england in 18 century

8/9/2019 England in 18 century

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/england-in-18-century 1/27

1

By Way of Introduction...

The first inhabitants of the island of Great Britain were Paleolithic hunters who

followed herds of wild animals. After the ice age, some farmers began to settle on the

island. For millennia, these people and many others who had migrated from the

mainland, developed complex social systems.

n !! A.". the #omans invaded southern region. n the year $% A.". created the

province of Britannia and between &% and '%% founded (ondon. At the beginning of the

) century, the #omans left the island. *oon after, invading Angles, *axons and +utes, of

Germanic origin, drove the elts to the west coast and sei-ed the south, where they

established Anglo*axon /ingdoms.

"uring the ) century, the inhabitants of reland and 0ales adopted hristianity. n the

seventh century, the power of #ome was imposed on the British church.

n the seventh and ninth centuries, the "anes invaded eastern 1ngland. n the eleventh

century, the 2ormans, led by 0illiam the on3ueror invaded the island and imposed

their hegemony. *uccessive Anglo2orman /ings held power through forms of

vassalage to the lords. 4nder the reign of +ohn (ac/land 5''$$'6'78, these barons

allied with the clergy managed to restrict the power of the monarchy in the 9agna arta

signed in '6':.

The onstitution laid the foundations of the British parliamentary system. Thereafter an

ongoing power struggle between the monarchy and the nobility, which was later ;oined

the bourgeoisie was fought. Parliament represented the interests of these classes and

finally came to the consolidation of a parliamentary monarchy. The 0elsh were under

British rule in '<=6.

Fre3uent dynastic conflicts, aspirations of the British crown to the French throne, the

commercial rivalry of the two nations and the support given by France to *cotland in

their wars with 1ngland, caused the >undred ?ears@ 0ar 5'<<&'!:<8, who culminated

with the British defeat and the loss of their possessions on the mainland.

The military failures increased the prestige of the crown, which had to face the anti papal movement followers 0ycliffe 5forerunner of (uther8 and a peasant rebellion. The



2

farmers, led by 0att Tyler rebelled against paying taxes and the power of the feudal

lords. n '<=', Tyler and his troops managed to enter (ondon and directly negotiate

with ing #ichard . >owever, the peasant rebellion was unsuccessful, and Tyler was

executed.

n the post>undred ?ears@ 0ar period, the dynastic dispute between (ancaster and ?or/

triggered the 0ars of the #oses, which culminated in the ascent to power in '!=:. The

Tudor period is considered the beginning of the modern British state. ne Tudor, >enry

) 5':%$':!&8 bro/e with #ome and established the hurch of 1ngland. The desire

to extend British authority and religious reform to reland made >enry@s daughter,

1li-abeth , impose their dominance in 4lster. The invasion of reland by Tudor led to

centuries of political and religious conflict.

4nder the reign of 1li-abeth flourished poetry and theater. t was the time of Ben

+onson, 9arlowe and 0illiam *ha/espeare. ndustry and commerce developed, and he

began the colonial adventure, the embryo of the future empire. After defeating the

*panish Armada called the British navy became the Cmistress of the seas@, without their

fleet capable of opposing it.

The 1nglish merchant ships, which were used for the slave trade, pirates and privateers,

ships or new colonists, sailed the oceans freely. 9ar/ets are multiplied, the demand

grew rapidly and producers were forced to employ new techni3ues to speed production.

t was the prelude to the ndustrial #evolution that too/ place in the country since the

eighteenth century.

n '7%<, the crown of +ames 5+ames ) of *cotland8 ended the independence of the

*cottish monarchy. #eligious intolerance son of harles , son of +ames, led a rebellion

in *cotland and rising discontent in 1ngland. The situation led to the 1nglish civil war,

which bro/e out in '7!6. The deterioration of the political situation led to the Puritan

party to build its own army and supported by Parliament led by liver romwell, who

defeated the royal forces in '7!7 and '7!= again.

n '7!$, Parliament proclaimed and executed ing romwell C(ord ProtectorC,

establishing a republic of the ommonwealth. #adical ideas about e3uality entered the parliamentary motion, notably among the (evellers 5leveling8, which advocated a



3

political democracy and the abolition of the 1nglish class system. >is ideas were

omitted and the leaders fell to romwell that loc/ed in the Tower of (ondon. After

romwell@s death in '7:=, the monarchy was restored with harles .

The priorities of the new regime were to boost 2orth American coloni-ation and trade

with America, the Far 1ast and the 9editerranean. >e is slave/idnapping, traffic/ing

and sale of Africans to the Americas and elsewhere began in the sixteenth century,

became one of the main sources of income of the empire.

The absolutist policies of +ames 5successor to harles 8 and profession of atholic

faith clashed with the Protestant Parliament and led to the Glorious #evolution. The

/ing fled to France and invited the "utch Protestant 0illiam of range to ta/e the

throne. n '7=$, 0illiam swore on the Bill of #ights, which limited royal powers and

ensured the supremacy of Parliament.

+ohn (oc/e summed up the revolutionary ideal holding that human beings have basic

natural rightsD property, life, liberty and security of person. The government created by

society to protect those rights, must fulfill its missionE if not, the people have the right to

resist their authority.

n '&%& the parliaments of *cotland and 1ngland were united and the 4nited ingdom

of Great Britain was created. The country participated in the war of succession of *pain,

by the Treaty of 4trecht 5'&'<8, won 9enorca, Gibraltar and 2ova *cotia. The growing

burden of taxes, as expressed for example in the *tamp Act 5'&7:8, caused an upheaval

in the American colonies, which culminated in the independence of the 4nited *tates in

'&&7.

n this period the landowners ;oined their interests to the merchant classes and the two

ma;or parties were consolidatedD the onservative 5Tory8 and (iberal 50hig8. The

foundations of economic liberalism were developed in those years by Adam *mith. The

imperial policy used this doctrine to open, even by force, ports and mar/ets in Africa,

America and Asia, as in the pium 0ar against hina in the midnineteenth century.



4

n '=%', after putting down the rish nationalist uprising of '&$=, the 4nited ingdom

of Great Britain and reland was created, with the dissolution of the rish Parliament

5see reland8.

Great lords fenced their properties, eliminating the communal fields, benefiting smallD

n the eighteenth century the agricultural revolution, which brought ma;or innovations

in wor/ techni3ues and important changes in the system of land tenure was developed

farmers. apitalist system characteristics and to the environmentally sustainable

agriculture and farming communities were thus formally.



5

CHAPTER I

1.1. BRITISH SOCIETY I THE EI!HTEETH CET"RY

n '&%% 1ngland was basically agricultural, but by '&:% began to emerge big cities and

although the population of those cities had no parliamentary representation and the

living conditions were particularly harsh, the eighteenth century brought significant

improvements such as lighting and cleaning many (ondon streets, although the

differences between the upper and lower classes were huge, the social conditions in

1ngland were among the best in 1urope. But despite so much change, wor/ing

conditions remained extremely harsh.

>owever, we cannot spea/ only of poverty in the eighteenth century, as the middle class

grew increasingly and women play different roles depending on the male role. *ome

women were associated with pleasureE married women were associated with poverty

and respectable spinsters charity. n fact, it was thought that when a man and a woman

married, happened to be a single person represented by man.

0ith regard to religion, in the eighteenth century, it was believed in man@s limitations but a positive view of their moral nature also had. The philosophers of the time claimed

that man is good by nature and finds his happiness in the exercise of virtue and

benevolence, such a view of man described as sentimental and which finds its basis in

social and instinctive impulses of man, and not in a code of conduct sanctioned by

divine law. >owever, the doctrine of the good nature of man seemed to many was then

the civili-ation that corrupted man and that primitive men were models of innocence

and virtue. n the other hand, the 9ethodists brought his gospel to people practicing

the need to believe in sin and salvation.

An important result of religious and political upheaval that followed a failed attempt to

force the Parliament to exclude harles to his brother +ames, "u/e of ?or/ and

atholic succession, was the emergence of two distinct political partiesD 0hig and Tory.

The monarchists were the Tories. But at the end of the century, both parties had adopted

more positions contrary. For one, the Tories got their force landowners and clergy were

conservative at the time, supported the crown and the church as stabili-ers of society



#

and opposed the Protestants who were against harles and who supported the Puritan

#evolution. n the other hand, the 0higs were a less homogeneous groupD ;ealous

nobles the power of the crown, merchants and financiers of (ondon, some bishops and

Protestant.

0ith respect to the monarchs say that George , who reigned from '&'!'&6&, and

George , from '&6& to '&7%, spo/e little 1nglish and had little interest in national

affairs. Their hearts were still 3uite Germans and spent all the time they could in

>anover. Thus, under these circumstances it was inevitable that ministers waived more

important and more independent of the crown than they had been earlier and smarter

monarchs do. n fact, because of the indifference of the two monarchs and the great

ambitions of the Prime 9inister, *ir #obert 0alpole, the new ministerial system began

to develop, which was the last important contribution of the time to the British political

institutions. The long reign of George , from '&7% to '=6%, have resulted in a political

power of political parties because the /ing was determined to send personally and got it.

But he undertoo/ a dangerous policy for a monarch who was neither a political nor

liberal scholar.

Brought the Tories bac/ to power and did everything he could to end the long rule of the

0higs.

0ith respect to the culture and technology of the time, noted 1nglish architecture whose

principles derived from studies of )itruvius and later on the architect Palladio, whose

wor/s were based on taste, balance and strict adherence to the proportions classic.

Technological changes were essential for industrial development. 0as the adoption of

new technologies that constituted the social history of the industrial revolution.

The main influences of the period includeD

Puritanism

The rise of the middle class

*cientific philosophy

The novelists of the time also reflected in his wor/s the society of the time, social

changes and their impact on the population, new technologies...

"aniel "efoe filled his wor/s of social commentary with respect to the situation of the

lower class, the prisons, the plight of immigrants ... The main heroine, 9oll Flanders



$

9oll in his wor/, gets to be happy and find financial security after going through many

difficulties. *he and her husband the rest of their lives remain in 1ngland and live in

sincere repentance for the bad lives they have led. #obison rusoe is considered the

first capitalist hero who overcomes great difficulties and achieve economic security

finally.

+onathan *wift attac/ed through his wor/s on political parties of the time and religious

disputes between different denominations within hristianity. n his ma;or wor/

CGulliver@s TravelsC, *wift attac/ed irrationality of society and government, ridiculed

the man, examines the nature of human reason and satiri-es the new philosophy which

considers the selfsufficient man and God unnecessary.

*amuel #ichardson rebels against the social attitude that dictated that a girl of lower

class should not selfassessed. n his CPamelaC the girl, poor but virtuous, is haunted by

the master of the house, but she resists and becomes an example of virtue admired by

all. This novel and has en;oyed great popularity because it advanced social premises that

would prevail in society for a long timeD man as the dominator and 9r. and obedient and

submissive woman.

>enry Fielding introduces us to one of the first antiheroes of 1nglish literature,

+onathan 0ild the Great, the story of a criminal. The intention is satirical, as the

criminal appears as admired by all, and the CGreatC in the title is totally ironic. >is life

of theft, fraud, vice ... ma/e him the /ing of hypocrisy.

These and many other wor/s by these and other writers of the period reflect the society

of the time, worries, concerns, social change, culture, technology ... Again, the novel

ma/es a historian and faithful mirror of an era.

1.2. APO!EE O% E&PIRE

The British 1mpire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and

other ruled or administered by the 4nited ingdom territory. t originated with the

overseas possessions and trading posts established by 1ngland in the late '7th century

and early '=th At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century,



'

was the world power@s important. n '$66 the British 1mpire held sway for about !:=

million people, a fifth of the world@s population at the time. The empire covered more

than <<,&%%,%%% /m6, almost a 3uarter of the total surface of the 1arth. As a result, its

political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the height of his power,

Cthe empire on which the sun never setsC is often used to describe the British 1mpire, as

its extension by everyone understands that the sun was always shining on at least one of

their territories.

"uring the Age of "iscovery in the ':th and '7th centuries, Portugal and *pain

pioneered 1uropean exploration of the world, and in the process established large

overseas empires. 1nvy of the great wealth generated by these empires, 1ngland, France

and the 2etherlands began to establish colonies and trade networ/s own in the Americas

and Asia. A series of wars in the '&th and '=th centuries with the 2etherlands and

France left 1ngland the dominant colonial power in 2orth America and ndia.

The independence of the thirteen colonies in 2orth America in '&=< after the 0ar of

ndependence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies.

British attention soon turned towards Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Following the defeat

of 2apoleonic France in '=':, Britain en;oyed a century of almost unchallenged

dominance, and expanded its imperial holdings across the globe. ncreasing degrees of

autonomy were granted to its white settler settlements, some of which were reclassified

as dominions.

At the end of the '$th century Germany and the 4nited *tates had eroded Britain@s

economic advantage. *ubse3uent military and economic tensions between Britain and

Germany were the main causes of the First 0orld 0ar, during which Britain relied

heavily on his empire. The conflict placed enormous financial pressure and the

population in Britain, and although the empire reached its greatest territorial extent

immediately after the war, it was no longer an industrial or military power unmatched.

n 0orld 0ar , the British colonies in *outheast Asia were occupied by +apan. "espite

the eventual victory of Britain and its allies, damaged British prestige and accelerated

decline of the empire. British ndia, the most valuable and populous possession of the

4nited ingdom, became independent two years after the end of the war.



(

After the end of 0orld 0ar , as part of a larger decoloni-ation movement, Britain

granted independence to most of the territories of the British 1mpire. This process

culminated in the policy transfer >ong ong to hina in '$$& The '! British overseas

territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British

colonies ;oined the ommonwealth of 2ations, a free association of independent states.

*ixteen ommonwealth nations share their head of state, ueen 1li-abeth , as

ommonwealth realms.

BEGINNING:

The foundations of the British 1mpire were laid when 1ngland and *cotland were

independent /ingdoms. n '!$7 ing >enry ) of 1ngland, following the successes of

*pain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned +ohn abot to lead a voyage

to discover a route to Asia via the 2orth Atlantic. abot sailed in '!$&, five years after

the discovery of America, and although he successfully made landfall on the coast of

2ewfoundland, there was no attempt to found a colony. abot led another voyage to the

Americas the following year but nothing was heard of his ships again.

2o further attempts to establish 1nglish colonies in the Americas were made until well

into the reign of 1li-abeth , in the last decades of the '7th century Protestant

#eformation had made enemies of 1ngland and atholic *pain. n ':76, the 1nglish

rown sanctioned the privateers +ohn >aw/ins and Francis "ra/e to engage in slave

raiding attac/s against *panish and Portuguese ships off the coast of 0est Africa, with

the aim of entering the Atlantic trade system. This effort was re;ected, and later, when

the Anglo*panish 0ar intensified, 1li-abeth lent her blessing to others pirate attac/s on

*panish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden

with treasure from the 2ew 0orld. At the same time, influential writers such as #ichard

>a/luyt and +ohn "ee began to press for the establishment of 1ngland@s own empire. At

the time, *pain was entrenched in the Americas, Portugal established trading posts and

forts from the coasts of Africa and Bra-il to hina, and France had begun to settle the

*aint (awrence #iver, later to become 2ew France.

P)ATATIOS O% IRE)A*+

Although 1ngland lost behind other 1uropean powers in establishing colonies overseaswas committed during the '7th century in the settlement of reland, on the basis of



1,

precedents dating bac/ to the 2orman invasion of reland in ''7$. *everal people who

helped to establish plantations of reland also played a role in the early coloni-ation of

2orth America, particularly a group /nown as the 0est ountry men.

%IRST BRITISH E&PIRE+

n ':&=, ueen 1li-abeth granted a patent to >umphrey Gilbert for discovery and

overseas exploration. That year, Gilbert sailed for the 0est ndies with the intention of

engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in 2orth America, but the expedition was

aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic. n ':=< he embar/ed on a second attempt,

this time to the island of 2ewfoundland whose harbor formally claimed for 1ngland,

although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the trip bac/ to 1ngland,

and was succeeded by his halfbrother, 0alter #aleigh, who was granted his own patent

by 1li-abeth in ':=! (ater that year, #aleigh founded the colony of #oano/e on the

coast of present 2orth arolina, but lac/ of supplies caused the colony to fail.

n '7%<, ing +ames ) of *cotland ascended to the 1nglish throne and in '7%!

negotiated the Treaty of (ondon, ending hostilities with *pain. 2ow at peace with its

main rival, 1nglish attention shifted from preying on the colonial infrastructure of other

nations to establish their own business overseas colonies. The British 1mpire began to

ta/e shape in the early '&th century, with the 1nglish settlement of 2orth America and

the smaller islands of the aribbean, and the establishment of private companies,

especially the 1nglish 1ast ndia ompany, to administer colonies and foreign trade.

This period, until the loss of the Thirteen olonies after the #evolutionary 0ar to the

end of the '=th century, was later /nown as the CFirst British 1mpireC.

Two years later, the #oyal African ompany was inaugurated, receiving from ing

harles a monopoly of the slave trade to supply the British aribbean colonies. From

the outset, slavery was the basis of the British 1mpire in the 0est ndies. 4ntil the

abolition of the slave trade in '=%&, Britain was responsible for the transportation of <.:

million Africans to the Americas, a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic

slave. To facilitate this trade, forts were established on the coast of 0est Africa, such as

+ames sland, Accra and Bunce sland. n the British aribbean, the percentage of

people of African descent increased from 6: percent in '7:% to about =% percent in'&=%, and the '< colonies of '% percent to !% percent during the same period. For the



11

slave traders, the trade was extremely profitable, and became a ma;or economic

mainstay for such western British cities as Bristol and (iverpool, which formed the

third corner of the socalled triangular trade with Africa and the Americas. For the

conditions of transport, harsh and unhygienic on slave ships and poor diets meant that

the average mortality rate during the middle passage was one in seven.

CO)OIES &AI A&ERICA- A%RICA A* THE S)AE TRA*E

ARTIC)ES+ BRITISH CO)OI/ATIO O% THE A&ERICAS- )ATI A*

THIRTEE BRITISH

Two years later, the #oyal African ompany was inaugurated, receiving from ing

harles a monopoly of the slave trade to supply the British aribbean colonies. From






people of African descent increased from 6: percent in '7:% to about =% percent in

'&=%, and the '< colonies of '% percent to !% percent during the same period. For the






The aribbean initially provides the most important and lucrative colonies of 1ngland,

but not before several attempts at coloni-ation failed. An attempt to establish a colony in

Guiana in '7%! lasted only two years, and failed in its main ob;ective to find gold

deposits. olonies in *t (ucia and Granada also rapidly folded, but settlements were

successfully established in *t. itts, 2evis and Barbados. The colonies soon adopted the

system of sugar plantations successfully used by the Portuguese in Bra-il, which

depended on slave labor, and first"utch ships, to sell the slaves and buy the sugar. To

ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of this trade remained in 1nglish hands,Parliament decreed in '7:' that only 1nglish ships would be able to ply their trade in



12

the 1nglish colonies. This led to hostilities with the 4nited "utch Provincesa series of

Anglo"utcheventually strengthen 1ngland@s position in the Americas at the expense of

the "utch wars. n '7::, 1ngland annexed the island of +amaica to the *panish, and in

'777 succeeded in coloni-ing the Bahamas.

1ngland@s first permanent settlement in the Americas was founded in '7%& in

+amestown, led by aptain +ohn *mith and managed by the )irginia ompany.

Bermuda was settled and claimed by the 4nited ingdom as a result of the '7%$

shipwrec/ there of flagship of the )irginia ompany, and in '7': was given to the

newly formed *omers sles ompany. The bylaw of the )irginia ompany was revo/ed

in '76! and direct control of )irginia was assumed by the crown, founding the colony

of )irginia. The (ondon and Bristol ompany was founded in '7'% with the goal of

creating a permanent settlement on 2ewfoundland, but was largely unsuccessful. n

'76%, Plymouth was founded as a haven for puritan religious separatists, later /nown as

the Pilgrims. Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive of many

1nglish wouldbe colonists to ris/ the arduous transAtlantic voyageD 9aryland was

founded as a haven for #oman atholics, #hode sland as a tolerant colony of all

religions and onnecticut ongregationalists. The Province of arolina was founded in

'77< 0ith the surrender of Fort Amsterdam in '77!, 1ngland gained control of the

"utch colony of 2ew 2etherland, renaming 2ew ?or/. This was formali-ed in

negotiations after the *econd Anglo"utch 0ar, in exchange for *uriname. n '7=', the

colony of Pennsylvania was founded by 0illiam Penn. The American colonies were less

financially successful than those of the aribbean, but had large areas of good

agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of 1nglish emigrants who preferred

temperate climates.

n '7&%, ing harles granted a charter to the >udson@s Bay ompany, granting it a

monopoly on the fur trade in what was then /nown as #upert@s (and, a vast stretch of

territory that would later ma/e up a large part of anada. Forts and trading posts

established by the ompany were fre3uently the sub;ect of attac/s by the French, who

had established their own fur trading colony on the side of 2ew France.

Two years later, the #oyal African ompany was inaugurated, receiving from ingharles a monopoly of the slave trade to supply the British aribbean colonies. From



13






people of African descent increased from 6: percent in '7:% to about =% percent in

'&=%, and the '< colonies of '% percent to !% percent during the same period. For the






n '7$:, the *cottish parliament granted a charter to the ompany of *cotland, which

established a settlement in '7$= on the sthmus of Panama. Besieged by neighboring

*panish colonists of 2ew Granada, and afflicted by malaria, the colony was abandoned

two years later. The "arien scheme was a financial disaster for *cotland, a 3uarter of

*cottish capital was lost in the business, and ended *cottish hopes of establishing its

own overseas empire. The episode also had ma;or political conse3uences, persuading

the governments of 1ngland and *cotland of the merits of a union of countries, rather

than ;ust crowns. This occurred in '&%& with the Treaty of 4nion, establishing the

ingdom of Great Britain.

RIA)RY WITH THE ETHER)A*S I ASIA+

n the late '7th century, 1ngland and the 2etherlands began to challenge the monopoly

of trade with Asia Portugal, forming private corporations to fund travel,,, 1ast ndia

ompany and later British 1nglish ompany of the "utch 1ast ndies, chartered in

'7%% and '7%6 respectively. The main ob;ective of these companies is to leverage the

lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions, 1ast ndies archipelago,

and an important center on the trade networ/, ndia. There they competed for trade

supremacy with Portugal and with others. Although 1ngland would eventually eclipse

the 2etherlands as a colonial power, in the short term, the most advanced of the "utch

financial system and the three Anglo"utch 0ars of the '&th century left it with astronger position in Asia. >ostilities ceased after the Glorious #evolution of '7== when



14

the "utch 0illiam of range ascended the 1nglish throne, bringing peace between the

2etherlands and 1ngland. An agreement between the two nations left the spice trade of

the 1ast ndies archipelago to the textile industry in ndia, the 2etherlands and 1ngland,

but textiles soon overtoo/ spices in terms of profitability, and '&6%, in terms of sales,

the British company had overta/en the "utch.

!)OBA) CO%)ICT WITH %RACE+

Peace between 1ngland and the 2etherlands in '7== meant that the two countries

entered the 2ine ?ears@ 0ar as allies, but the conflictwaged in 1urope and overseas

between France, *pain and the Anglo"utch alliance left 1nglish a stronger colonial

power than the "utch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military

budget on the costly land war in 1urope. The '=th century 1ngland would rise to

become the dominant colonial power in the world, and France became his main rival in

the imperial stage.

The death of harles of *pain in '&%% and be3ueathal of *pain and its colonial empire

to Philip of An;ou, grandson of the ing of France, raised the prospect of the unification

of France, *pain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs 1ngland

and the other powers of 1urope. n '&%', 1ngland, Portugal and the 2etherlands sided

with the >oly #oman 1mpire against *pain and France in the 0ar of *panish

*uccession, which lasted until '&'! At the conclusion of the Treaty of 4trecht, Philip

renounced his and his descendants the right to French throne and *pain lost its empire in

1urope. The British 1mpire was territorially enlargedD from France, Britain gained

2ewfoundland and Acadia, and from *pain, Gibraltar and 9inorca. Gibraltar, which is

still a British territory, became an important naval base and allowed Britain to control

the Atlantic entry and exit to the 9editerranean. 9inorca was returned to *pain in the

Treaty of Amiens in '=%6, after changing hands twice. *pain also ceded the rights of the

lucrative seat to Britain.

The *even ?ears@ 0ar, which began in '&:7, was the first war waged on a global scale,

fought in 1urope, ndia, 2orth America, the aribbean, the Philippines and coastal

Africa. The Treaty of Paris was important for the future of the British 1mpire

conse3uences. n 2orth America, France@s future as a colonial power ended not with therecognition of British claims to #upert@s (and and the cession of 2ew France to Britain



15

and (ouisiana to *pain. *pain ceded Florida to Britain. n ndia, the arnatic 0ar had

left France still in control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation

to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling ndia. The British

victory over France in the *even ?ears@ 0ar, therefore, left Britain as the world@s most

powerful maritime power.

ICREASE SECO* BRITISH E&PIRE

*O&AI CO&PAY I I*IA

"uring its first century of operation, the 1ast ndia ompany focused on 1nglish trade

with the ndian subcontinent, as it was not in a position to challenge the powerful

9ughal 1mpire, which had granted trading rights in '7'& this changed in the '=th

century as the 9ughals declined in power and the 1ast ndia ompany struggled with

its French counterpart, the ompagnie franHaise des ndes 1ast during the arnatic 0ars

in the '&!%s and '&:%. the Battle of Plassey in '&:&, which the British, led by #obert

live, defeated the 2awab of Bengal and his French allies, left the company in control

of Bengal and as the ma;or military and political power in ndia. n the following

decades it gradually increased the si-e of the territories under its control, either directly

or through rulers sentence under the threat of force from the army of British ndia

premises, most of which is composed of ndian sepoys.

THE )OSS O% THE A&ERICA CO)OIES THIRTEE+

"uring the '&7%s and early '&&%s, relations between the Thirteen olonies and Britain

became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British

Parliament@s attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent. This

by the slogan C2o taxation without representationC, a violation of the rights guaranteed

perception of 1nglish is summari-ed at the time. The American #evolution began with

the re;ection of the authority of Parliament and moves towards selfgovernment. n

response Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbrea/ of the

#evolutionary 0ar in '&&: The following year, in '&&7, the 4nited *tates declared its

independence. The entry of France into the war in '&&= tipped the military balance in

favor of the Americans and after a decisive defeat at ?or/town in '&=', Britain began to

negotiate peace terms. American independence was recogni-ed in the Peace of Paris in'&=<.



1#

The loss of a large portion of British America such, most populous overseas possession

time in Britain, is considered by historians as the event defining the transition between

the CfirstC and 1mpires CsecondC in the Britain shifted its attention from the Americas to

Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam *mith@s 0ealth of 2ations, published in '&&7,

had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old

mercantilist policies that had characteri-ed the first period of colonial expansion, dating

bac/ to the protectionism of *pain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly

independent 4nited *tates and Britain after '&=< seemed to confirm *mith@s view that

political control was not necessary for economic success.

1vents in America influenced British policy in anada, where between !%,%%% and

'%%,%%% defeated (oyalists had migrated from America following independence. The

'!,%%% loyalists who went to *an +uan and river valleys *t. roix, then part of 2ova

*cotia, felt too far from the provincial government in >alifax, so (ondon split 2ew

Brunswic/ as a separate colony in '&=!. The onstitutional Act of '&$' created the

provinces of 4pper anada and (ower anada to reduce tensions between the French

and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those

employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing

the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the

American #evolution.

Tensions between Britain and the 4nited *tates increased again during the 2apoleonic

0ars, as Britain tried to disrupt American trade with France, and boarded American

ships to impress men of the #oyal 2avy British birth. The 4* declared war, the 0ar of

'='6, and invade anadian territory, but the prewar borders were reaffirmed in the

Treaty of Ghent '='!, securing anada@s future would be independent of the 4nited

*tates.

E0P)ORATIO O% THE PACI%IC+

*ince '&'=, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various

criminal offenses in Britain, with about a thousand prisoners transported per year across

the Atlantic. Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the '< colonies in'&=<, the British government turned to the newly discovered lands of Australia. The



1$

western coast of Australia had been discovered for 1uropeans by the "utch explorer

0illem +ans- in '7%7 and was later named 2ew >olland by the "utch 1ast ndia

ompany, but there was no attempt to coloni-e it. n '&&% +ames oo/ discovered the

east coast of Australia while on a scientific voyage to the *outh Pacific cean, claimed

the continent for Britain, and named it 2ew *outh 0ales. n '&&=, +oseph Ban/s,

oo/@s botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability

of Botany Bay to establish a penal colony, and in '&=& the first shipment of convicts set

sail, arriving in '&==. Britain continued transporting convicts to 2ew *outh 0ales until

'=!%. The colonies became profitable exporters of wool and Australian gold, mainly due

to gold rushes in the colony of )ictoria, ma/ing its capital 9elbourne the richest city in

the world and the largest city after (ondon in the British 1mpire.

"uring his voyage, oo/ also visited 2ew Iealand, first discovered by "utch explorer

Abel Tasman in '7!6, and claimed the 2orth and *outh islands for the British crown in

'&7$ and '&&% respectively. nitially, interaction between the indigenous 9aori

population and 1uropeans was limited to the trading of goods. 1uropean settlement

increased through the early decades of the '$th century, with numerous trading stations

established, especially in the 2orth. n '=<$, the 2ew Iealand ompany announced

plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in 2ew Iealand. n 7 February

'=!%, aptain 0illiam >obson and around !% 9aori chiefs signed the Treaty of

0aitangi. This treaty is considered by many as the founding document of 2ew Iealand,

but differing interpretations of the 9aori and 1nglish versions of the text have meant

that remains a source of controversy.

WAR WITH APO)EOIC %RACE+

Britain was challenged again by France under 2apoleon, in a struggle that, unli/e

previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations. t was not

only Britain@s position on the world stage that was threatenedD 2apoleon threatened to

invade Britain itself, ;ust as his armies had overrun many countries of continental

1urope.

The 2apoleonic 0ars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were bloc/aded by the #oyal 2avy, which



1'

won a decisive victory over the Franco*panish fleet at Trafalgar in '=%: the overseas

colonies were attac/ed and occupied, including those of the 2etherlands, which was

annexed by 2apoleon in '='% France was finally defeated by a coalition of 1uropean

armies in '=':. Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treatiesD France ceded the

onian slands, 9alta, 9auritius, *t. (ucia and Tobago, *pain ceded Trinidad, the

2etherlands, Guyana, and the ape olony. Britain returned Guadeloupe, 9artini3ue,

French Guiana and #union to France, and +ava and *uriname to the 2etherlands, while

gaining control of eylon.

T aoition of a6ry

4nder increasing pressure from the British abolitionist movement, the British

government passed the *lave Trade Act in '=%& which abolished the slave trade in the

empire. n '=%=, *ierra (eone was designated an official British colony for freed slaves.

The Act Abolishing *lavery passed in '=<< abolished slavery in the British 1mpire on

August ', '=<!. 4nder the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of

!7 years of Clearning.C

Cntury i78ria Britain

Between '=': and '$'!, a period /nown as the Cimperial centuryC by some British

historians, around '%,%%%,%%% s3uare miles of land and about !%% million people were

added to the British 1mpire. )ictory over 2apoleon left Britain serious international

rival, other than #ussia in entral Asia without. 4nchallenged at sea, Britain adopted

the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later /nown as the Pax Britannica, and a

foreign policy of Csplendid isolationC. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its

own colonies, the dominant position of Britain in world trade meant that it effectively

controlled the economies of many countries, such as hina, Argentina and Thailand,

which has been characteri-ed by some historians as Cinformal empire C.

British imperial strength was underpinned by the steam and the telegraph, new

technologies invented in the second half of the '$th century, allowing it to control and

defend the 1mpire. n '$%6, the British 1mpire was lin/ed together by a networ/ of

telegraph cables, the socalled All #ed (ine.



1(

Eat India Co78any in Aia

The 1ast ndia ompany drove the expansion of the British 1mpire in Asia. ompany@s

army had first ;oined forces with the #oyal 2avy during the *even ?ears@ 0ar, and the

two continued to cooperate in areas outside ndiaD the expulsion of 2apoleon in 1gypt,

capturing +ava ountries 2etherlands, the ac3uisition of *ingapore and 9alacca and the

defeat of Burma.

From its base in ndia, the company has also been involved in an increasingly profitable

export trade of opium to hina from the '&<%s, this illegal trade, since it was outlawed

by the ing dynasty in '&6$, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the

British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to hina. n

'=<$, the confiscation by the hinese authorities at anton of 6%,%%% chests of opium

led Britain to attac/ hina in the First pium 0ar, and resulted in the sei-ure by Britain

of >ong ong sland, in that minute agreement minor.

n the late '=th and early '$th centuries the British rown began to assume an

increasingly important role in the affairs of the ompany paper. A series of Acts of

Parliament were passed, including the #egulatory (aw '&&<, (aw of ndia Pitt '&=! and

(aw harter '='<, which regulates the affairs of the company and established the

sovereignty of the rown over the territories had ac3uired. 1ventual closure of the

company by the ndian #ebellion, a conflict that began with the mutiny of sepoys,

ndian troops under British officers and discipline rushed. The rebellion too/ six months

to suppress, with the loss of lives on both sides. The following year, the British

government was dissolved and the ompany too/ direct control of ndia through the

Government of ndia Act of '=:=, establishing the British #a;, where an appointed

governorgeneral administered ndia and ueen )ictoria was crowned 1mpress of ndia.

ndia became the most valuable possession of the empire, Cthe ;ewel in the crownC, and

was the most important source of power in Britain.

A series of serious crop failures in the '$th century led to widespread famine in the

subcontinent where it is estimated that over ': million people died. The 1ast ndia

ompany had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines

during its period of rule. (ater, under direct British rule, the commissions set up after



2,

each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which too/ until

'$%% to have an effect.

Ri6ary 9it Ruia

"uring the '$th century, Britain and the #ussian 1mpire competed to fill the power

vacuums that had been left by the decline of the ttoman 1mpire, a;ar "ynasty and

ing "ynasty. This rivalry in 1urasia came to be /nown as the CGreat GameC. As

regards Britain defeat inflicted by #ussia on Persia and Tur/ey demonstrated its

imperial ambitions and capabilities, and sto/ed fears in Britain of a ground invasion of

ndia. n '=<$, Britain moved to preempt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First

AngloAfghan 0ar was a disaster for Britain. 0hen #ussia invaded the Tur/ish Bal/ans

in '=:<, fears of #ussian dominance in the 9editerranean and 9iddle 1ast led Britain

and France to invade the rimean Peninsula in order to destroy #ussian naval

capabilities. The ensuing rimean 0ar, which involved new techni3ues of modern

warfare, and was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial

power during the Pax Britannica, was a resounding defeat for #ussia. The situation

remained unresolved in entral Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing

Baluchistan in '=&7 and #ussia annexed yrgy-stan, a-a/hstan and Tur/menistan.

For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries

reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in '=&=, and

all outstanding in '$%& with the signing of the Anglo#ussian 1ntente issues. The

destruction of the #ussian 2avy by the +apanese in the Battle of Port Arthur during the

#usso+apanese 0ar of '$%!'$%: also limited its threat to the British.

Ca8 to Cairo

The "utch 1ast ndia ompany had founded the ape olony on the southern tip of

Africa in '7:6 as a way station for ships traveling to and from its colonies in the 1ast

ndies. Britain formally ac3uired the colony, and its large Afri/aner population in '=%7,

having held in '&$: in order to prevent it from falling into French hands, following the

invasion of the 2etherlands by France. British immigration began to rise after '=6%, and

pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own

republicsindependent term most short, during the Great Tre/ of the late '=!% and early

'=<%. n the process the )oortre//ers clashed repeatedly with were the British, who had

their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in *outh Africa and with severalAfrican polities, including those of the *otho and the Iulu nations. Finally, the Boers



21

established two republics which had a longer lifespanD the *outh African #epublic or

Transvaal #epublic and the range Free *tate. n '$%6 Britain occupied both republics,

concluding a treaty with the two Boer #epublics following the *econd Boer 0ar.

n '=7$ the *ue- anal was opened under 2apoleon , lin/ing the 9editerranean with

the ndian cean. nitially, the channel was opposed to the British, but once open its

strategic value was recogni-ed 3uic/ly became the C;ugular vein of the 1mpire.C n

'=&:, the onservative government of Ben;amin "israeli bought !! percent sta/e of the

debtor 1gyptian ruler smail Pasha in the *ue- anal ! million. Although this did not

grant him full control of the strategic waterway, gave Britain leverage. +oint Anglo

French financial control over 1gypt ended in direct British occupation in '==6. The

French were still ma;ority shareholders and attempted to wea/en the British position,

but failed to reach an agreement with the onstantinople onvention of '===, which

made the anal officially neutral territory.

0ith the French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower ongo #iver region

undermining orderly raid tropical Africa, the Berlin onference of '==!=: was held to

regulate competition between the 1uropean powers in what was called the C*cramble

for Africa CdefiningC effective occupation Cas the criterion for international recognition

of territorial claims. The fight continued until the '=$%s, and caused Britain to

reconsider its decision in '==: to withdraw from *udan. A ;oint force of British and

1gyptian troops defeated the 9ahdi Army in '=$7, and refused an attempted French

invasion at Fashoda in '=$= *udan was nominally made an Anglo1gyptian

condominium, but a British colony in reality.

British gains in southern and 1ast Africa prompted ecil #hodes, pioneer of British

expansion in Africa, to urge a Cape to airoC railway lin/ing the strategic *ue- anal

important to the mineralrich *outh. "uring the '==%s and '=$%s, #hodes, his private

property British *outh Africa ompany occupied and annexed territories subse3uently

named after him, #hodesia.

Can:in: t tatu of t 9it cooni

The path to independence for the white colonies of the British 1mpire began with the'=<$ "urham #eport, which proposed unification and selfgovernment of 4pper and



22

(ower anada, as a solution to political unrest there. This began with the passing of the

Act of 4nion in '=!%, which created the Province of anada. #esponsible government

was first granted to 2ova *cotia in '=!=, and soon spread to other British colonies in

2orth America. 0ith the approval of the (aw of British 2orth America in '=7& by the

British Parliament, 4pper and (ower anada, 2ew Brunswic/ and 2ova *cotia were

formed into the "ominion of anada, a confederation en;oying full autonomy, with the

exception of relations international. Australia and 2ew Iealand achieved similar levels

of selfgovernment after '$%%, with the federation of the Australian colonies in '$%'.

The term Cdominion statusC was officially introduced at the olonial onference of

'$%&.

The last decades of the '$th century saw concerted political campaigns for rish >ome

#ule. reland had been united with Britain into the 4nited ingdom of Great Britain and

reland with the Act of 4nion '=%% after the rish #ebellion of '&$=, and had suffered a

severe famine between '=!: and '=:6 Autonomy was supported by Prime 9inister

Britain, 0illiam Gladstone, who hoped that reland might follow in the footsteps of

anada as a dominion within the empire, but their '==7 draft Autonomy Act was

defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted reland limited

autonomy within the 4 that anadian provinces had within their own federation,

many 9Ps feared that a partially independent reland might pose a security threat to

Britain or mar/ the beginning of the disintegration of the empire. A second bill of

autonomy was also defeated for similar reasons. A third bill was passed by Parliament in

'$'!, but has not been implemented due to the outbrea/ of 0orld 0ar , leading to the

'$'7 1aster #ising.

*cooni;ation and dcin

Although Britain and the 1mpire emerged victorious from the *econd 0orld 0ar, the

effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad. 9uch of 1urope, a

continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to

the armies of the 4nited *tates and the *oviet 4nion, which now had the balance of

global power. Britain was basically ban/rupt, insolvency only averted in '$!7 after the

negotiation of a 4* loan of J !.<< billion 4*, the latest installment of which was repaid

in 6%%7.



23

At the same time, anticolonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of 1uropean

nations. The situation is further complicated by the increasing old 0ar rivalry of the

4nited *tates and the *oviet 4nion. n principle, both nations were opposed to

1uropean colonialism. n practice, however, American antiommunism prevailed over

antiimperialism, and therefore the 4nited *tates supported the continued existence of

the British 1mpire to maintain ommunist expansion in chec/.

The Cwind of changeC ultimately means that the days of the British 1mpire were

numbered, and in general, the 4 adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its

colonies once stable governments, communists were not available to transfer the power.

This was in contrast to other 1uropean powers such as France and Portugal, which

waged costly and unsuccessful wars to /eep their empires intact. Between '$!: and

'$7:, the number of people under British rule outside the 4 itself fell from &%%

million to five million, three million of whom were in >ong ong.



24

1.3. ECOO&IC A* SOCIA) A* PO)ITICA) ASPECTS

CThe eighteenth century called #eason or the 1nlightenment, is a century of balance

between Tradition and #evolution, symboli-ed by the thought of the 1nlightenment andthe monarchies of 1nlightened "espotism. nly at the end when the commitment is

bro/en, would result in the Age of #evolution. K

#enL "escartes the eighteenth century was the Age of 1nlightenment or 1nlightenment.

The philosophical rationalism and naturalism of the great French thin/ers 5"escartes8,

1nglish 5Bacon, >obbes8 and "utch 5*pino--a8 of the previous century succeeded the

late nineteenth century in Germany with the great (eibni- 5d. '&'788 and in 1ngland

with the empiricism of (oc/e 5d. '&%!8, and scientific research on the great 2ewton

5m.'&668.

The atmosphere of political freedom, religious diversity and economic prosperity of the

ruling bourgeoisie in 1ngland and >olland was the most suitable for the triumph of

1nlightenment. >owever, it was in France that the interpretation of 1nglish empiricism

by followers of "escartes produced rationalists of the 1nlightenment.

ECOO&IC A* SOCIA) ISS"ES

This involves a whole century, overcoming the economic crisis that characteri-ed

1urope in the seventeenth century. Between '&6% and '&=% about the 1uropean

economy enters period of development. The causes of this prosperity areD

M 9 infu< of 8rciou 7ta fro7 A7rica

From the early sixteenth century, gold mines and American silver was exhaustedE

however, from '&6% new gold mines are discovered, extraordinarily rich in Bra-il. This

gold, arriving to the 1uropean continent reactive entire economy and the progress of the

business.

M Incrad 8ro8rity in a:ricutur and indutry

The peasantry of the seventeenth century collecting little vintage and in it, was away

three portionsD one delivered to the church as tithingE another gave the nobleman who



25

was the owner of the land and the third part was to give it to the /ing as taxesE what was

left was minimal and intended for consumption.

That meant that the farmer could not sell but only consume what they produced. Thus,

hardly any income and standard of living was very low.

This lac/ of revenue was due to lower yieldsD it was normal that only four cereal grains

to be harvested per seed grain.

*ince '&6%, the situation changesD the crops are becoming more abundant, due toD

M T introduction of n9 i:y 8roducti6 8ant, such as corn. oming from

America, which would increase the number of cattleE it produces more manure and

carries abundant crops. To improve performance, the farmer can save and invest in the

ac3uisition of modern tillage implements and again reverts to increase harvests.

M Ci7at can:- 9ic i o8ti7a for a:ricutur, unli/e the seventeenth century,

which had been fre3uent consecutive years of drought.

For the first time in the eighteenth century, the 1uropean peasant, after paying for the

hurch, the noble and the /ing left with surplus money, which raises their standard of

living. They end the great famine, plague epidemics of the seventeenth century features.

The increasing purchasing powers of the peasantry enable greater consumption and

promote the development of the textile and iron.

PO)ITICA) ASPECTS

Another characteristic of the eighteenth century is that the absolute monarchy in 1urope

reaches its greatest strength and splendor. t is in this century, where the bourgeoisie is

opposed to absolute monarchy and, for that, already had the economic power, aspires

to political power monopoli-ed by the nobility.

0ill the bourgeoisie assume the lead in this century, it faces the social and political

systems established, see/ to destroy the socalled Cld #egimeC synthesi-ed in

absolutism and the privileges of the nobility and clergy, develops a new cultureD

1nlightenment.

0ith regard to 1uropean international relations, appeared a political system /nown tohave a ma;or predicamentD the 1uropean balance. This formula advocated by 1ngland,



2#

represented the political instrument of the rising British imperialism. Through this

system, Britain could eliminate any dangerous rival on the continent, facing another

power or a coalition, while his fleet was imposed in the ocean and his troops con3uered

supremacy in the colonial world. n this sense, there is no doubt that the eighteenth

century 1nglish political prominence began as the seventeenth century was

predominantly French and N) of *panish boom.



COC)"SIO

n the late eighteenth century the nobility and the middle classes had accumulated

considerable wealth through trade and wielded considerable power through parliament.The new organi-ation of the agricultural system gave more benefits to the upper classes,

produced more food for a growing company and created a new proletariat that would

wor/ for the ndustrial #evolution. But while the French #evolution was supported by

the middle classes, revolutionary ideas were not as welcome in 1ngland.

There was also an increase in the number of people who could read and write than/s to

rising middle class, the novel as a literary genre developed and highlighted a group of

authors such as "aniel "efoe, +onathan *wift, >enry Fielding, and *amuel #ichardson.

england in 18 century

Documents