
(d) The
brave
boy didnot leave
the
burning
deck.
Show
the
quantityof a
thing.
Some
adjective
s many
be used
as of
quantity
or
number,
accordin
g to
their
use.
E.g.
1.1
Show
how
manypersons
or things
are
meant, or,
in what
order a
person or
thing
stands.
E.g.
(a) There
are
seventeen
hundred
students
in our
college.
(b)Few
Indians
hate theirculture.
(c)How
many
players
Word
'what' is
sometimes used as
an
exclamato
ry
adjective.
For
example:
E.g.
1. Whata
boy you
are!
2. What
folly!
3. Whata
lucky girl
she is!
4. What
an idea!
5. Whatagame!
Are used
to
emphasizethe
statement
E.g.
1. I saw all
this with
my own
eyes.
2. This is
the very
man who
was
disturbing
the
meeting.
4. Mind
your own
business.
5. I am my
ownmaster.
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were
awarded
for their
best
performa
nce?
(d) No
teachers
were
present in
the
meeting.
(e) The
cat drank
up all the
milk in
the pot.
E.g. 1.1
S.No.Adjectives of
QuantityAdjectives of Number
1.The cat drank all the
milk.The boy sold all his books.
2. I have no difficulty. I have no pens.
3.The man did not eat
any bread.
Are there any mango trees in
the garden?
4.There is enough
sugar in the milk.
I have not enough plates in my
kitchen at present.
5.My grandfather lost
all his wealth.
All the books in the bookshelf
have gone out-dated.
COMPARISONS OF ADJECTIVES
Positive Comparative Superlative
Ramas mango
is sweet.
Def. The
adjective is in
its simple form.
It is used when
no comparison
is made.
Haris mango is
sweeterthan
Ramas.
Def.It denotes
the higher
degree of the
quality that the
positive and is
used when two
things are
Govinds
mango is
sweetestof all.
Def. It
denotes the
highest degree
of quality and is
used when
more than two
things are
compared.
E.g. This boy is
strongerthan
that.Which of these
two pens is the
better?
compared.
E.g. This boy
is the strongest
in the class
Note There is another way which we can compare
things. Instead of saying Ram is stronger than Babu
we can say Babu is less strong than Ram.
EXAMPLES OF FORMATION OF
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
By adding 'er' to form the Comparative and 'est' to
form the Superlative.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Great Greater Greatest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Kind Kinder Kindest
Young Younger Youngest
Short Shorter Shortest
Tall Taller Tallest
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
Deep Deeper Deepest
Old Older Oldest
Small Smaller Smallest
By adding 'r' to form the Comparative and 'st' to formthe Superlative when the Positive ends in 'e'.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Brave Braver Bravest
Fine Finer Finest
Noble Nobler Noblest
Wise Wiser Wisest
Able Abler Ablest
Large Larger Largest
By changing 'y' into 'i' before adding 'er' and 'est'
when the Positive ends in 'y' preceded by a consonant.
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Positive Comparative Superlative
Happy Happier Happiest
Healthy Healthier Healthiest
Early Earlier EarliestCostly Costlier Costliest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
When the positive is a word of one syllable and ends
in a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel, this
consonant is doubled before adding 'er' and 'est'.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Sad Sadder SaddestThin Thinner Thinnest
Fat Fatter Fattest
Hot Hotter Hottest
Big Bigger Biggest
Adjective of more than two syllables form the
Comparative and Superlative by putting 'more' and
'most' before the Positive.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Industrious more industrious most industrious
Careful more careful most careful
Courageous more courageous most courageous
Magnificent more magnificent most magnificent
Some adjectives take either 'er' and 'est' or 'more' and
'most'.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Polite Politer Politest
Polite more polite most polite
Common Commoner Commonest
Common more common most common
Gentle Gentler Gentlest
Gentle more gentle most gentle
Handsome Handsomer Handsomest
Handsome more handsome most handsomePleasant Pleasanter Pleasantest
Pleasant more pleasant most pleasant
Some adjectives are compared irregularly, that is, their
Comparative and Superlative are not formed from the
Positive.
Positive Comparative SuperlativeLittle Less (Lesser) Least
Much More Most
Many More Most
Fore Former Foremost, First
Fore Further Furthest
Late Later, Latter Latest, Last
FORMATION OF ADJEVCTIVES
Many Adjectives are formed from Nouns
Noun Adjective
Man Manly
Girl Girlish
Boy Boyish
Friend Friendly
Mother Motherly
Care Careful, Careless
Silk Silken
Gold Golden
Difficulty Difficult
Honesty Honest
Trouble Troublesome
Courage Courageous
Bravery Brave
Glory Glorious
Storm Stormy
Father FatherlyLaugh Laughable
Dirt Dirty
Craze Crazy
Cream Creamy
Many Adjectives are formed from Verbs
Verb Adjective
Sustain Sustainable
Think Thinking (intelligent)
Tickle Ticklish
Tire Tireless
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Talk Talkative
Cease Ceaseless
Move Moveable
Throw Throwaway
Work Workable
Watch Watchful
Understand Understandable
Forget Forgetful
Relate Related
Go Gait
Giggle Giggly
Arrogate Arrogant
Breathe Breathy
Breeze Breezy
Beautify BeautifulFantasize Fantastic
Many Adjectives are formed from Other
Adjectives
Adjective Adjective
Red Reddish
White Whitish
Tragic TragicalThree Threefold
Black Blackish
Sick Sickly
Whole Wholesome
Green Greenish
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives describe or give information about nouns
or pronouns.
For example:-
Thegrey dog barked. (The adjectivegrey describes the
noun "dog".)
The good news is that the form of an adjective does
not change. It does not matter if the noun being
modified is male or female, singular or plural, subject
or object.
Some adjectives give us factual information about the
noun - age, size colour etc (fact adjectives - can't be
argued with). Some adjectives show what somebody
thinks about something or somebody - nice, horrid,
beautiful etc (opinion adjectives - not everyone may
agree).
If you are asked questions with which, whose, what
kind, or how many, you need an adjective to be able to
answer.
There are different types of adjectives in the English
language:
Numeric: six, one hundred and one
Quantitative: more, all, some, half, more thanenough
Qualitative: colour, size, smell etc. Possessive: my, his, their, your Interrogative: which, whose, what Demonstrative: this, that, those, these
!Note - The articles a, an, and the and the possessives
my, our, your, and their are also adjectives.
OPINION
Adjectives can be used to give your opinion about
something.
good, pretty, right, wrong, funny, light, happy, sad,
full, soft, hard etc.
For example:
He was a sillyboy.
SIZE
Adjectives can be used to describe size.
Big, small, little, long, tall, short, same as, etc.
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For example:
"The big man." or "The big woman".
AGE
Adjectives can be used to describe age.
For example:
"He was an old man." or "She was an old woman."
SHAPE
Adjectives can be used to describe shape.
Round, circular, triangular, rectangular, square, oval,
etc.
For example:
"It was a square box." or "They were square boxes."
COLOUR
Adjectives can be used to describe color.
Blue, red, green, brown, yellow, black, white, etc.
For example:
"The blue bag." or "The blue bags".
ORIGIN
Adjectives can be used to describe origin.
For example:-
"It was a German flag." or "They were German flags."
MATERIAL
Adjectives can be used to describe material.
"It was a cotton cushion." or "They were cotton
cushions."
DISTANCE
Adjectives can be used to describe distance. l -- o -- n --
g / short
long, short, far, around, start, high, low, etc.
For example:
"She went for a long walk." or "She went for lots of long
walks."
TEMPERATURE
Adjectives can be used to describe temperature.
Cold, warm, hot, cool, etc.
For example:
"The day was hot." or "The days were hot."
TIME
Adjectives can be used to describe time.
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Late, early, bed, nap, dinner, lunch, day, morning,
night, etc.
For example:
"She had an early start."
PURPOSE
Adjectives can be used to describepurpose. (These
adjectives often end with "-ing".)
For example:
"She gave them a sleeping bag." or "She gave them
sleeping bags."
!Note - In each case the adjective stays the same,
whether it is describing a masculine, feminine,
singular or plural noun.
When using more than one adjective to modify a noun,
the adjectives may be separated by a conjunction (and)
or by commas (,).
For example:
"Her hair was long and blonde." or "She had long, blonde
hair."
More examples:
Adjective Pretty Serious Fast Quiet
Example She was apretty girl.
He was a
serious
boy.
It was afast car.
They were
quiet
children.
! Note - Adjectives that go immediately before the
noun are called attributive adjectives.
Adjectives can also be used after some verbs. They do
not describe the verb, adverbs do that. Adjectives after
a verb describe the subject of the verb (usually a noun
or pronoun). They are called predicative adjectives.
For example:
"David looks tired." The subject (in this case David) is being
described as tired not the verb to look.
There is also the adjective used to, which is explained
here.
ADJECTIVE ORDER
Adjectives can be used to describe lots of things, from
physical size, age, shape, colour, material, to more
abstract things like opinion, origin and purpose. We
can use adjectives together to give a detailed
description of something. Adjectives that express
opinions usually come before all others, but it can
sometimes depend on what exactly you want toemphasize.
For example:
"That nice, big, blue bag." (You like the bag.)
"That big, nice, blue bag." (You like the colour.)
When we group adjectives together there is a general
rule for the position of each type adjective, these are:-
Positi
on1st*
2nd
*3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
Opini
on
Siz
e
Ag
e
Shap
e
Colo
ur
Mater
ialOrigin
Purpo
se
NiceSm
all
Ol
d
Squar
e
Blac
kPlastic British
Racin
g
Ugly BigNe
w
Circu
larBlue
Cotto
n
Ameri
can
Runni
ng
This is just a guide as you wouldn't normally see so
many adjectives in one description.
For example:
"She had a big, ugly, old, baggy, blue, cotton, British,
knitting bag." Is grammatically correct but a bit too
long-winded.
* You might swap opinion and fact adjectives
depending on what you wish to emphasise:-
For example:
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"She had a long, ugly nose." emphasising the length of
her nose.
"He was a silly, little man." emphasising that the man
was silly.
COMPARATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVES
When we compare two things or people we look at
what makes them different from each other.
For example:
Tall / Short
The man on the left is taller than the man on the right.
The man on the right is shorter than the man on the
left.
Fast / Slow
A car is faster than a bicycle.
A bicycle is slower than a car.
Comparative adjectives are used to show what quality
one thing has more or less than the other. They
normally come before any other adjectives.
For example:
Big / Small
The red bag is bigger than the blue bag.
The blue bag is smaller than the red bag.
FORMING THE COMPARATIVE
Form RuleFor
example
Words of onesyllable ending in 'e'.
Add -r to theend of the word.
wide -
wider
Words of one
syllable, with one
vowel and one
consonant at the end.
Double the
consonant and
add -er to the
end of the word.
big -
bigger
Words of one
syllable, with more
than one vowel or
more than one
consonant at the end.
Add - er to theend of the word.
high -higher
Words of two
syllables, ending in
'y'.
Change 'y' to 'i',
and add -er to
the end of the
word.
happy -
happier
Words of two
syllables or more, not
ending in 'y'.
Place 'more'
before the
adjective.
beautiful -
more
beautiful
The following adjectives are exceptions to this rule:
'good' becomes 'better'
'bad' becomes 'worse'
'far' becomes 'farther' or 'further'
! Note - When comparing two things like this we put
than between the adjective and the thing being
compared.
For example:-
"Mount Everest is higherthan Mount Snowdon."
"Arguably, Rome is more beautiful than Paris.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Possessive adjectives are used to show ownership or
possession.
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8/9/2019 English Grammar - Spoken English Institute - Lucknow
25/25
English Grammar 25
Subject pronoun Possessive adjective
I my
you your
he his
she her
it its
we our
they their