engineers reference handbook
TRANSCRIPT
A B R A S I V E S
AB
RA
SIV
ES
1
Belts, Coils & Sheets 2 - 3
Carbide Burrs 4 - 6
Diamond Burrs 7
Fibre Discs 8
Flap Discs & Grinding Discs 9
Grinding Wheels 10 - 18
Hand Pads 19
Mounted Points 20 - 27
Spindle Mounted 28 - 30
Section
1
File Belts
Suitable for a wide range ofpower tools. Aluminium oxidedesigned for a wide range ofmaterials including metal, steel,aluminium and non-ferrousmetals.
Common sizes available: 6 x 330mm, 13 x 610mm,20 x 480mm and 20 x 520mm.(Many other sizes available)
Portable Sander Belts
Resin bond aluminium oxidesanding belts are designed forindustrial applications. Durabilitycombined with flexibility ensuresa long life and first classperformance. Suitable for woodand metal work.
Common sizes available: 75 x 553mmand 100 x 610mm(Many other sizes available)
Linishing Belts
Resin bond aluminium oxidefinishing belts are designed forindustrial applications. Durabilitycombined with flexibility ensures along life and first classperformance. Designed for a widerange of materials such as wood,steel, aluminium and non-ferrousmetals.
Common sizes available: 100mm x 915mm, 50mm x 1520mm, 25mm x 1065mm,50mm x 1065mm,and 150mm x 1090mm.(Many other sizes available)
2
A B R A S I V E S Belts, Coils & Sheets
Belt Max(type m/min
File 2,500Sander 1,000Linisher 500
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Belts, Coils & Sheets A B R A S I V E S
Coils and Sheets
Aluminium Oxide ClothSuperflex aluminium oxide is resinbonded over resin on a very flexible J-weight blue twill cloth. Moistureresistant and electrostatically coatedfor polishing flat and contouredsurfaces in most materials.
Available in:25, 38 and 50mm wide x 50mtr coilsand 230 x 280mm sheets.
Wet or Dry Silicon CarbidePaperWaterproof-resin bonded to papersuitable for wet and dry productionpolishing and finishing of a widerange of materials including metals,plastics, paint work, ceramics etc.
Available in: 230 x 280mm sheets.
Emery ClothBlue twill emery cloth is glue bonded to a very flexible J-weight blue twill cloth. Suitable forgeneral purpose, light workshop use.
Available in:25, 38 and 50mm wide x 50mtr coilsand 230 x 280mm sheets.
Orbital Sanding SheetsIndustrial aluminium oxide sandingpaper is “glue” bonded and suitablefor use with hand sanding blocks andorbital sanders.
Available in:1/3 sheets (93 x 230mm)and 1/2 sheets (115 x 280mm).
Al-Oxide Mean Grade EquivalentSil-Carbide DiameterGrit No. µm EmeryGarnet Glass
P12 1,815P16 1,324P20 1,000P24 764 4P30 642 3P36 538 21/2
P40 425 3 11/2 S2P50 336 21/2 1P60 269 2 1/2 M2P80 201 11/2 0
P100 162 1 2/0 F2P120 125 F 3/0 11/2
P150 100 FF 4/0 1P180 82 5/0 1/2
P220 68 O 6/0 OP240 58.5±2.0 7/0 OOP280 52.2±2.0 8/0P320 46.2±1.5 9/0P360 40.5±1.5
P400 35.0±1.5
P500 30.2±1.5
P600 25.8±1.0
P800 21.8±1.0
P1000 18.3±1.0
P1200 15.3±1.0
P1500 12.6±1.0
P2000 10.3±0.8
P2500 8.4±0.5
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A B R A S I V E S Carb ide Burrs
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut - For use on softer non-ferrous and plastic materials. ie. aluminium,fibreglass, plastics, hard rubber and zinc alloy.
Cut 6 - Double Cut - Crosscut and doublecut to improve control and chipbreaks.Manufactured from high grade tungsten carbidefor general purpose use.
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker - Fast stock removaland improved control and reduced chips for useon hard materials, i.e. steel alloy 50RC, 60RC,carbon & cast iron
Head SizeØ x L (mm)
3 x 12*3 x 14*6 x 15*6 x 16 6 x 198 x 19
10 x 1913 x 2516 x 2519 x 25
Cylindrical-End CuttingAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 14*4 x 13*6 x 13*6 x 166 x 198 x 19
10 x 1913 x 2516 x 2519 x 25
CylindricalPlain EndAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 14*6 x 13*6 x 166 x 198 x 19
10 x 1911 x 2513 x 2516 x 2519 x 25
CylindricalBall NosedAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
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Carb ide Burrs A B R A S I V E S
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 13*6 x 166 x 19
10 x 1913 x 2516 x 2519 x 32
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 6*8 x 19
13 x 3216 x 36
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 13*6 x 13*
10 x 1913 x 1913 x 2516 x 25
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 3*5 x 4*6 x 58 x 6
10 x 811 x 1013 x 1116 x 1419 x 16
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 6*6 x 10*
10 x 1613 x 2216 x 2519 x 25
Round Tree
All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Flame Shape
All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
PointedTree
All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Ball Shape
All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Oval
All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
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A B R A S I V E S Carb ide Burrs
ConicalAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Conical 14°°All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Conical 60°°All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank. Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Conical 90°°All sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Inverted ConeAll sizes arenominal. Sizesmarked * are3mm shank, allothers are 6mmshank.
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 11*6 x 13*6 x 19
10 x 1613 x 2216 x 25
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 13*5 x 13*6 x 126 x 168 x 22
10 x 2713 x 2816 x 3019 x 38
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
3 x 410 x 816 x 14
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
6 x 310 x 513 x 6
Head SizeØ x L(mm)
6 x 819 x 16
Diameter Speed Range Diameter Speed Rangeof Burr RPM of Burr RPM3mm Ø 40 - 80,000 9mm Ø 25 - 40,0004mm Ø 35 - 60,000 12mm Ø 20 - 40,0006mm Ø 30 - 60,000 20mm Ø 15 - 25,000
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Diamond Burrs A B R A S I V E S
Cylindrical
Diamond Coated Burrs
3mm shank. Overall length 45mm. Diamond grip mesh is 120/140.Suitable for precision grinding of carbide, gems, ceramics, tough alloys,cermets, tool steels etc.Recommended operating speeds 15,000 ~ 30,000 RPM.
Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)
1.5 x 92.0 x 102.5 x 103.0 x 104.0 x 105.0 x 10
Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)
1.5 x 92.0 x 102.5 x 103.0 x 104.0 x 105.0 x 10
Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)
2.0 x 93.0 x 94.0 x 105.0 x 10
Head Dia.Ø x L(mm)
2.0 x 103.0 x 103.3 x 103.3 x 10
Cylindrical Ball Nosed
Pointed Tree
Round Tree
ConicalIncluded Head Dia.
Angle x Length
70° 2 x 1210° 3 x 15
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A B R A S I V E S Fibre Discs
Disc Dia. Max(mm) rpm
100 12,400115 11,000127 10,000178 7,000
Disc Dia. Max(mm) rpm
100 12,400127 12,000152 12,000
Aluminium Oxide Fibre DiscsResin fibre backed sanding discs aredesigned for a wide range of industrialapplications. High speed penetrationof tough and high tensile materialscombined with long disc life andoptimum flexibility ensure thesesanding discs give first classperformance every time.Recommended for use with allportable grinders and sanders.
Available in:100mm Diameter x 16mm Bore,115mm Diameter x 22mm Bore,127mm Diameter x 22mm Bore,178mm Diameter x 22mm Bore.
Adhesive Backed DiscsAdhesive backed aluminium oxidepaper discs require no tools tochange, when the abrasive becomesworn or a different grit is needed, justpeel off and apply a fresh disc,reducing machine downtime andtherefore increasing productivity.
Available in 150mm diameter.
Velcro backed Sanding DiscsVelcro backed aluminium oxide, resinbonded over resin and need no toolsto change. Suitable for wood, plastics,ceramics etc. 100% of sanding disccan be used, material removal rate istherefore increased. Can berepeatedly removed and re-appliedagain and again. Unaffected by dustor moisture.
Available in:115, 127 & 152mm Diameter with no Holes,115mm Diameter with 8 Holes,152mm Diameter with 6 Holes.
Also available in delta shape.
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Flap Discs & Gr ind ing Discs A B R A S I V E S
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Flap Discs High performance alternative to sandingdiscs. Have the advantage over depressedcentre grinding discs on light gauge sheetmetal where surface finish is important.Overlapped abrasive strips slowly wearaway revealing fresh abrasive, ensuring thedisc always cuts effectively, reducingclogging, provides constant f inishthroughout disc life, generates less noiseand heat - less blueing. No backing padsneeded - fits directly onto machine. Safe touse at 80m/s on any grinder. Tested at150m/s and approved by the GermanGrinding Wheel Authority (DSA).
Available in two grades and two types ofbacking.Aluminium Oxide Grade - AluminiumBacked (General Purpose).Zirconium Grade - Aluminium Backed (For Stainless Steel).Aluminium Oxide Grade - Glass FibreBacked (General Purpose - Non-Scratch).Zirconium Grade - Glass Fibre Backed(For Stainless Steel - Non-Scratch).
Depressed Centre and FlatReinforced Grinding DiscsManufactured to assure operator safetyand optimum performance. For use withall portable grinders/cut-off machines.
Always wear safety gloves, eye, ear, andrespiratory protection. Cutting discs arenot to be used for free hand cutting, wetgrinding or general grinding. Always readthe safety instructions andrecommendations.
Depressed Centre Cutting & Grinding Discs
Grade A30For general purpose use on metals.
Grade R30For use on stainless steel.
Grade X24Special, for use on cast iron.
Flat Reinforced Cutting Discs
Grade A30/A24For general purpose use on metals.
Grade C24For use on stone and non-ferrous materials.
Disc Dia. Max(mm) rpm
100 15,300115 13,300127 12,000178 8,600
Disc Dia. Max(mm) rpm
100 15,000115 13,300127 12,000178 8,600230 6,600305 5,100355 4,400
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A B R A S I V E S Grind ing Wheels
How a Grinding Wheel is DefinedAny grinding wheel is defined by three specific pieces of information:(1) The Wheel SizeWheel size is the measure of the overall diameter, wheel thickness and holediameter quoted in mm:Diameter (D) x Thickness (T) x Bore (B)Diameter and thickness are usually represented as nominal dimensions butthe bore size is given to two decimal places. (2) The Shape and Minor DimensionsGrinding wheels are available in a vast range of shapes. Below are severalexamples of International Standard Shapes:
D
D
D
D
D
K
B
EU
J
UB
J
E
T
K W
B
K
J
T
E
W
J
B
D
P F
E T
B
D
B E
T
W
U
T
D
W
D
J
B U
T
T
B
T
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A B R A S I V E SGrind ing Wheels
How a Grinding Wheel is Defined (continued)(3) DesignationThe specification of a grinding wheel is given by the designation mark which is made up of six basic parts:
Abrasive Grain Size Grade Bond TypeType
ALUMINIUM OXIDE COARSE SOFT
Friable White WA 8 E
Pink 41A 10 F VITRIFIED
Ruby 46A 14 H VPink 48A 16 I RESINOID
20 B
Regular A 24 MEDIUM
Rubernite RA MEDIUM J RUBBER
Mixtures MA (WA+A) 30 K R
36 L
46 M SHELLAC
SILICON CARBIDE 60 HARD E
Regular C 80 N
*Black BC 100 O
120 P
150 Q
FINE R
180 VERY HARD
220 S
240 T
280 U
VERY FINE V
320 W
400 X
500 Y
600 Z
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A B R A S I V E S
Abrasive Types
Regular Aluminium OxideTough form of aluminium oxide whichcontains 3% titanium oxide. Furtheroxidation of the titanium oxide occurs attemperatures above 1250°C causing thecolour to change from the usual brown to agrey-blue. Suitable for grinding high tensilestrength materials.
White Aluminium OxideProduces wheels with high friability (theability to fracture, exposing sharp cuttingedges) due to the highly refined aluminiumoxide containing over 99% pure alumina.Suitable for precision grinding hardened orHSS materials.
Semi-Friable Aluminium OxideProduces wheels using an abrasive withfriabil ity, toughness and free cuttingcharacteristics. With good form holding anda high degree of versatility making 48Aabrasive suitable for cylindrical, centreless,crankshaft and angle head grinding.
Pink Aluminium OxideProduces wheels that have highly refinedaluminium oxide containing less than 0.3%of chromium oxide. A pink colour wheel,tougher and less fr iable than whiteabrasive while still retaining free cuttingproperties. Suitable for grinding highalloyed tool steels especially when a coolergrinding action is required.
Rubenite Aluminium OxideHigh performance aluminium oxide abrasiveused on shank mounted points and wheels.With free cutting characteristics. Suitable forgeneral purpose grinding of steels and mostmetals.
Silicon CarbideWheels that are harder than aluminiumoxide type abrasives but brittle. Suitablefor grinding low tensile strength materialssuch as cast iron, non-ferrous metals andnon-metallic materials. Silicon carbide isavailable in three varieties with very similarphysical properties. They are distinguishedby colour; dark green (DC) the mostcommonly used, black silicon carbide (BC)is for roughing operations and light greencarbide (GC) for specific applications.
Grind ing Wheels
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Abrasive MixturesBy mixing different types of abrasives a large range of wheels can beproduced with very different characteristics to meet specific needs.
Grain SizeThe grain or grit size is important for determining a wheels ability toproduce the required surface finish and stock removal. Grain size is denotedby a number which increases as grain sizes decrease, i.e. 10 grit, grain size= 2.00mm, 60 grit, grain size = 0.25mm. Standard sizes are used for allwheels in Europe as specified in the European Standards laid down by FEPA(Federation of European Producers of Abrasive Products).
A wheel will have the following characteristics as the grit size is madeprogressively finer: • It will cut more slowly.• It will produce a finer surface finish.• It will be more resistant to dressing by the component being ground.• It will be more likely to produce chatter marks if the grade is too hard.• The minimum form radius that can be ground will decrease.A coarser grit wheel will act in the following way:• It will be freer cutting.• It will produce a coarser surface finish.• It will be less resistant to dressing by the workpiece.• The minimum form radius that can be ground will increase.
Bond TypeVitrified BondThese wheels have a porous structure of abrasive particles bonded togetherby bridges of glass or similar vitreous material. Other fusible materials areused in formulating bonds to produce a wide range of structures each withits own characteristics. The wheels are kiln fired at temperatures exceeding1000°, because of this they are unaffected by heat generated during normalgrinding processes. Suitable for precision grinding due to their high rigidity,they can be fractured by mechanical forces.
Organic BondsOrganic bonds such as resinoid, rubber and shellac are cured at relativelylow temperatures, when compared to vitrified bonds. Their resistance tomechanical forces can be affected by the heat generated when grindingcausing the wheel to wear quickly or fracture easily. This can be altered bycontrolling the heat resistance of the bond.
Resinoid BondBased on thermosetting phenolic resin, to which fillers maybe added toimprove the mechanical properties of the wheel. As these wheels aretougher and less rigid than vitrified wheels, they are suitable for heavy stockremoval. They also produce finer finish.
Rubber BondRubber bonded wheels are suitable for grinding operations where a finefinish is necessary and on wet cutting off operations where a high degree ofaccuracy and quality of cut are required. Used for most centreless controlwheels.
Shellac BondThese wheels are cool cutting and produce very fine finishes. this makesthem particularly suitable for applications with minimal heat generation orfor grinding very soft materials such as copper.
A B R A S I V E SGrind ing Wheels
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Special TreatmentsFor particular applications it has been found beneficial to impregnate somewheels with special additives. Sulphur is most commonly used for theimpregnation of vitrified wheels, this prevents wheel loading in applicationswhere it is difficult to apply grinding fluid to the point of contact, particularlywith a large contact area.
Impregnating wax into the wheel allows it to be used for the dry grinding ofvery soft materials to avoid loading of the wheel face. Treating the wheelwith resin enables a wheel to withstand severe grinding conditions.
GradeGrade is not a measurement of abrasive hardness it is a measurement ofthe bonding strength of a wheel which effects both the hardness and theway in which it it loses abrasive grains when grinding. It is an indication ofthe durability/hardness of the wheel against wear. As it is possible to bonda very hard abrasive to a very soft wheel which will make the wheel morefree cutting and fast wearing but if the bond strength is increased thewheel will become harder.
The grade of a grinding wheel is denoted by letters of the alphabet rangingfrom “E” very soft to “Z” for the hardest. This indicates the relationship ofone wheel to the next in a particular group. Softer grade wheels will appearto have an open structure as there is a higher proportion of open poresdue to a decrease of bonding type, when compared to harder wheel. Softwheels should not be confused with open structure wheels.
Wear Characteristics
Soft: Free cutting. Wears more quickly. Produces slightly coarsersurface finish.
Hard: Will cut and wear more slowly. Resistant to dressing by the component being ground. Produces a good surface finish.
StructureThe structure of a wheel defines how closely packed the abrasive grainsare. The openness or closeness of the wheel is denoted numerically 1 or 2for close grain and up to 15 or more for open grain structures
A B R A S I V E S Grind ing Wheels
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A B R A S I V E S
HandlingAll grinding wheels can be easily damaged by mishandling that results inthe wheel being subjected to any shock loading. This can occur byinadvertently dropping, knocking or banging against any other object.
Any grinding wheel subjected to such mishandling should be carefullyexamined for signs of damage. If in doubt do not use.
Storage• Small wheels up to 80mm diameter, together with cones, plugs,
mounted points and wheels should be stored in suitable bins, draweror boxes to prevent damage.
• Type 2 cylinder wheels, type 6 straight cups wheels, type 12 dish wheels and type 13 saucer wheels should normally be stacked on flat sides with cushioning material between them.
• Thick rim and hard grade cylinder and straight cup wheels should bestored on their periphery as for plain wheels.
• Soft grade, straight cup wheels and type 11 taper cut wheels, should be stored base to base and rim to rim to prevent chipping of edges andcracking of walls.
• Thin plain wheels, such as cut-off wheels or saw sharpening wheels should be stacked on a flat surface of steel, or similar rigid material.
• Other plain or shaped wheels, are best supported on their periphery inracks. The racks should provide cushioned, two point cradle support toprevent the wheels from rolling.
Plain Wheels
Plates
Large plainwheels
Flat cutting-offwheel
Largecentrelesswheel
Cylindricalcups
Profile wheels
Thick hardcylinders
Cup Wheels
Thin wall & soft cylinders
separators(blotters)
Medium size plainwheels
Grind ing Wheels
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A B R A S I V E S Grind ing Wheels
Storage Conditions
During storage, grinding wheels must not be subjected to:• Humidity, water or other liquids.• Freezing temperatures.• Any temperature low enough to cause the formation of condensation.
Shelf Life of Resinoid, Rubber and Shellac Boned Wheels
Organically bonded wheels which are stored for a long time may have theouter edges affected by oxidation. These wheels should not be stored formore than two years. If there is any doubt contact the manufacturer.
Ring Test
The ring test can be performed to indicate if a wheel is cracked. The wheelis lightly tapped with a light non-metallic implement. If a clear note isemitted the wheel is not cracked, if it is cracked a dull note is emitted asthe crack dampens the sound. The ring test is dependant on theinterpretation by the inspector and is primarily for vitrified bond wheels.
To perform the ring test: • A light non-metallic implement is used to gently tap the wheel about 45°
each side of the vertical centre line and about 25 to 50mm from theouter edge as indicated in the diagram.
• Rotate the wheel 45° and repeat the test. Large, thick wheels may be given the ring test by striking on the outer edge rather than the side.A sound, undamaged wheel will omit a clear note. If cracked, there will be a dull note and the wheel should not be used.
45° 45°
Floor
Tap here
45° 45°
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SafetyThe storage, movement and use of grinding wheels are governed bystringent safety standards, the points below are a brief check list toserve as a reminder of those standards involved in the storage,movement and use of grinding wheels.
1. Grinding wheels should always be stored and handled carefully.Storage areas should be dry and free from large temperaturevariations. As prolonged storage of wheels may adversely affect theircondition, wheels should be used within two years of purchase.
2. The shape, size & specification of wheel should always be appropriatefor the job it is to be used on.
3. Before mounting the grinding wheel, it must be examined for anyvisual indication of damage. A ring test must be carried out on vitrifiedwheels.
4. Grinding wheels must only be mounted by a trained person who hasbeen certified as competent to mount abrasive wheels.
5. Most wheels require side plates and compressible washers for
mounting to transfer the driving forces from the machine spindle to the
grinding wheel.
6. Wheels must always be a good fit on the spindle. Wheels which aretoo tight a fit should not be mounted.
7. After mounting or remounting a grinding wheel onto a machine. Standwell clear and allow the wheel to run free for a short period of time.
Always treat a remounted wheelas a new wheel.
8. The initial speed of thewheel at ful l diameter
should not exceedthe maximumoperating speed(MOS) specif ied forthat wheel.
P r o t e c t i v eclothing ande y eprotection,or faceshields, mustbe worn at allt imes in anarea wheregrinding is inprogress.
Grinding Wheels A B R A S I V E S
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Trouble ShootingListed below are common problems that may be encountered duringgrinding operations. The problem, possible cause and remedy actions areshown. There may be more than one cause to a particular problem, andseveral suggested remedies in some cases.Problems Likely Cause Remedy
Chatter Marks Machine vibration Check for wear in machine bearings
Wheel out of balance Balance wheelWheel out of true Re-dress wheelWheel mounting Tighten wheelinsecure mountingWorkpiece centre loose Adjust centres
Surface scratches Wheel too soft Use finer dresser,Decrease workspeed,Use harder wheel
Coolant dirty Replace coolantCheck filtration
Spiral marks Dressing techniques Check diamond is sharp and secure,Check dress is parallel
Finish too coarse Wheel too coarse Use fine, slow traverse dress,Use finer grit wheel
Wheel too soft Decrease WorkspeedUse harder grade wheel
Metal pickup on wheel Dress more frequently,Use more open, softergrade wheel
Wheel not holding Wheel too soft Decrease workspeed,form Use harder grade wheel
Burning on diameter Wheel too coarse Use finer grit wheelWheel too hard Increase workspeed
Use softer grade wheel,Use more free cuttingabrasive
Burning on shoulders Wheel sides rubbing Relief dress wheel sidesshoulderCoolant shortage Increase coolant flow
to contact point
Workpiece not Dirt in centre holes Clean and lubricate parallel centres
Workpiece mis-aligned Check alignmentWorkpiece flexing Use steadiesExcess wheel wear Decrease workspeed
Dress with slow, finetraverse
Wheel allowed to Keep 1/3 to 1/2 wheeltraverse beyond end of width in contactworkpiece during grinding
Workpiece not round Wheel too hard Increase work speed, Use coarser dresser,Use softer grade wheel
Workpiece misaligned Check centres and chuck centralisation
Wheel not cutting Wheel glazing Increase workspeed,Use coarse dress,Use softer grade wheel
A B R A S I V E S Grind ing Wheels
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Hand Pads A B R A S I V E S
Fibre Hand PadsA range of non-woven fibre hand pads for cleaning, blending and finishing
applications. Size: 155 x 225mm.
White Non-abrasive: For removal of oxides & coatings, overspray on glass
and brightwork, cleaning glass, ceramics, rubber and alloy wheels.
Produces a scratch free finish.
Grey XX-Fine: Silicon Carbide. For light finishing on all materials, for keying
of lacquer when making spot repairs, fading of basecoat and clear coat
system repairs.
Green X-Fine: Aluminium Silicate. A general purpose conformable hand pad
which gives a slightly coarser finish than the maroon hand pad. For
polishing, cleaning, finishing, removing corrosion and surface preparation
Maroon Fine: Aluminium Oxide. General purpose hand pad for cleaning and
light finishing of stainless steel, finishing wood, sateening brass and
aluminium, light oxide removal, surface preparation prior to painting It can
also be used for lacquer de-nibbing and matt finishing on solid surfaces.
Black Medium: Silicon Carbide. For medium to coarse finishing and
blending & matching stainless steel, de-burring wood, preparing paint and
surface finishes
Brown Coarse: Aluminium Oxide. Heaviest duty pad in the range. For
blending and matching stainless steel,
removing scale & corrosion, cleaning rust,
light deburring of sheet metal
edges to improve handling.
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A B R A S I V E S Mounted Po ints
Shape A14 A15 A21 A22 A23Grade RA60 RA80 RA60 RA60 RA60Diameter 18mm 6mm 25mm 19mm 19mmLength 22mm 27mm 25mm 16mm 25mm
Max. rpm 55,000 55,000 34,000 51,000 39,000
Shape A6 A8 A11 A12 A13Grade RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46Diameter 19mm 21mm 21mm 18mm 28mmLength 28mm 45mm 50mm 32mm 28mm
Max. rpm 39,000 20,000 20,000 48,000 34,000
Shape A1 A2 A3 A4 A5Grade RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46Diameter 20mm 25mm 25mm 32mm 20mmLength 63mm 32mm 70mm 32mm 28mm
Max. rpm 20,000 38,000 16,000 30,000 45,000
‘A’ ShapeShank Diameter 6mm
Mounted Points and WheelsSuitable for portable die and straight hand grinders. All points arealuminium oxide with “rubeniteTM” as standard. Used for all generalpurpose grinding and deburring on steels and most metals. Alsoavailable as silicon carbide grade suitable for stone/non-ferrousgrinding. Maximum speeds are quoted assuming that collet to backof point does not exceed 12.7mm (1/2”) and are for guidance only.
See Page 11 and 12 for grade explanation.
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Mounted Po ints A B R A S I V E S
Shape A24 A25 A26 A31 A32
Grade RA80 RA60 RA60 RA46 RA46Diameter 6mm 25mm 16mm 35mm 25mmLength 20mm 25mm 16mm 25mm 16mm
Max. rpm 70,000 35,000 60,000 25,000 38,000
Shape A33 A34 A35 A36 A37
Grade RA46 RA46 RA46 RA80 RA80Diameter 25mm 38mm 25mm 40mm 32mmLength 13mm 9mm 10mm 10mm 6mm
Max. rpm 38,000 25,000 38,000 23,000 30,000
Shape A38 A39
Grade RA60 RA60Diameter 25mm 19mmLength 25mm 19mm
Max. rpm 35,000 47,000
‘A’ Shape (continued)Shank Diameter 6mm
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A B R A S I V E S Mounted Po ints
‘B’ Shape
Shank Diameter 3mm
Shape B41 B42 B43 B44 B45
Grade RA80 RA80 RA100 RA100 RA100Diameter 16mm 13mm 6mm 6mm 5mmLength 16mm 19mm 8mm 10mm 8mm
Max. rpm 34,000 33,000 80,000 68,000 100,000
Shape B46 B47 B51 B52 B53
Grade RA120 RA120 RA80 RA80 RA100Diameter 3mm 3mm 12mm 10mm 8mmLength 8mm 4mm 19mm 20mm 16mm
Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 45,000 45,000 60,000
Shape B54 B55 B61 B62 B63
Grade RA100 RA100 RA80 RA80 RA100Diameter 6mm 3mm 19mm 13mm 6mmLength 13mm 6mm 8mm 10mm 5mm
Max. rpm 60,000 100,000 38,000 41,000 92,000
Shape B64 B65 B70 B71 B73
Grade RA120 RA120 RA120 RA120 RA120Diameter 6mm 3mm 19mm 16mm 13mmLength 2mm 3mm 3mm 2.4mm 3mm
Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 50,000 60,000 73,000
CROMWELL
23
Mounted Po ints A B R A S I V E S
‘B’ Shape (continued)
Shank Diameter 3mm
Shape B81 B82 B83 B84 B91
Grade RA120 RA120 RA120 RA120 RA120Diameter 19mm 13mm 10mm 8mm 13mmLength 9mm 6mm 5mm 5mm 16mm
Max. rpm 50,000 76,000 87,000 100,000 34,000
Shape B92 B93 B94 B95 B96
Grade RA120 RA120 RA120 RA100 RA100Diameter 6mm 5mm 4.5mm 3mm 3mmLength 6mm 5mm 2.5mm 5mm 6mm
Max. rpm 81,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000
Shape B97 B101 B102 B103 B104
Grade RA100 RA100 RA180 RA80 RA100Diameter 3mm 16mm 16mm 16mm 8mmLength 10mm 18mm 13mm 5mm 10mm
Max. rpm 100,000 33,000 44,000 61,000 68,000
Shape B105 B106 B111 B112 B113
Grade RA120 RA100 RA100 RA120 RA80Diameter 6mm 3mm 12mm 10mm 6mmLength 6mm 3mm 18mm 13mm 6mm
Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 33,000 45,000 70,000
CROMWELL
24
A B R A S I V E S Mounted Po ints
‘B’ Shape (continued)
Shank Diameter 3mm
Shape B114 B115 B121 B122 B123
Grade RA80 RA100 RA120 RA120 RA80Diameter 6mm 2.5mm 13mm 10mm 5mmLength 10mm 3mm 13mm 10mm 5mm
Max. rpm 68,000 100,000 45,000 61,000 100,000
Shape B124 B131 B132 B135
Grade RA120 RA80 RA80 RA120Diameter 3mm 13mm 10mm 6mmLength 3mm 13mm 13mm 13mm
Max. rpm 100,000 34,000 45,000 60,000
Shape W142 W143 W144 W145 W146
Grade RA120 RA120 RA100 RA80 RA80Diameter 2.5mm 3mm 3mm 3mm 3mmLength 6mm 3mm 6mm 10mm 13mm
Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000
Shape W147 W149 W151 W152 W153
Grade RA120 RA120 RA120 RA100 A120Diameter 4mm 4mm 5mm 5mm 5mmLength 0.8mm 6mm 3mm 6mm 10mm
Max. rpm 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 80,000
‘W’ ShapeShank Dia. 3mm
CROMWELL
25
Mounted Po ints A B R A S I V E S
Shape W154 W158 W159 W160 W162
Grade RA80 RA120 RA100 RA80 RA80Diameter 5mm 6mm 6mm 6mm 6mmLength 13mm 3mm 5mm 6mm 10mm
Max. rpm 70,000 90,000 92,000 81,000 68,000
‘W’ Shape (continued)Shank Dia. 3mm
Shape W163 W164 W167 W170 W171
Grade RA80 RA80 RA60 RA60 RA60Diameter 6mm 6mm 8mm 8mm 8mmLength 13mm 20mm 6mm 13mm 19mm
Max. rpm 60,000 55,000 60,000 40,000 36,000
Shape W173 W174 W175 W176 W177
Grade RA80 RA60 RA60 RA60 RA60Diameter 10mm 10mm 10mm 10mm 10mmLength 3mm 6mm 10mm 13mm 20mm
Max. rpm 70,000 60,000 50,000 45,000 33,000
Shape W178 W179 W182 W183 W184
Grade RA60 RA60 RA60 RA80 RA80Diameter 10mm 10mm 13mm 13mm 13mmLength 25mm 32mm 3mm 6mm 10mm
Max. rpm 26,000 25,000 70,000 70,000 70,000
CROMWELL
26
A B R A S I V E S Mounted Po ints
Shape W192 W193 W194 W195 W196
Grade RA80 RA60 RA60 RA60 RA60Diameter 16mm 16mm 16mm 16mm 16mmLength 6mm 10mm 13mm 19mm 25mm
Max. rpm 61,000 61,000 56,000 46,000 32,000
Shape W197 W200 W201 W202 W203
Grade RA60 RA80 RA60 RA60 RA60Diameter 16mm 20mm 20mm 20mm 20mmLength 50mm 3mm 6mm 10mm 13mm
Max. rpm 21,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 25,000
‘W’ Shape (continued)Shank Dia. 6mmexceptW200 = 3mm
Shape W185 W186 W187 W188 W191
Grade RA60 RA60 RA60 RA60 RA80Diameter 13mm 13mm 13mm 13mm 16mmLength 13mm 20mm 25mm 38mm 3mm
Max. rpm 34,500 51,000 40,500 30,370 61,120
Shape W204 W205 W208 W211 W212
Grade RA60 RA36 RA46 RA80 RA60Diameter 19mm 20mm 20mm 22mm 22mmLength 19mm 25mm 50mm 3mm 6mm
Max. rpm 42,000 34,000 18,000 43,000 33,000
CROMWELL
27
Mounted Po ints A B R A S I V E S
‘W’ Shape (contiued)Shank Diameter 6mm except W244 = 10mm
Shape W215 W216 W217 W218 W219
Grade RA80 RA46 RA46 RA80 RA46Diameter 25mm 25mm 25mm 25mm 25mmLength 3mm 6mm 10mm 13mm 19mm
Max. rpm 38,000 38,000 38,000 38,000 35,000
Shape W220 W222 W225 W226 W227
Grade RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46Diameter 25mm 25mm 32mm 32mm 32mmLength 25mm 50mm 6mm 9.5mm 13mm
Max. rpm 25,000 15,900 30,000 30,000 30,000
Shape W230 W236 W238 W242 W244
Grade RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46 RA46Diameter 32mm 38mm 38mm 50mm 50mmLength 32mm 13mm 38mm 25mm 50mmMax. rpm 20,000 25,000 15,000 11,000 11,000
CROMWELL
28
A B R A S I V E S Spindle Mounted
Cartridge RollsSpirally wound aluminium oxide cloth rollthat constantly wears in use exposingnew abrasive. Used for weld flashremoval, deburring, blending andpolishing applications. Available in twotypes, straight and taper.
Flap WheelsShaft mounted flap wheels can be usedin portable air or electric power tools,including tyre buffers, flexible shaftsand hand drills. Manufactured fromhighest quality industrial cloth. Used fora wide range of applications such asremoval of rust, cleaning up welds andsanding wood prior to painting.
Available sizes (diameter x height)
30 x 10mm, 30 x 15mm,
40 x 15mm, 40 x 20mm, 40 x 25mm,40 x 30mm,
50 x 10mm, 50 x 15mm, 50 x 20mm,50 x 25mm, 50 x 30mm
60 x 20mm, 60 x 25mm, 60 x 30mm,60 x 40mm, 60 x 50mm,
80 x 20mm, 80 x 25mm, 80 x 30mm,80 x 40mm, and 80mm x 50mm,
Roll Dia.Maxrpm
12mm 22,00019mm 18,00025mm 10,000
Wheel Dia.Maxrpm
30mm 20,40040mm 15,30050mm 12,30060mm 10,20080mm 7,700
Sanding Bands/DrumsAluminium oxide spiral wound with tearresistant backing fabric. For grindingand finishing edges, profiles, weldedjoints, most metals etc. For use withpower tools.
GradesP60 = Coarse.P80 = Medium.P150 = Fine.
Available sizes: - (Diameter x Width)10 x 10, 10 x 20, 13 x 10, 13 x 25, 15x 10, 15 x 30, 19 x 25, 22 x 20, 25 x25, 30 x 20, 38 x 30, 38 x 25, 45 x 30,51 x 25, 60 x 30, 75 x 30 and 100 x 40mm.
Max Operating Speeds(Peripheral=25m/sec)
Sanding Band/Drum Holders
Suitable for use with chucks/collets onall portable power and air tools. For usewith spiral bound abrasive sandingbands. Self expanding when in use for asecure grip on the band.
Band Rotation(Holder Stationary)
Spindle RotationDuring Use (Holder Expands)
29
Spindle Mounted A B R A S I V E S
Band Dia.Max(rpm)
10mm 47,50013mm 36,50015mm 31,50019mm 25,00022mm 21,50025mm 19,00030mm 15,80038mm 12,50045mm 10,50051mm 9,30060mm 7,90075mm 6,300
100mm 4,700
30
A B R A S I V E S Spindle Mounted
Screw Fitting DiscsFor general use including blendingwelds and removing machiningmarks. Also suitable for use on mildcontours as well as flat surfaces.Quick change screw fitting ensuresthat the disc is always perfectlycentred without adhesive, movingparts or centre screw damage to theworkpiece. Higher speeds can beattained resulting in faster stockremoval reduced man-hours andincreased productivity. Available in 2abrasive types, aluminium oxide forgeneral purpose use and zirconiaalumina for grinding and finishing ofstainless steels. Available in 25mm, 38mm, 50mm,75mm and 100mm diameters for theabrasive discs. Also available in asurface preparation material that isdesigned for smoothing surfacesprior to painting, removing rust,oxides, imperfections and blendingout grit disc marks to produce finefinishes on metal.
Disc Dia.Maxrpm
25mm 25,00038mm 22,00050mm 20,00075mm 18,000
A S S E M B L Y
AS
SE
MB
LY
31
Eyebolts 32 - 36
Geometrical Tolerancing 37
Hole & Shaft Tolerances 38 - 39
Screw & Hole Sizes 40
Spanner & Key Clearances 41
Tightening Torques 42
Section
2
BS4278 covers three types of eyebolt, namely collared eyebolts, eyeboltswith link, and dynamo eyebolts.
Dynamo eyebolts are intended for vertical loading only, whereas the othertwo types of eyebolt can be used at inclined angles.
Collar eyebolts are intended for permanent attachment to heavy itemswhich may need to be lifted; they will normally be fitted in pairs for use withshackles and a two-leg sling. It is important that pairs of collar eyeboltsshould be carefully fitted.
The eyebolt with link is intended for general lifting purposes. It should beused in place of the collar eyebolt whenever the loading cannot be confinedto a single point. It may be loaded in any direction to its full ratingprovided that the angle of the load to the axis of its screw thread does notexceed 15°. At greater inclinations the load must be reduced, but shorterlink lengths and larger screw threads allow these loads for inclined liftingto be about double those for the collar eyebolt.
The Dynamo eyebolt is intended for vertical lifting only; loading out of thevertical by even 5° over stress the screw thread. Dynamo eyebolts must belifted only in circumstances where the need to ensure accurately verticalloadings is thoroughly appreciated and habitually observed; in all othercircumstances the collar eyebolt or the eyebolt with link must be used.
The inspecting authorities, manufacturers and users of eyebolts haveexpressed serious concern about the possibility of an accident beingcaused by eyebolts with metric threads being screwed inadvertently intotapped holes having a BSW or UNC thread; or visa versa. Leaving asideforce fits the following thread sizes, for example, could be wrongly matchedwith a risk that the eyebolt could ‘pull-out’ below its design load e.g. 3/4
BSW or UNC eyebolt could fit in M20 hole.
The possibility of mixing threads has always existed but has beenaccentuated by the change to metric. Users are urged to take steps toavoid threads being mixed and in particular it is suggested that all tappedholes be identified with marks identical to those specified for eyebolts.
i.e. Metric: BSW: UNC with symbols as large as possible.
32
ISO Metric Coarse BSW UNC
Eyebolt Hole Eyebolt Hole Eyebolt Hole
- M20 3/4 - 3/4 -M24 7/8 - 7/8 -
M24 - - 1 - 1M30 11/8 - 11/8 -
M30 - - 11/4 - 11/4
A S S E M B L Y Eyebolts
Correct Fitting of Eyebolts
Contact Between Collar and SeatingThe underside of the collar of every eyebolt and the seating onto which it isscrewed down must be in firm contact over the whole perimeter, otherwiseany non-axial loading will be liable to over stress the screw thread.
Correct Fitting of Pairs of Collar EyeboltsThe plane of the eye of each of a pair of collar eyebolts must not beinclined to the plane containing the axis of the two eyebolts by more than5°. If at first fitting this condition is not fulfiled, it is to be achieved bymachining the underside of the collar, care being taken to preserveaccurate perpendicularity to the axis.
The load applied to a collar eyebolt must always lie in the plane of the eye.When two pairs of eyebolts are fitted to a single item, it is recommendedthat they be used with two-leg slings and a spreader bar and in all casesprecise instructions as to the proper method of lifting should always beavailable and clearly understood prior to lifting taking place.
Correct and Incorrect Methods of Slicing
The ‘correct‘ methods are permissible for eyebolts with collars (as shown),and also for eyebolts with links. They are not correct for dynamo eyebolts,which are designed for vertical lift only.
Correct Correct
Load
Load Load
Incorrect Incorrect
33
Eyebolts A S S E M B L Y
LOAD
LOAD LOAD
LOAD
34
A S S E M B L Y Eyebolts
B. Dia. C. DIa.
ThreadSize A
G
W
Ø
F
H
J
D
K
L. Rad.
L.Rad.
K. Rad.
J. Rad.
Note: Eyebolts with smaller thread than M12 are unsuitable for normallifting purposes.
CollaredEyebolts
Maximum recommended working loads for Collar eyebolts when used in pairs for inclined loading conditions.
SafeA
WorkingMetric
LoadThread
B C D E F G H J K L
(Vertical)
0.32 M12 22 15 7 15 9 20 18 1 3 9
0.63 M16 29 20 10 20 12 26 23 1 3 12
1.25 M20 40 27 14 27 16 36 32 1 5 16
2.00 M24 52 35 17 35 21 46 40 2 6 21
3.20 M30 65 44 22 44 26 58 51 2 7 26
Safe working loadMaximum load W to be lifted by a pair of
(Single eyebolt vertical)eyebolts when the angle between the sling leg is Ø
0°° < Ø < 30°° 30°° < Ø < 60°° 60°° < Ø < 90°°Metric tonne force tonne f. tonne f. tonne f.
1.25 1.60 1.00 0.63
2.00 2.50 1.60 1.00
3.20 4.00 2.50 1.60
Reduction factor 0.63 0.40 0.25
E.Dia.
35
Eyebolts A S S E M B L Y
Safe working loadMaximum load W to be lifted by a pair of
(Single eyebolt vertical)eyebolts when the angle between the sling leg is Ø
0°° < Ø < 30°° 30°° < Ø < 60°° 60°° < Ø < 90°°Metric tonne force tonne f. tonne f. tonne f.
1.25 2.50 2.00 1.60
2.00 4.00 3.20 2.50
Reduction factor 1.00 0.80 0.63
Ld
Bd
D
H
J GM
F
d
K
B DIa.
L Rad.
J Rad.
C Rad.
ThreadSize A
W
ØMaximum recommended working loads for Eyebolts with links when used in pairs for inclined loading conditions.
SafeA
Link
WorkingMetric
LoadThread B C D F G H J K L M d Bd Ld
(Vertical)
0.80 M20 39 24 9 12 20 27 1 4 14 12 13 24 53
1.25 M24 47 26 11 14 23 32 1 5 16 14 15 29 63
2.00 M30 60 37 14 18 30 41 2 6 21 18 19 37 80
LinkedEyebolts
36
A S S E M B L Y Eyebolts
Safe
Working
Load A B D E F G H K
(Vertical)
0.32 M12 17 5 22 9 27 18 3
0.63 M16 23 6 29 11 34 23 3
1.25 M20 32 9 40 15 47 32 5
2.00 M24 40 12 51 19 60 40 6
3.20 M30 51 14 64 24 76 51 7
Dynamo Eyebolts are to be used only for direct lift. If fitted in pairs ingroups a spreader frame must always be used.
B. Dia.
G
H
K
D
ThreadSize A
F
E.Dia.
DynamoEyebolts
37
Geometrical Tolerancing A S S E M B L Y
Tolerances The following extracts have been taken from BS 308 : 1990, for furtherexplanation the full standard should be consulted. Geometric tolerancingdefines relationships between different features on a component. Forexample, squareness, roundness, parallelism, flatness or concentricity canbe defined in two ways:
(a) Dependency where the limits are intended to exercise control overthe form of the feature as well as the size.
(b) Independency, where the limits of size are intended to exercisecontrol over the size of the feature only and not over its form.
Tolerance Feature and Datum Feature
Surface finish
Straightness Flatness
Roundness(Circularity)
Cylindricity
Parallelism
Perpendicularity(Squareness)
Angularity Position
Co-axiality/Concentricity
CircularRun outTotal run out
Symbols and Their Meanings
± 1’ 0.02A B
Symbol of tolerancecharacteristic
Tolerance value
Surfacefinish
Squareness
Tolerance
Datum Letter
Datum letter
Datum triangle
Datum feature
Tolerancefeature
Means:must beparallel
to featureB to within
0.02mm
Means:Squarenessto within 1minute tofeature A
M P
50 (50)
Ø6A1
15 8X R
Datum letter
A
Profile ofa Line
Profile ofa Surface
At MaximumMaterialCondition
ProjectedTolerance Zone
Datum Target
DiameterBasicDimension
ReferenceDimension
Target Point Conical Taper Slope Square (Shape)
Dimensionnot to Scale
Number ofTimes/Places
Radius
38
A S S E M B L Y Hole & Shaft To lerances
Clearance Fits Diagram to scale for 25mm Dia.
+
0
-
Holes
H11
c11
d10
e9
f7
g6h6
H9 H9
H8
H7 H7
Shafts
Nom Sizes Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance
Over To H11 c11 H9 d10 H9 e9 H8 f7 H7 e8 H7 g6 H7 h6mm mm 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
- 3 +60 -60 +25 -20 +25 -14 +14 -6 +10 -14 +10 -2 +10 -60 -120 0 -60 0 -39 0 -16 0 -28 0 -8 0 0
3 6 +75 -70 +30 -30 +30 -20 +18 -10 +12 -20 +12 -4 +12 -80 -145 0 -78 0 -50 0 -22 0 -38 0 -12 0 0
6 10 +90 -80 +36 -40 +36 -25 +22 -13 +15 -25 +15 -5 +15 -90 -170 0 -98 0 -61 0 -28 0 -47 0 -14 0 0
10 18 +110 -95 +43 -50 +43 -32 +27 -16 +18 -32 +18 -6 +18 -110 -205 0 -120 0 -75 0 -34 0 -59 0 -17 0 0
18 30 +130 -110 +52 -65 +52 -40 +33 -20 +21 -40 +21 -7 +21 -130 -240 0 -149 0 -92 0 -41 0 -73 0 -20 0 0
30 40 +160 -1200 -280 +62 -80 +62 -50 +39 -25 +25 -50 +25 -9 +25 -16
40 50 +160 -130 0 -180 0 -112 0 -50 0 -89 0 -25 0 00 -290
50 65 +190 -1400 -330 +74 -100 +74 -60 +46 -30 +30 -60 +30 -10 +30 -19
65 80 +190 -150 0 -220 0 -134 0 -60 0 -106 0 -29 0 00 -340
80 100 +220 -1700 -390 +87 -120 +87 -72 +54 -36 +35 -72 +35 -12 +35 -22
100 120 +220 -180 0 -260 0 -159 0 -71 0 -126 0 -34 0 00 -400
120 140 +250 -2000 -450
140 160 +250 -210 +100 -145 +100 -84 +63 -43 -40 -85 -40 -14 +40 -250 -460 0 -305 0 -185 0 -83 0 -148 0 -39 0 0
160 180 +250 -2300 -480
180 200 +290 -2400 -530
200 225 +290 -260 +115 -170 +115 -100 +72 -50 +46 -100 +46 -15 +46 -290 -550 0 -355 0 -215 0 -96 0 -172 0 -44 0 0
225 250 +290 -2800 -570
250 280 +320 -3000 -620 +130 -190 +130 -110 +81 -56 +52 -110 +52 -17 +54 -32
280 315 +320 -330 0 -400 0 -240 0 -108 0 -191 0 -49 0 00 -650
315 355 +360 -3600 -720 +140 -210 +140 -125 +89 -62 +57 -125 +57 -18 +57 -36
355 400 +360 -400 0 -440 0 -265 0 -119 0 -214 0 54 0 00 -760
400 450 +400 -4400 -840 +155 -230 +155 -135 +97 -68 -63 -135 +63 -20 +63 -40
450 500 +400 -480 0 -480 0 -290 0 -131 0 -232 0 -60 0 00 -860
39
Hole & Shaft To lerances A S S E M B L Y
Nom Sizes Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance
Over To H7 k6 H7 n6 H7 p6 H7 s6
mm mm 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
- 3+10 +6 +10 +10 +10 +12 +10 +20
0 0 0 +4 0 +6 0 +14
3 6+12 +9 +12 +16 +12 +20 +12 +27
0 +1 0 +8 0 +12 0 +19
6 10+15 +10 +15 +19 +15 +24 +15 +32
0 +1 0 +10 0 +15 0 +23
10 18+18 +12 +18 +23 +18 +29 +18 +39
0 +1 0 +12 0 +18 0 +28
18 30+21 +15 +21 +28 +21 +35 +21 +48
0 +2 0 +15 0 +22 0 +35
30 40+25 +18 +25 +33 +25 +42 +25 +59
0 +2 0 +17 0 +26 0 +4340 50
50 65+30 +21 +30 +39 +30 +51
+30 +72
0 +2 0 +20 0 +32
0 +53
65 80+30 +78
0 +59
80 100+35 +25 +35 +45 +35 +59
+35 +93
0 +3 0 +23 0 +37
0 +71
100 120+35 +101
0 +79
120 140+40 +117
0 +92
140 160+40 +28 +40 +52 +40 +68 +40 +125
0 +3 0 +27 0 +43 0 +100
160 180+40 +133
0 +108
180 200+46 +151
0 +122
200 225+46 +33 +46 +60 +46 +79 +46 +159
0 +4 0 +31 0 +50 0 +130
225 250+46 +169
0 +140
250 280+52 +36 +52 +66 +52 +88
+52 +190
0 +4 0 +34 0 +56
0 +158
280 315+52 +202
0 +170
315 355+57 +40 +57 +73 +57 +98
+57 +226
0 +4 0 +37 0 +62
0 +190
355 400+57 +244
0 +208
400 450+63 +45 +63 +80 -63 +108
+63 +272
0 +5 0 +40 0 +68
0 +232
450 500+63 +292
0 +252
+
0
+
0
Transition FitsDiagram to scale for 25mm Dia.
Interference Fits
Holes
Shafts
H7k6
H7 n6
H7
p6
H7
s6
40
A S S E M B L Y Screw & Hole S izes (Metr ic )
d5
d1
d3
d3
CHEESE HD.
h1
h2d4
t1 t2
t4
MINIMUM SCREWLENGTH &
TAPPING DEPTHS
FOR UNEVEN
SURFACES
HOLE PITCH TOLERANCE
FOR TOLERANCES. FROM TENON,
DOWEL, SPIGOT, ETC. HALVE
TOLERANCES SHOWN
t5 t6
STEEL
ALU
M.
BR
ON
ZE
d4
SI A/F x K DP
d4
d8
d1
d8
S3A/F
90°
d7
L2
L1
Clearance Hole
BS4186
Med. Fit
Thread Size d1 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30
Thread Pitch 0.5 0.7 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.5 3 3.5
Tap Drill BS3643 Class 6G 2.5 3.3 4.2 5 6.8 8.5 10.2 14 17.5 21 26.5
d4 3.4 4.5 5.5 6.6 9 11 14 18 22 26 33
d5 6 8 10 11 15 18 20 26 32 40 48
d3 5.5 7 8.5 10 13 16 18 24 30 36 45
51 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 14 17 19 22
K 1.3 2 2.7 3.3 4.3 5.5 6.6 8.8 10.7 12.9
h1 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30
t1 3.4 4.6 5.7 6.8 9 11 13 17.5 21.5 25.5 32
h2 2 2.6 3.3 3.9 5 6
t2 2.5 3 3.5 4.7 5.5 6.5
D 9 10 11 13 18 23 26 32 40 48 60
d6 7 9 10 12.5 17 21 24 30 37 44 56
w 0.5 0.8 1 1.6 1.6 2 2.5 3 3 4 4
S2 5.5 7 8 10 13 17 19 24 30 36 46
m1 2.4 3.2 4 5 6.5 8 10 13 16 19 24
v1 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.5 8.3 10.2 12.5 16 19.5 23.5 29
m2 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
v2 6.8 8.2 9.5 11 12.5 14.5 17
e 6.4 8.1 9.2 11.5 15 19.6 21.9 27.7 34.6 41.6 53.1
J1 2 2.8 3.5 4 5.5 7 8 10 13 15 19
d7 6.7 9 11.2 13.4 17.9 22.4 26.9 33.6 40.3
d8 5.8 7.8 9.8 11.7 15.7 19.7 23.7 29.7 35.6
L1 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.7 5 6.2 7.4 8.8 10.2
S3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
d7 6.3 9.0 10.0 12.0 17.0 20.0
d8 5.2 8.0 8.9 10.9 15.4 17.8
L2 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.1 4.3 4.7
±0.15 ±0.15 ±0.15 ±0.2 ±0.3 ±0.3 ±0.4 ±0.4 ±0.5 ±0.5 ±0.5
t4 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30
t5 5 5.5 7 8 10 14 16 20 25 32 36
t6 8 9 11 12 16 20 22 26 32 40 45
t4 4.5 6 7.5 9 12 15 18 24 30 36 45
t5 6.5 7.5 9.5 11 14 19 22 28 35 44 51
t6 9.5 11 13.5 15 20 25 28 34 42 52 60
t4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 60
t5 8 9.5 12 14 18 24 28 36 45 56 66
t6 11 13 16 18 24 30 34 42 52 64 75
d4
d60.1
D
w
d1
v1
v2
S2A/F
d1
j1
e
m1
m2
41
Spanner & Key C learances A S S E M B L Y
For Single End, Double End & Ring Spanners
ThreadAcross
R1 R2Flats - S
T
M4 7 8 18 2.5
M5 8 9 20 2.5
M6 10 10 25 4
M8 13 12 30 4
M10 17 15 35 6
M12 19 17 40 6
M16 24 21 45 10
M20 30 25 50 10
M24 36 30 63 16
M30 46 38 70 16
For Hex. BoxSpanner
Acrossd1Flats - S
d
6 11 15
7 11.5 15
8 13 18
10 16 18
13 20.5 26
17 26 28
19 28.5 33
24 34.5 40
30 42 48
36 50 58
For Hexagon Key
ThreadAcross
Flats - S h
M3 2.5 26
M4 3 30
M5 4 37
M6 5 42
M8 6 49
M10 8 57
M12 10 65
M16 14 88
M20 17 100
M24 19 115
M30 22 135
For Square BoxSpanner
d1Flats - S d
6 12 15
8 16 18
10 20 22
13 24 28
17 34 40
22 42 48
Note: These areminimumclearance forHexagonKeys.
Make surescrew can beassembled.
S S
d
SS
h
T
R2
R1
d1
d
min 60°
d1
42
A S S E M B L Y Tighten ing Torques
Cap Head Screws: ISO Metric Threads
Countersunk Head Screws: ISO Threads
Button Head Screws: ISO Metric Threads
N.B. The tightening torque values for countersunk head and button head screws arerestricted by the related wrench key size.
Nominal Nominal Recommended Tightening Torque Nominal Included LoadSize Wrench Sizemm A/Flats mm lbf in lbf ft Nm lb f kN
M3 2.5 21 2.4 936 4.16M4 3.0 49 5.5 1632 7.26M5 4.0 99 11.2 2640 11.74M6 5.0 168 14 19.0 3744 16.65M8 6.0 407 34 46.0 6804 30.27
M10 8.0 67 91.2 10788 47.99M12 10.0 117 159.1 15684 69.77M16 14.0 291 394.8 29196 129.87M20 17.0 568 770.3 45576 202.73M24 19.0 982 1331.8 65652 292.03
Nominal Nominal Recommended Tightening Torque Nominal Included LoadSize Wrench Sizemm A/Flats mm lbf in lbf ft Nm lb f kN
M3 2.0 18 2.0 625 2.8M4 2.5 35 4.0 937 4.2M5 3.0 58 6.6 1236 5.5M6 4.0 142 12 16.0 2500 11.1M8 5.0 274 23 31.0 3630 16.1
M10 6.0 39 53.0 4964 22.1M12 8.0 94 127.0 9913 44.1M16 10.0 182 247.0 14460 64.3M20 12.0 270 365.0 17094 76.0
Nominal Nominal Recommended Tightening Torque Nominal Included LoadSize Wrench Sizemm A/Flats mm lbf in lbf ft Nm lb f kN
M3 2.0 18 2.0 681 3.0M4 2.5 35 4.0 1020 4.5M5 3.0 58 6.6 1350 6.0M6 4.0 142 12 16.0 2725 12.1M8 5.0 23 31.0 3960 17.6
M10 6.0 39 53.0 5416 24.1M12 8.0 94 127.0 10814 48.1
C O N V E R S I O N S
CO
NV
ER
SIO
NS
43
Fraction-Millimetre-Gauge-Inch 44 - 49
Indexable Inserts: ANSI to ISO 50 - 51
Spanner & Socket Sizes 52 - 55
Surface Finish 56 - 57
Tensile Strength & Hardness 58 - 61
Weights & Measures 62 - 64
Section
3
44
C O N V E R S I O N S Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch
.30 .0118
.32 .0126
.343 80 .0135
.35 .0138
.368 79 .0145
.38 .01501/64 .397 .0156
.40 .0157
.406 78 .0160
.42 .0165
.45 .0177
.457 77 .0180
.48 .0189
.50 .0197
.508 76 .0200
.52 .0205
.533 75 .0210
.55 .0217
.572 74 .0225
.58 .0228
.60 .0236
.610 73 .0240
.62 .0244
.635 72 .0250
.65 .0256
.660 71 .0260
.68 .0268
.70 .0276
.711 70 .0280
.72 .0283
.742 69 .0292
.75 .0295
.78 .0307
.787 68 .03101/32 .794 .0312
.80 .0315
.813 67 .0320
.82 .0323
.838 66 .0330
.85 .0335
.88 .0346
.889 65 .0350
.90 .0354
.914 64 .0360
.92 .0362
.940 63 .0370
.95 .0374
.965 62 .0380
.98 .0386
.991 61 .03901.00 .03941.016 60 .04001.041 59 .04101.05 .0413
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch
1.067 58 .04201.092 57 .04301.10 .04331.15 .04531.181 56 .0465
3/64 1.191 .04691.20 .04721.25 .04921.30 .05121.321 55 .05201.35 .05311.397 54 .05501.40 .05511.45 .05711.50 .05911.511 53 .05951.55 .0610
1/16 1.588 .06251.60 .06301.613 52 .06351.65 .06501.70 .06691.702 51 .06701.75 .06891.778 50 .07001.80 .07091.85 .07281.854 49 .07301.90 .07481.930 48 .07601.95 .0768
5/64 1.984 .07811.994 47 .07852.00 .07872.05 .08072.057 46 .08102.083 45 .08202.10 .08272.15 .08462.184 44 .08602.20 .08662.25 .08862.261 43 .08902.30 .09062.35 .09252.375 42 .0935
3/32 2.381 .09382.40 .09452.438 41 .09602.45 .09652.489 40 .09802.50 .09842.527 39 .09952.55 .1004
45
Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch C O N V E R S I O N S
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch
4.50 .17724.572 15 .18004.60 .18114.623 14 .18204.70 13 .18504.75 .1870
3/16 4.762 .18754.80 12 .18904.851 11 .19104.90 .19294.915 10 .19354.978 9 .19605.00 .19695.055 8 .19905.10 .20085.105 7 .2010
13/64 5.159 .20315.182 6 .20405.20 .20475.220 5 .20555.25 .20675.30 .20875.309 4 .20905.40 .21265.410 3 .21305.50 .2165
7/32 5.556 .21885.60 .22055.613 2 .22105.70 .22445.75 .22645.791 1 .22805.80 .22835.90 .23235.944 A .2340
15/64 5.953 .23446.00 .23626.045 B .23806.10 .24026.147 C .24206.20 .24416.248 D .24606.25 .24616.30 .2480
1/4 6.350 E .25006.40 .25206.50 .25596.528 F .25706.60 .25986.629 G .26106.70 .2638
17/64 6.747 .26566.75 .26576.756 H .2660
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch
2.578 38 .10152.60 .10242.642 37 .10402.65 .10432.70 .10632.705 36 .10652.75 .1083
7/64 2.778 .10942.794 35 .11002.80 .11022.819 34 .11102.85 .11222.870 33 .11302.90 .11422.946 32 .11602.95 .11613.00 .11813.048 31 .12003.10 .1220
1/8 3.175 .12503.20 .12603.25 .12803.264 30 .12853.30 .12993.40 .13393.454 29 .13603.50 .13783.569 28 .1405
9/64 3.572 .14063.60 .14173.658 27 .14403.70 .14573.734 26 .14703.75 .14763.797 25 .14953.80 .14963.861 24 .15203.90 .15353.912 23 .1540
5/32 3.969 .15623.988 22 .15704.00 .15754.039 21 .15904.089 20 .16104.10 .16144.20 .16544.216 19 .16604.25 .16734.30 .16934.305 18 .1695
11/64 4.366 .17194.394 17 .17304.40 .17324.496 16 .1770
46
C O N V E R S I O N S Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch
6.80 .26776.90 .27176.909 I .27207.00 .27567.036 J .27707.10 .27957.137 K .2810
9/32 7.144 .28127.20 .28357.25 .28547.30 .28747.366 L .29007.40 .29137.493 M .29507.50 .2953
19/64 7.541 .29697.60 .29927.671 N .30207.70 .30317.75 .30517.80 .30717.90 .3110
5/16 7.938 .31258.00 .31508.026 O .31608.10 .31898.20 .32288.204 P .32308.25 .32488.30 .3268
21/64 8.334 .32818.40 .33078.433 Q .33208.50 .33468.60 .33868.611 R .33908.70 .3425
11/32 8.731 .34388.75 .34458.80 .34658.839 S .34808.90 .35049.00 .35439.093 T .35809.10 .3583
23/64 9.128 .35949.20 .36229.25 .36429.30 .36619.347 U .36809.40 .37019.50 .3740
3/8 9.525 .37509.576 V .3770
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch
9.6 .37809.7 .38199.75 .38399.8 .38589.804 W .38609.9 .3898
25/64 9.922 .390610.00 .393710.084 X .397010.1 .397610.2 .401610.25 .403510.262 Y .404010.3 .4055
13/32 10.319 .406210.4 .409410.490 Z .413010.5 .413410.6 .417310.7 .4213
27/64 10.716 .421910.75 .423210.8 .425210.9 .429111.00 .433111.1 .4370
7/16 11.112 .437511.2 .440911.25 .442911.3 .444911.4 .448811.5 .4528
29/64 11.509 .453111.6 .456711.7 .460611.75 .462611.8 .464611.9 .4685
15/32 11.906 .468812.00 .472412.1 .476412.2 .480312.25 .482312.3 .4843
31/64 12.303 .484412.4 .488212.5 .492112.6 .4691
1/2 12.7 .500012.75 .502012.8 .503912.9 .507913.00 .5118
33/64 13.097 .5156
47
Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch C O N V E R S I O N S
Fraction Millimetre Inch
13.10 .515713.20 .519713.25 .521713.30 .523613.40 .5276
17/32 13.494 .531213.50 .531513.60 .535413.70 .539413.75 .541313.80 .5433
35/64 13.891 .546913.90 .547214.00 .551214.25 .5610
9/16 14.288 .562514.50 .5709
37/64 14.684 .578114.75 .580715.00 .5906
19/32 15.081 .593815.25 .6004
39/64 15.478 .609415.50 .610215.75 .6201
5/8 15.875 .625016.00 .629916.25 .6398
41/64 16.272 .640616.50 .6496
21/32 16.669 .656216.75 .659417.00 .6693
43/64 17.066 .671917.25 .6791
11/16 17.462 .687517.50 .689017.75 .6988
45/64 17.859 .703118.00 .708718.25 .7185
23/32 18.256 .718818.50 .7283
47/64 18.653 .734418.75 .738219.00 .7480
3/4 19.050 .750019.25 .7579
49/64 19.447 .765619.50 .767719.75 .7776
25/32 19.844 .781220.00 .7874
51/64 20.241 .7969
Fraction Millimetre Inch
20.25 .797220.422 .804020.50 .8071
13/16 20.638 .812520.75 .816921.00 .8268
53/64 21.034 .828121.25 .8366
27/32 21.431 .843821.50 .846521.75 .8563
55/64 21.828 .859422.00 .8661
7/8 22.225 .875022.25 .876022.50 .8858
57/64 22.622 .890622.75 .895723.00 .9055
29/32 23.019 .906223.25 .9154
59/64 23.416 .921923.50 .925223.75 .9350
15/16 23.812 .937524.00 .9449
61/64 24.209 .953124.25 .954724.50 .9646
31/32 24.606 .968824.75 .974425.00 .9843
63/64 25.003 .984425.25 .9941
1 25.400 1.000025.50 1.003925.75 1.0138
11/64 25.797 1.015626.00 1.0236
11/32 26.194 1.031226.25 1.033526.50 1.0433
13/64 26.591 1.046926.75 1.0531
11/16 26.988 1.062527.00 1.063027.25 1.0728
15/64 27.384 1.078127.50 1.082727.75 1.0925
13/32 27.781 1.093828.00 1.1024
17/64 28.178 1.109428.25 1.1122
48
C O N V E R S I O N S Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch
Fraction Millimetre Inch
28.50 1.122011/8 28.575 1.1250
28.75 1.131919/64 28.972 1.1406
29.00 1.141729.25 1.1516
15/32 29.369 1.156229.50 1.161429.75 1.1713
111/64 29.766 1.171930.00 1.1811
13/16 30.162 1.187530.25 1.190930.50 1.2008
113/64 30.559 1.203130.75 1.2106
17/32 30.956 1.218831.00 1.220531.25 1.2303
115/64 31.353 1.234431.50 1.2402
11/4 31.75 1.250032.00 1.2598
117/64 32.147 1.265632.50 1.2795
19/32 32.544 1.281232.766 1.2900
119/64 32.941 1.296933.00 1.2992
15/16 33.338 1.312533.50 1.3189
121/64 33.734 1.328134.00 1.3386
111/32 34.131 1.343834.50 1.3583
123/64 34.528 1.359413/8 34.925 1.3750
35.00 1.3780125/64 35.322 1.3906
35.50 1.3976113/32 35.719 1.4062
36.00 1.4173127/64 36.116 1.4219
36.50 1.437017/16 36.512 1.4375129/64 36.909 1.4531
37.00 1.4567115/32 37.306 1.4688
37.50 1.4764131/64 37.703 1.4844
38.00 1.496111/2 38.100 1.5000133/64 38.497 1.5156
38.50 1.5157
Fraction Millimetre Inch
117/32 38.894 1.531239.00 1.5354
135/64 39.291 1.546939.50 1.5551
19/16 39.688 1.562540.00 1.5748
137/64 40.084 1.5781119/32 40.481 1.5938
40.50 1.5945139/64 40.878 1.6094
41.00 1.614215/8 41.275 1.6250
41.50 1.6339141/64 41.672 1.6406
42.00 1.6535121/32 42.069 1.6562143/64 42.466 1.6719
42.50 1.6732111/16 42.862 1.6875
43.00 1.6929145/64 43.259 1.7031
43.50 1.7126123/32 43.656 1.7188
44.00 1.7323147/64 44.053 1.734413/4 44.450 1.7500
44.50 1.7520149/64 44.847 1.7656
45.00 1.7717125/32 45.244 1.7812
45.50 1.7913151/64 45.641 1.7969
46.00 1.8110113/16 46.038 1.8125153/64 46.434 1.8281
46.50 1.8307127/32 46.831 1.8438
47.00 1.8504155/64 47.228 1.8594
47.50 1.870117/8 47.625 1.8750
48.00 1.8898157/64 48.022 1.8906129/32 48.419 1.9062
48.50 1.9094159/64 48.816 1.9219
49.00 1.9291115/16 49.212 1.9375
49.50 1.9488161/64 49.609 1.9531
50.00 1.9685131/32 50.006 1.9688163/64 50.403 1.9844
50.50 1.9882
49
Fraction � Millimetre � Gauge � Inch C O N V E R S I O N S
Fraction Millimetre Inch
215/16 74.612 2.937575.00 2.9528
231/32 75.406 2.968876.00 2.9921
3 76.200 3.000031/32 76.994 3.0312
77.00 3.031531/16 77.788 3.0625
78.00 3.070933/32 78.581 3.0938
79.00 3.110231/8 79.375 3.1250
80.00 3.149635/32 80.169 3.156233/16 80.962 3.1875
81.00 3.189037/32 81.756 3.2188
82.00 3.228331/4 82.550 3.2500
83.00 3.267739/32 83.344 3.2812
84.00 3.307135/16 84.138 3.3125311/32 84.931 3.3438
85.00 3.346533/8 85.725 3.3750
86.00 3.3858313/32 86.519 3.4062
87.00 3.425237/16 87.312 3.4375
88.00 3.4646315/32 88.106 3.468831/2 88.900 3.5000
89.00 3.503990.00 3.5433
39/16 90.488 3.562591.00 3.582792.00 3.6220
35/8 92.075 3.625093.00 3.6614
311/16 93.662 3.687594.00 3.700895.00 3.7402
33/4 95.250 3.750096.00 3.7795
313/16 96.838 3.812597.00 3.818998.00 3.8583
37/8 98.425 3.875099.00 3.8976
100.00 3.9370315/16 100.012 3.93754 101.600 4.0000
Fraction Millimetre Inch
2 50.800 2.000051.00 2.0079
21/32 51.594 2.031252.00 2.0472
21/16 52.388 2.062553.00 2.0866
23/32 53.181 2.093821/8 53.975 2.1250
54.00 2.126025/32 54.769 2.1562
55.00 2.165423/16 55.562 2.1875
56.00 2.204727/32 56.356 2.2188
57.00 2.244121/4 57.150 2.250029/32 57.944 2.2812
58.00 2.283525/16 58.738 2.3125
59.00 2.3228211/32 59.531 2.3438
60.00 2.362223/8 60.325 2.3750
61.00 2.4016213/32 61.119 2.406227/16 61.912 2.4375
62.00 2.4409215/32 62.706 2.4688
63.00 2.480321/2 63.500 2.5000
64.00 2.5197217/32 64.294 2.5312
65.00 2.559129/16 65.088 2.5625219/32 65.881 2.5938
66.00 2.598425/8 66.675 2.6250
67.00 2.6378221/32 67.469 2.6562
68.00 2.6772211/16 68.262 2.6875
69.00 2.7165223/32 69.056 2.718823/4 69.850 2.7500
70.00 2.7559225/32 70.644 2.7812
71.00 2.7953213/16 71.438 2.8125
72.00 2.8346227/32 72.231 2.8438
73.00 2.874027/8 73.025 2.8750229/32 73.819 2.9062
74.00 2.9134
50
C O N V E R S I O N S Indexable Inserts � ANSI to ISO
ANSI ISO
D T R L T R
4 3 2 12 04 08
4 3 3 12 04 12
6 4 3 19 06 12
6 4 4 19 06 16
Parallelogram NegativeCNMA & CNMG
ANSI ISO
D T R L T R
3 2 2 09 03 08
4 3 1 12 04 04
4 3 2 12 04 08
4 3 3 12 04 12
6 4 3 19 06 12
6 4 4 19 06 16
8 5 6 25 07 24
8 6 6 25 09 24
Square NegativeSNMA, SNMM & SNMG
ANSI ISO
D T R L T R
3 2 1 09 03 04
3 2 2 09 03 08
4 2 1 12 03 04
4 2 2 12 03 08
4 2 3 12 03 12
4 3 1 12 04 04
4 3 2 12 04 08
4 3 3 12 04 12
5 3 3 15 04 12
6 3 2 19 04 08
6 3 3 19 04 12
6 3 4 19 04 16
8 4 6 25 06 24
Square NegativeSNUN & SNGN
ANSI ISO
D T R L T R
3 2 1 09 03 04
3 2 2 09 03 08
4 2 1 12 03 04
4 2 2 12 03 08
4 2 3 12 03 12
5 3 2 15 04 08
5 3 3 15 04 12
6 3 2 19 04 08
6 3 3 19 04 12
6 3 4 19 04 16
Square PositiveSPUN & SPGN
Parallelogram
Negative
Square
Positive
51
Indexable Inserts � ANSI to ISO C O N V E R S I O N S
ANSI ISO
D T R L T R
2 2 2 11 03 08
3 2 1 16 03 04
3 2 2 16 03 08
3 2 3 16 03 12
4 3 2 22 04 08
4 3 3 22 04 12
4 3 4 22 04 16
5 4 3 27 06 12
5 4 4 27 06 16
6 6 6 33 09 24
Triangular NegativeTNMA, TNMM & TNMG
ANSI ISO
D T R L T R
2 2 1 11 03 04
2 2 2 11 03 08
3 2 1 16 03 04
3 2 2 16 03 08
3 2 3 16 03 12
4 3 2 22 04 08
4 3 3 22 04 12
4 3 4 22 04 16
Triangular PositiveTPUN & TPGN
Triangular
ANSI ISO
D T R L T R
2 2 1 11 03 04
2 2 2 11 03 08
3 2 1 16 03 04
3 2 2 16 03 08
3 2 3 16 03 12
3 2 4 16 03 16
3 3 2 16 04 08
3 3 3 16 04 12
3 3 4 16 04 16
4 3 2 22 04 08
4 3 3 22 04 12
4 3 4 22 04 16
Triangular NegativeTNUN & TNGN
Negative
Positive
52
CO
NV
ER
SIO
NS
Sp
an
ne
r &
So
ck
et
Siz
es
Thread SizeHead Size(Spanner Size,Across Flats)
Unified Standard ANSI B 18.2.1 - 1972
Normal HeavyNuts Bolts & Screws
Series Series
Inch mmDecimal Equivalent
Thread SizeHead Size (Spanner Size)(Across Flats)
mmBA
BSFEquivalent &BSW
0.152 3.86 8BA
0.172 4.37 7BA
0.193 4.90 6BA
0.220 5.59 5BA
0.248 6.30 4BA
0.256 6.50 1/16W
0.282 7.16 3BA
0.297 7.54 3/32W
0.324 8.23 2BA
0.340 8.64 1/8W (3/16)
0.365 9.27 1BA
0.413 10.49 0BA (7/32)
0.445 11.30 3/16W 1/4
0.525 13.34 1/4W 5/16
0.600 15.24 5/16W 3/8
5/32 0.1562 3.97
3/16 0.1875 4.76
7/32 0.2187 5.56
1/4 0.2500 6.35
9/32 0.2812 7.14 No. 10
5/16 0.3125 7.94
11/32 0.3438 8.73
3/8 0.3750 9.52
13/32 0.4062 10.32
7/16 0.4375 11.11 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
1/2 0.5000 12.70 5/16 1/4 5/16 5/16 1/4
9/16 0.5625 14.29 3/8 5/16 3/8 3/8 5/16 5/16
19/32 0.5938 15.08
5/8 0.6250 15.88 7/16 7/16 3/8
11/16 0.6875 17.46 3/8 7/16 3/8
Hex Flat
Hex Flat Jam
Hex Jam
Hex Slotted
Hex Thick
Slotted HexCastle
HeavySquare
Heavy HexFlat
Heavy HexFlat Jam
Heavy Hex
Heavy HexJam
Heavy HexSlotted
Square
Nut
Head Size Thread Size(Spanner
Size,Across Flats)
M
4 2 2 & 2.2
4.5 2.3
5 2.5 2.5
5.5 3 3 3 & 3.5
6 3.5 3.5
7 4 4 4 & 4.5
8 5 5 5
9 5 Alt
10 6 6 6
11 7 7 7
12
13 8 8 8
14 8 Alt
15 10 KFZ
16
17 10 10 10
UN
Heavy HexBolt
Heavy HexScrew
HeavyStructural
Bolt
Square Bolt
Hex Bolt
Hex CapScrew
(FinishedHex Bolt)
Lag Screw
German(BRD)metric
accordingto DIN
and ISO
FranceN F E
27-311(69)
27-411(69)
SwedenS M S2164 -1967
2175 -1971
Metricfor DIN6914 -6915
BS
InchDecimalmm AF
53
Sp
an
ne
r &
So
ck
et
Siz
es
CO
NV
ER
SIO
NS
Thread SizeHead Size(Spanner Size,Across Flats)
Unified Standard ANSI B 18.2.1 - 1972
Normal HeavyNuts Bolts & Screws
Series Series
Inch mmDecimal Equivalent
Thread SizeHead Size (Spanner Size)(Across Flats)
mmBA
BSFEquivalent &BSW
BSW
0.710 18.03 3/8W 7/16
0.820 20.83 7/16W 1/2
0.920 23.37 1/2W 9/16
1.010 25.65 9/16W 5/8
1.100 27.94 5/8W ( 11/16)
1.200 30.48 11/16W 3/4
1.300 33.02 3/4W 7/8
1.390 35.31 13/16W ( 15/16)
1.480 37.59 7/8W 1.
3/4 0.7500 19.05 1/2 7/16 1/2 1/2 7/16 7/16
25/32 0.7812 19.8413/16 0.8125 20.64 9/16 9/16 1/2
7/8 0.8750 22.22 1/2 1/2 9/16 1/2
15/16 0.9375 23.81 5/8 5/8 5/8 9/16
1 1.0000 25.40 5/8
1.1/16 1.0625 26.99 5/8 5/8 5/8
1.1/8 1.1250 28.58 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
1.3/16 1.1875 30.16
1.1/4 1.2500 31.75 3/4 3/4 3/4
1.5/16 1.3125 33.34 7/8 7/8 7/8
1.3/8 1.3750 34.92
1.7/16 1.4375 36.51 7/8 7/8 7/8
1.1/2 1.5000 38.10 1. 1. 1. 1.
1.5/8 1.6250 41.28 1. 1. 1.
Hex Flat
Hex Flat Jam
Hex Jam
Hex Slotted
Hex Thick
Slotted HexCastle
HeavySquare
Heavy HexFlat
Heavy HexFlat Jam
Heavy Hex
Heavy HexJam
Heavy HexSlotted
Square
Nut
Head Size Thread Size(Spanner
Size,Across Flats)
M
18
19 12 12 12
20
21
22 14 14 14 12
23
24 16 16 16
25
26
27 18 18 18 16
28
18
30 20 20 20
32 22 22 22 20
36 24 24 24 22
38
41 27 27 27 24
UN
Heavy HexBolt
Heavy HexScrew
HeavyStructural
Bolt
Square Bolt
Hex Bolt
Hex CapScrew
(FinishedHex Bolt)
Lag Screw
German(BRD)metric
accordingto DIN
and ISO
FranceN F E
27-311(69)
27-411(69)
SwedenS M S2164 -1967
2175 -1971
Metricfor DIN6914 -6915
BS
InchDecimalmm AF
54
CO
NV
ER
SIO
NS
Sp
an
ne
r &
So
ck
et
Siz
es
Thread SizeHead Size(Spanner Size,Across Flats)
Unified Standard ANSI B 18.2.1 - 1972
Normal HeavyNuts Bolts & Screws
Series Series
Inch mmDecimal Equivalent
Thread SizeHead Size (Spanner Size)(Across Flats)
mmBA
BSFEquivalent &BSW
BSW
111/16 1.6875 42.86 11/8 11/8 11/8 11/8
1.3/4 1.7500 44.45
4113/16 1.8125 46.04 11/8 11/8 11/8
17/8 1.8750 47.62 11/4 11/4 11/4 11/4
2 2.0000 50.80 11/4 11/4 11/4
21/16 2.0625 52.39 13/8 13/8 13/8 13/8
23/16 2.1875 55.56 13/8 13/8 13/8
21/4 2.2500 57.15 11/2 11/2 11/2 11/2
23/8 2.3750 60.32 11/2 11/2 11/2
27/16 2.4375 61.91 15/8
29/16 2.5625 65.09 15/8 15/8
25/8 2.6250 66.68 13/4 13/4
23/4 2.7500 69.85 13/4 13/4 13/4
213/16 2.8125 71.44 17/8
215/16 2.9375 74.61 17/8 17/8
3 3.0000 76.20 2 2
31/8 3.1250 79.38 2 2 2
33/8 3.3750 85.72 21/4 21/4
31/2 3.5000 88.90 21/4 21/4 21/4
Hex Flat
Hex Flat Jam
Hex Jam
Hex Slotted
Hex Thick
Slotted HexCastle
HeavySquare
Heavy HexFlat
Heavy HexFlat Jam
Heavy Hex
Heavy HexJam
Heavy HexSlotted
Square
Nut
Head Size Thread Size(Spanner
Size,Across Flats)
M
46 30 30 30 27
50 33 33 33
55 36 36 36
60 39 39 39
65 42 42 42
70 45 45 45
75 48 48 48
80 52 52 52
85 56 56 56
90 60 60 60
UN
Heavy HexBolt
Heavy HexScrew
HeavyStructural
Bolt
Square Bolt
Hex Bolt
Hex CapScrew
(FinishedHex Bolt)
Lag Screw
German(BRD)metric
accordingto DIN
and ISO
FranceN F E
27-311(69)
27-411(69)
SwedenS M S2164 -1967
2175 -1971
Metricfor DIN6914 -6915
BS
InchDecimalmm AF
1.670 42.42 1W 11/8
1.860 47.24 11/8W 11/4
2.050 52.07 11/4W 13/8
2.220 56.39 13/8W 11/2
2.410 61.21 11/2W 15/8
2.580 65.53 15/8W 13/4
2.760 70.10 13/4W 2
76.70 17/8W
3.150 80.01 2W 21/4
3.550 90.17 21/2
55
Sp
an
ne
r &
So
ck
et
Siz
es
CO
NV
ER
SIO
NS
Thread SizeHead Size(Spanner Size,Across Flats)
Unified Standard ANSI B 18.2.1 - 1972
Normal HeavyNuts Bolts & Screws
Series Series
Inch mmDecimal Equivalent
Thread SizeHead Size (Spanner Size)(Across Flats)
mmBA
BSFEquivalent &BSW
3.890 98.81 23/4
4.180 106.17 3
4.530 115.06 31/4
4.850 123.19 31/2
5.180 131.57 33/4
5.550 140.97 4
6.380 162.05 41/2
33/4 3.7500 95.25 21/2 21/2
37/8 3.8750 98.42 21/2 21/2
41/8 4.1250 104.78 23/4 23/4
41/4 4.2500 107.95 23/4 2.3/4 23/4
41/2 4.5000 114.30 3. 3.
45/8 4.6250 117.48 3. 3. 3.
47/8 4.8750 123.82 31/4
5 5.0000 127.00 31/4
51/4 5.2500 133.35 31/2 31/2
53/8 5.3750 136.52 31/2
55/8 5.6250 142.88 33/4 33/4
53/4 5.7500 146.05 33/4
6 6.0000 152.40 4. 4.
61/8 6.1250 155.58 4.
Hex Flat
Hex Flat Jam
Hex Jam
Hex Slotted
Hex Thick
Slotted HexCastle
HeavySquare
Heavy HexFlat
Heavy HexFlat Jam
Heavy Hex
Heavy HexJam
Heavy HexSlotted
Square
Nut
UN
Heavy HexBolt
Heavy HexScrew
HeavyStructural
Bolt
Square Bolt
Hex Bolt
Hex CapScrew
(FinishedHex Bolt)
Lag Screw
BS
InchDecimalAF
Head Size Thread Size(Spanner
Size,Across Flats)
M
95 64 64 64
100 68 68 68
105 72 72 72
110 76 76 76
115 80 80 80
120 85 85 85
125
130 90 90 90
135 95 95 95
140
145 100 100 100
150 105 105 105
155 110 110 110
160
165 115 115 115
170 120 120 120
German(BRD)metric
accordingto DIN
and ISO
FranceN F E
27-311(69)
27-411(69)
SwedenS M S2164 -1967
2175 -1971
Metricfor DIN6914 -6915
mm
56
C O N V E R S I O N S Surface F in ish
There are various methods used to measure surface texture. The surfacefinish chart (below) shows the most common standards used, to enable acomparison to be made between one scale and another. The chart on thefacing page illustrates the range of surface finishes that may be expectedfrom the various manufacturing processes shown.
Metric Units Inch Units Number System Triangle System
µ m µ in
Peak to Centre Root Centre ISO RI302 GOST 2789 DIN 3141Valley & Line Mean Line10 Point Average Square Average Roughness Range NumberHeight Grade
Class
Rt Rz Ra Rs Ra NumberNumber 1 2 3 4
0.040 0.008 0.35 0.32 14 b0.050 0.010 0.44 0.40 14 a0.063 0.012 0.55 0.50 N0 13 c0.080 0.016 0.70 0.63 13 b0.100 0.020 0.89 0.80 13 a0.125 0.025 1.11 1.00 N1 12 c0.16 0.032 1.4 1.25 12 b0.20 0.040 1.8 1.6 12 a0.25 0.050 2.2 2.0 N2 11 c0.32 0.063 2.8 2.5 11 b0.40 0.080 3.5 3.2 11 a ▼▼▼▼
0.50 0.100 4.4 4.0 N3 10 c0.63 0.125 5.5 5.0 10 b0.80 0.16 7.0 6.3 10 a1.00 0.20 8.9 8.0 N4 9 c ▼▼▼▼ ▼▼▼▼
1.25 0.25 11.1 10.0 9 b1.6 0.32 14 12.5 9 a2.0 0.40 18 16 N5 8 c2.5 0.50 22 20 8 b ▼▼▼
3.2 0.63 28 25 8 a4.0 0.80 35 32 N6 7 c ▼▼▼
5.0 1.00 44 40 7 b6.3 1.25 55 50 7 a ▼▼▼
7.1 1.6 70 63 N7 6 c8.0 2.0 89 80 6 b
10.0 2.0 111 100 6 a ▼▼
12.5 3.2 140 125 N816 4.0 180 160 ▼▼▼ ▼▼
20 5.0 220 200 525 6.3 280 250 N9 ▼▼ ▼
32 8.0 350 32040 10.0 440 400 4 ▼▼
50 12.5 550 500 N1063 16 700 630 ▼
80 20 890 800 3100 25 1110 1000 N11 ▼
125 32 1400 1250160 40 1800 1600 2 ▼
200 50 2200 2000 N12250 63 2800 2500320 80 3500 3200 1400 100 4400 4000 N13
57
Surface Finish C O N V E R S I O N S
Process25 6.3 1.6 0.4 0.1 0.025
50 12.5 3.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 0.0125
Flame cutting
Snagging
Sawing
Planing, shaping
Drilling
Chemical milling
Electro-discharge machining
Milling
Broaching
Reaming
Boring, turning
Barrel finishing
Electrolytic grinding
Roller burnishing
Grinding
Honing
Polishing
Lapping
Superfinishing
Sandcasting
Hot rolling
Forging
Permanent mould casting
Investment casting
Extruding
Cold rolling, drawing
Die casting
Roughness Value Ra (µm)
Key:Common Application Uncommon Application
Metal Cutting
Metal Forming
58
C O N V E R S I O N S Tensile Strength
hbar N/mm2 tonf/in2 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2
41 410 26.55 59,450 41.81
42 420 27.19 60,900 42.83
43 430 27.84 62,350 43.85
44 440 28.49 63,800 44.87
45 450 29.14 65,250 45.89
46 460 29.78 66,700 46.91
47 470 30.43 68,150 47.93
48 480 31.08 69,600 48.95
49 490 31.73 71,050 49.97
50 500 32.37 72,500 50.99
51 510 33.02 73,950 52.00
52 520 33.67 75,400 53.02
53 530 34.32 76,850 54.04
54 540 34.96 78,300 55.06
55 550 35.61 79,750 56.08
56 560 36.26 81,200 57.10
57 570 36.91 82,650 58.12
58 580 37.55 84,100 59.14
59 590 38.20 85,550 60.16
60 600 38.85 87,000 61.18
61 610 39.50 88,450 62.20
62 620 40.14 89,900 63.22
63 630 40.79 91,350 64.24
64 640 41.44 92,800 65.26
65 650 42.09 94,250 66.28
66 660 42.74 95,700 67.30
67 670 43.38 97,150 68.32
68 680 44.02 98,600 69.34
69 690 44.68 100,050 70.36
70 700 45.32 101,500 71.38
71 710 45.97 103,000 72.40
72 720 46.62 104,400 73.42
73 730 47.27 105,900 74.44
74 740 47.91 107,300 75.46
75 750 48.56 108,800 76.48
76 760 49.21 110,200 77.50
77 770 49.86 111,700 78.52
78 780 50.50 113,100 79.54
79 790 51.15 114,600 80.56
80 800 51.80 116,000 81.58
hbar N/mm2 tonf/in2 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2
1 10 0.647 1,450 1.02
2 20 1.295 2,900 2.04
3 30 1.942 4,350 3.06
4 40 2.590 5,800 4.08
5 50 3.237 7,250 5.10
6 60 3.885 8,700 6.12
7 70 4.532 10,150 7.14
8 80 5.180 11,600 8.16
9 90 5.827 13,050 9.18
10 100 6.475 14,500 10.20
11 110 7.122 15,950 11.22
12 120 7.770 17,400 12.24
13 130 8.417 18,850 13.26
14 140 9.065 20,300 14.28
15 150 9.712 21,750 15.30
16 160 10.360 23,200 16.32
17 170 11.010 24,650 17.33
18 180 11.650 26,100 18.35
19 190 12.300 27,550 19.37
20 200 12.950 29,000 20.39
21 210 13.600 30,450 21.41
22 220 14.240 31,900 22.43
23 230 14.890 33,350 23.45
24 240 15.540 34,800 24.47
25 250 16.190 36,250 25.49
26 260 16.830 37,700 26.51
27 270 17.480 39,150 27.53
28 280 18.130 40,600 28.55
29 290 18.780 42,050 29.57
30 300 19.420 43,500 30.59
31 310 20.070 44,950 31.61
32 320 20.720 46,400 32.63
33 330 21.370 47,850 33.65
34 340 22.010 49,300 34.67
35 350 22.660 50,750 35.69
36 360 23.310 52,200 36.71
37 370 23.960 53,650 37.73
38 380 24.600 55,100 38.75
39 390 25.250 56,550 39.77
40 400 25.900 58,000 40.79
59
Tensile Strength (continued) C O N V E R S I O N S
hbar N/mm2 tonf/in2 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2
81 810 52.45 117,500 82.60
82 820 53.09 118,900 83.62
83 830 53.74 120,400 84.64
84 840 54.39 121,800 85.65
85 850 55.04 123,300 86.67
86 860 55.68 124,700 87.69
87 870 56.33 126,200 88.71
88 880 56.98 127,600 89.73
89 890 57.63 129,100 90.75
90 900 58.27 130,500 91.77
91 910 58.92 132,000 92.79
92 920 59.57 133,400 93.81
93 930 60.22 134,900 94.83
94 940 60.86 136,300 95.85
95 950 61.51 137,800 96.87
96 960 62.16 139,200 97.89
97 970 62.80 140,700 98.91
98 980 63.45 142,100 99.93
99 990 64.10 143,600 101.00
100 1000 64.75 145,000 102.00
101 1010 65.37 146,500 103.00
102 1020 66.04 147,900 104.00
103 1030 66.69 149,400 105.00
104 1040 67.34 150,800 106.00
105 1050 67.99 152,300 107.10
106 1060 68.63 153,700 108.10
107 1070 69.28 155,200 109.10
108 1080 69.93 156,600 110.10
109 1090 70.58 158,100 111.10
110 1100 71.22 159,500 112.20
111 1110 71.87 161,000 113.20
112 1120 72.52 162,400 114.20
113 1130 73.17 163,900 115.20
114 1140 73.81 165,300 116.20
115 1150 74.46 166,800 117.30
116 1160 75.11 168,200 118.30
117 1170 75.76 169,700 117.30
118 1180 76.40 171,100 120.30
119 1190 77.05 172,600 121.30
120 1200 77.70 174,000 122.40
hbar N/mm2 tonf/in2 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2
121 1210 78.35 175,500 123.4
122 1220 78.99 176,900 124.4
123 1230 79.64 178,400 125.4
124 1240 80.29 179,800 126.4
125 1250 80.93 181,300 127.5
126 1260 81.58 182,800 128.5
127 1270 82.23 184,200 129.5
128 1280 82.88 185,700 130.5
129 1290 83.53 187,100 131.5
130 1300 84.17 186,600 132.6
131 1310 84.82 190,000 133.6
132 1320 85.47 191,500 134.6
133 1330 86.12 192,900 135.6
134 1340 86.76 194,400 136.6
135 1350 87.41 195,800 137.7
136 1360 88.06 197,300 138.7
137 1370 88.71 198,700 139.7
138 1380 89.35 200,200 140.7
139 1390 90.00 201,600 141.7
140 1400 90.65 203,100 142.8
141 1410 91.30 204,500 143.8
142 1420 91.94 206,000 144.8
143 1430 92.59 207,400 145.8
144 1440 93.24 208,900 146.8
145 1450 93.89 210,300 147.9
146 1460 94.53 211,800 148.9
147 1470 95.18 213,200 149.9
148 1480 95.83 214,700 150.9
149 1490 96.48 216,100 151.9
150 1500 97.12 217,600 153.0
151 1510 97.77 219,000 154.0
152 1520 98.42 220,500 155.0
153 1530 99.07 221,900 156.0
154 1540 99.71 223,400 157.0
155 1550 100.40 224,800 158.1
156 1560 101.00 226,300 159.1
157 1570 101.70 227,700 160.1
158 1580 102.30 229,200 161.1
159 1590 103.00 230,600 162.1
160 1600 103.60 232,100 163.2
60
C O N V E R S I O N S Tensile Strength (continued)
hbar N/mm2 tonf/in2 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2
161 1610 104.2 233,500 164.2
162 1620 104.9 235,000 165.2
163 1630 105.5 236,400 166.2
164 1640 106.2 237,900 167.2
165 1650 106.8 239,300 168.3
166 1660 107.5 240,800 169.3
167 1670 108.1 242,200 170.3
168 1680 108.8 243,700 171.3
169 1690 109.4 245,100 172.3
170 1700 110.1 246,600 173.3
171 1710 110.7 248,000 174.4
172 1720 111.4 249,500 175.4
173 1730 112.0 250,900 176.4
174 1740 112.7 252,400 177.4
175 1750 113.3 253,800 178.4
176 1760 114.0 255,300 179.5
177 1770 114.6 256,700 180.5
178 1780 115.3 258,200 181.5
179 1790 115.9 259,600 182.5
180 1800 116.5 261,100 183.5
181 1810 117.2 262,500 184.6
182 1820 117.8 264,000 185.6
183 1830 118.5 265,400 186.6
184 1840 119.1 266,900 187.6
185 1850 119.8 268,300 188.6
186 1860 120.4 269,800 189.7
187 1870 121.1 271,200 190.7
188 1880 121.7 272,700 191.7
189 1890 122.4 274,100 192.7
190 1900 123.0 275,600 193.7
191 1910 123.7 277,000 194.8
192 1920 124.3 278,500 195.8
193 1930 125.0 279,900 196.8
194 1940 125.6 281,400 197.8
195 1950 126.3 282,800 198.8
196 1960 126.9 284,300 199.9
197 1970 127.6 285,700 200.9
198 1980 128.2 287,200 201.9
199 1990 128.9 288,600 202.9
200 2000 129.5 290,100 203.9
hbar N/mm2 tonf/in2 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2
201 2010 130.1 291,500 205.0
202 2020 130.8 293,000 206.0
203 2030 131.4 294,400 207.0
204 2040 132.1 295,900 208.0
205 2050 132.7 297,300 209.0
206 2060 133.4 298,800 210.1
207 2070 134.0 300,200 211.1
208 2080 134.7 301,700 212.1
209 2090 135.3 303,100 213.1
210 2100 136.0 304,600 214.1
211 2110 136.6 306,000 215.2
212 2120 137.3 307,500 216.2
213 2130 137.9 308,900 217.2
214 2140 138.6 310,400 218.2
215 2150 139.2 311,800 219.2
216 2160 139.9 313,300 220.3
217 2170 140.5 314,700 221.3
218 2180 141.2 316,200 222.3
219 2190 141.8 317,600 223.3
220 2200 142.4 319,100 224.3
221 2210 143.1 320,500 225.4
222 2220 143.7 322,000 226.4
223 2230 144.4 323,400 227.4
224 2240 145.0 324,900 228.4
225 2250 145.7 326, 300 229.4
226 2260 146.3 327,800 230.5
227 2270 147.0 329,200 231.5
228 2280 147.6 330,700 232.5
229 2290 148.3 332,100 233.5
230 2300 148.9 333,600 234.5
231 2310 149.6 335,000 235.6
232 2320 150.2 336,500 236.6
233 2330 150.9 337,900 237.6
234 2340 151.5 339,400 238.6
235 2350 152.2 340,800 239.6
236 2360 152.8 342,300 240.6
237 2370 153.5 343,700 241.7
238 2380 154.1 345,200 242.7
239 2390 154.8 346,600 243.7
240 2400 155.4 348,100 244.7
61
Tensile Strength & Hardness C O N V E R S I O N S
Tensile Strength Conversions
N/mm2 To Kg/mm2 x 10.197Kg/mm2 To N/mm2 x .098068
N/mm2 To hbar x .1hbar To N/mm2 x 10.
N/mm2 To lbf/in2 x .000145lbf/in2 To N/mm2 x 6896.55
N/mm2 To Ton f/in x .064749Ton f/in To N/mm2 x 15.444
Tensile HardnessStrength
Newtonsper Tons per Brinell Rockwell
Vickers ShoreSq.mm Square HB (“B”)
(N/mm2) Inch “C”
415 27 124 (71.2) 130450 29 133 (75.0) 140480 31 143 (78.7) 150
510 33 152 (81.7) 160545 35 162 (85.0) 170575 37 171 (87.1) 180 30
610 39 181 (89.5) 190 31.5640 41 190 (91.5) 200 33675 43 199 (93.5) 210 33.5
705 45 209 (95.0) 220 35.5740 47 219 (96.7) 230 37770 49 228 (98.1) 240 39
800 51 238 (99.5) 250 40835 53 247 24.0 260 42865 55 257 25.6 270 43
900 57 266 27.1 280 44.5930 60 276 28.5 290 45.5965 62 285 29.8 300 46.5
995 64 295 31.0 310 481030 66 304 32.2 320 491060 68 314 33.3 330 49.5
1095 71 323 34.4 340 501125 73 333 35.5 350 521155 75 342 36.6 360 53
1190 77 352 37.7 370 53.51220 80 361 38.8 380 54.51255 82 371 39.8 390 55
1290 84 380 40.8 400 56.51320 86 390 41.8 410 57.51350 88 399 42.7 420 58
1385 90 409 43.6 430 591420 92 418 44.5 440 60.51455 94 428 45.3 450 61
1485 96 437 46.1 460 62.51520 98 447 46.9 470 63
Tensile HardnessStrength
Newtonsper Tons per Brinell Rockwell
Vickers ShoreSq.mm Square HB (“B”)
(N/mm2) Inch “C”
1555 100 47.7 480 641595 102 48.4 490 651630 104 49.1 500 66
1665 107 49.8 510 66.51700 109 50.5 520 671740 112 51.1 530 68
1775 115 51.7 540 691810 117 52.3 550 701845 119 53.0 560 71
1880 121 53.6 570 721920 121 54.1 580 741955 126 54.7 590 75
1995 129 55.2 600 75.52030 131 55.7 610 76.52070 134 56.3 620 77
2105 136 56.8 630 78.52145 138 57.3 640 792180 141 57.8 650 80
58.3 660 8158.8 670 81.559.2 680 82.5
59.7 690 8360.1 700 8461.0 720 85.5
61.8 740 8762.5 760 8863.3 780 89.25
64.0 800 90.564.7 820 91.565.3 840 93
65.9 860 93.566.4 880 94.567.0 900 95.5
67.5 920 9668.0 940 97
62
C O N V E R S I O N S Weights & Measures
To Convert Multiply
From Imperial To Metric By°F °C °C=(°F -32) x 5/9°F °K °K=°C + 271.3ft mtr 0.3048ft2 mtr2 0.092903ft3 mtr3 0.028317ft-lbs kg-m 0.13826ft-tons tonne-mtr 0.3097gal ltr 4.54609gal/ft2 ltr/m2 48.905grains/gal gm/ltr 0.01425hp kw 0.7457in mm 25.40in2 cm2 6.4516in2 mm2 645.16in3 cm3 (cc) 16.3871in-tons kg-m 25.8lb kg 0.45360lb/ft kg/m 1.488lb/ft2 kg/m2 4.883lb/ft3 kg/m3 15.020lb/gall kg/ltr 0.09983lb/in2 (PSI) kg/cm2 0.07037lb/in2 (PSI) kg/mm2 0.0007037lb/in2 (PSI) kg/mtr2 703.7lb/mile kg/km 0.2818lb/yd kg/m 0.496lb/yd3 kg/m3 0.5933nautical mile km 1.8532miles km 1.60934miles2 km2 2.58999oz g 28.3495pt ltr 0.568261tons tonnes (1000kg) 1.01605tons/ft kg/m 3333.33tons/ft2 tonnes/m2 10.936tons/in2 kg/mm2 1.575tons/in2 n/mm2 15.444tons/yd kg/m 1111.11tons/yd2 tonnes/m2 1.215tons/yd3 tonnes/m3 1.329yd mtr 0.9144yd2 mtr2 0.836127yd3 mtr3 0.764555
C = Centigrade
F = Fahrenheit
ft = Feet
g = Gram
gal = UK Gallonhp = Horse Power
in = Inch
K = Kelvin
kg = Kilogram
km = Kilometre
Kw = Kilowattl = Litre
lb = Pound
mm = Millimetre
mtr = Metre
oz = Ounce
pt = UK Pintyd = Yard
63
Weights & Measures C O N V E R S I O N S
To Convert Multiply
From Metric To Imperial By
°C °F °F=(°Cx9/5)+32
°K °F °F=(°K-271.3)x1.8+32cm2 in2 0.155cm3 (cc) in3 0.06102g oz 0.035274gm/ltr grains/gal 70.156kg lb 2.2046kg/cm2 lb/in2 (PSI) 14.223kg/km lb/mile 3.548kg/ltr lb/gal 10.022kg/m lb/ft 0.672kg/m lb/yd 2.016kg/m tons/ft 0.0003kg/m tons/yd 0.0009kg/m2 lb/ft2 0.2048kg/m3 lb/ft3 0.0624kg/m3 lb/yd3 1.686kg/mm2 lb/in2 (PSI) 1421.06kg/mm2 tons/in2 0.635kg/mtr2 lb/in2 (PSI) 0.00142kg-m in-tons 0.03875kg-m ft-lbs 7.233km nautical miles 0.5396 km miles 0.62137km2 miles2 0.38610kw hp 1.341ltr gal 0.21997ltr pt 1.75975ltr/m2 gall/ft2 0.0204mm in 0.03937mm2 in2 0.00155mtr yd 1.09361mtr ft 3.28084mtr2 yd2 1.19599mtr2 ft2 10.76391mtr3 yd3 1.30795mtr3 ft3 35.31467N/mm2 tons/in2 0.06475tonne-m ft-tons 3.229tonnes (1000kg) tons 0.9842tonnes/m2 tons/ft2 0.0914tonnes/m2 tons/yd2 0.823tonnes/m3 tons/yd3 0.752
C = CentigradeF = Fahrenheitft = Feetg = Gramgal = UK Gallonhp = Horse Power
in = InchK = Kelvinkg = Kilogramkm = Kilometre Kw = Kilowattl = Litre
lb = Poundmm = Millimetremtr = Metreoz = Ouncept = UK Pintyd = Yard
64
C O N V E R S I O N S Weights & Measures
Metric Weight10 Milligrams ................1 Centigram
10 Centigrams..............1 Decigram
10 Decigrams................1 Gram
10 Grams ........................1 Decagram
10 Decagram.................1 Hectogram
10 Hectograms.............1 Kilogram
10 Kilograms.................1 Myriagram
Metric Surface Area1 sqmtr .............................1 Centiare
10 Centiares..................1 Deciare
10 Deciares....................1 Are
10 Ares .............................1 Dekare
10 Dekares.....................1 Hectare
100 Hectares ................1 Sq. km
Metric Length10 Millimetres.................1 Centimetre
10 Centimetres ..............1 Decimetre
10 Decimetres................1 Metre
10 Meters..........................1 Decametre
10 Decametres ..............1 Hectometre
10 Hectometres ..............1 Kilometre
10 Kilometres .................1 Myriametre
1 Metre ............................1.094 Yds, 39.371in
Metric Capacity
10 Millilitres .....................1 Centilitre
10 Centilitres...................1 Decilitre
10 Decilitres ....................1 Litre
10 Litres.............................1 Decalitre
10 Decalitres...................1 Hectolitre
10 Hectolitres .................1 Kilolitre
Imperial Weight (Avoirdupois)16 Drams..........................1 Ounce
(4371/2 Grains Troy)16 Ounces........................1 Pound (lb)
1(7000 Grains Troy)14 Pounds........................1 Stone28 Pounds........................1 Quarter 100 Pounds.....................1 Cental4 Quarters ........................1 Hundredweight (cwt)
(112 LBS)2000 Pounds ..................1 Short Ton 20 cwt.................................1 Ton (2240lbs)
Avoirdupois pounds are greater than Troy in theproportion of 17 to 14 approx; Troy ounces are greaterthan Avoirdupois in the proportion of 79 to 72 approx.Troy Weight
24 Grains..........................1 Pennyweight20 Pennyweight..............1 Ounce (480 Grains)12 Ounces........................1 lb (5760 Grains)
Diamonds and Pearls are weighed by Carats, of 4grains each (equal to 3.2 Troy grains). The Troy ounceis equal to 150 Diamond Carats. Gold, when pure, is24 Carats fine; if it contains one part alloy it is said tobe 23 Carats, and so on.Apothecaries’ WeightUsed for Dispensing Drugs, etc.
20 Grains..............................1 Scruple 3 Scruples............................1 Dram8 Drams ................................1 Ounce 12 Ounces ...........................1 Pound
Apothecaries’ Fluid Measure60 Minims............................1 Dram8 Drams ................................1 Ounce20 Ounces ...........................1 Pint8 Pints....................................1 Gallon
Imperial CapacityUsed for Liquids and Dry Goods
4 Gills.....................................1 Pint2 Pints....................................1 Quart4 Quarts ................................1 Gallon2 Gallons ..............................1 Peck4 Pecks..................................1 Bushel8 Bushels .............................1 Quarter5 Quarters ............................1 Load36 Bushels ..........................1 Chaldron
A bushel of wheat on an average weighs 60lbs; ofbarley, 47 lbs; of oats, 40 lbs. The gallon contains10lbs avoirdupois of distilled water.Imperial Length
3 Barleycorns ..................1 Inch3 Inches.............................1 Palm
4 Inches...............................1 Hand
7.92 Inches........................1 Link
9 Inches...............................1 Span
12 Inches............................1 Foot
18 Inches............................1 Cubit
30 Inches............................1 Pace
3 Feet ...................................1 Yard
37.2 Inches........................1 Scottish Ell
45 Inches............................1 English Ell
5 Feet ...................................1 Geometrical Pace
6 Feet ...................................1 Fathom
51/2 Yards............................1 Pole
4 Poles.................................1 Chain
100 Links............................1 Chain
10 Chains ...........................1 Furlong
220 Yards...........................1 Furlong
608 Feet..............................1 Cable
8 Furlongs...........................1 Mile (land)
10 Cables ...........................1 Nautical Mile
1 Nautical Mile..................1.1515 land Miles
1 Knot...................................1 Nautical Mile
3 Miles (land) ....................1 League
Decimal Capacity Pints ..............Gallon Cub.Ft. ................Litres
1......................0.125 0.0200 ...............0.568
8......................1.000 0.1604 ...............4.544
16...................2.000 0.3208 ...............9.082
Imperial Surface Area144 Sq. inches.....................1 Sq. foot
9 Sq. feet ...............................1 Sq. yard
301/4 Sq. yards.....................1 Sq. pole
40 Sq. poles.........................1 Rood
4 Roods ..................................1 Acre
640 Acres ..............................1 Square mile
7.92 inches is equal to one hundredth of a “Gunter’s
Chain” (22 yards) which is (was) commonly used by
surveyors. An “Engineer’s link” is equal to 12 inches
and a chain is therefore 331/3 yards (100feet)
Imperial Cubic Capacity1728CubicInches...............1 Cubic Foot
27 Cubic Feet.......................1 Cubic Yard
5 Cubic Feet..........................1 Barrel Bulk
40 Cubic Feet.......................1 Ton Shipping
40 Cubic Feet.......................1 Load Hard Timber
50 Cubic Feet.......................1 Load Foreign Fir
D A T A
DA
TA
65
Average Adult Dimensions 66 - 67
Cutting Formulae & Abbreviations 68
Jig Boring Coordinates 69
Sines & Cosines 70 - 71
Tangents & Cotangents 72 - 73
Trigonometry Formulae 74
Section
4
66
D A T A Average Adult Dimensions
Dimensions are based on the average adult figure. Easier loading andunloading, wider clearances and ease of handling are assured when utilisingthese proportions in your design.
460
155
230
815
610
180
240
1750
455
180
180
180
865
100
460
765
765
300
235
280
1100
1370
2135
280
100
100
660
380280
180
285
740
920
890
635
765
455
180
100
1525
67
Average Adult Dimensions D A T A
610
330280
230
285
740
920 455
180 200
635
890
1525
560
1095
920
255
100
1070
1905
180
765
535
355
920
2135
1370
1145
1830
460
68
D A T A Cutting Formulae & Abbreviations
Cutting FormulaeRevs/Min (n) = Cutting Speed (v) x 1000mm
π x Diameter (φ)Cutting Speed (v) = Revs/Min (n) x π x Diameter (φ)M/Min 1000mm
Table Feed (u) = Revs/Min (n) x No. of Teeth (z) x Feed Tooth (Sz)mm/Min
Feed/Rev (sn) = No. of Teeth (z) x Feed/Tooth (sz)mm
or Table Feed (u) mm/MinRevs/Min (n)
Feed/Tooth (sz) = Feed/Rev (sn) mmNo of Teeth (z)
or Table Feed (u) mm/MinRevs/Min (n) x No. of Teeth (z)
Time Taken (Tt) Mins = Distance Travelled/Revs/Min (n)Feed/Rev (sn)
.
a Depth of Cut
aa Axial-Depth of Cut
ar Radial Depth of Cut
BWidth/Depth
b
D Diameter - Primary (Cutting)
dDiameter - Secondary
d, etc.
D h6 Diameter with Specified
d h6 Tolerance (Shank)
EB Width of Cut (Grooving)
ET Depth of Cut (Grooving)
f Offset Cutting Width
HHeight
h
K Offset Cutting Line
L Length - Primary (Overall)
lLength - Secondary
l1 etc.
M Groove Width
n No. of Revolutions/Minute
PM Boring Depth
Abbreviations Standard
or Symbol Meaning
R Radius
s1 Width of Cut
sn Feed per Rev
szFeed per Tooth
tSFPM Speed, Surface Feet per
Minute (see also v cutting speed)
T Thickness
Tt Time Taken
TPI Threads/Teeth per Inch
u Feed per Minute
vCutting Speed Meters/Minute
vf
W Width of Cut
X Head Length
Z Number of Teeth
α
Rake Angleβγλ Angle of Inclination
φ Diameter
π 3.14159 (approx. 22/7)
Abbreviations Standard
or Symbol Meaning
Annotational Abbreviations
69
Jig Boring Coordinates D A T A
3 HoleA = 0.25000B = 0.43301C = 0.86603
5 HoleA = 0.18164B = 0.55902C = 0.40451D = 0.29389
8 HoleA = 0.27059B = 0.27059C = 0.46194D = 0.19134
6 HoleA = 0.43301B = 0.25000C = 0.50000
8 HoleA = 0.35355B = 0.14645
7 HoleA = 0.27052B = 0.33922C = 0.45049D = 0.21694E = 0.31175F = 0.39092
10 HoleA = 0.29389B = 0.09549C = 0.18164D = 0.25000E = 0.15451
12 HoleA = 0.22415B = 0.12941C = 0.48296D = 0.12941E = 0.25882
9 HoleA = 0.46985B = 0.17101C = 0.26201D = 0.21985E = 0.38302F = 0.32139G = 0.17101H = 0.29620
11 HoleA = 0.47975B = 0.14087C = 0.23700D = 0.15231E = 0.11704F = 0.25627G = 0.42063H = 0.27032K = 0.18449L = 0.21291
B
B
B
B
B
F
G
B
A
A
A
A
A A
A
A
A
GL
F
EC
D
D
E
C
B
B
H
K
B
A
B
C
D
E
F
C
C
D
C
C
C
C
D
D
D
E
E
H
The constants in the table are multiplied by the diameter of the bolthole pitchcircle to obtain the longitudinal and lateral adjustments of the right-angle slidesof the jig borer, when boring equally spaced holes. Holes can be located byright-angular measurements, or an auxiliary rotary table which is more direct. Arotary table enables holes to be spaced by precise angular movements afteradjustments to the required radius.
A
B
70
D A T A Sines & Cosines
SINE Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)
Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’
0 0 .002909 .005818 .008727 .011635 .014544 .017452 89
1 .017452 .020361 .023269 .026177 .029085 .031992 .034899 88
2 .034899 .037806 .040713 .043619 .046525 .049431 .052336 87
3 .052336 .055241 .058145 .061049 .063952 .066854 .069756 86
4 .069756 .072658 .075559 .078459 .081359 .084258 .087156 85
5 .087156 .090053 .092950 .095846 .098741 .101635 .104528 84
6 .104528 .107421 .110313 .113203 .116093 .118982 .121869 83
7 .121869 .124756 .127642 .130526 .133410 .136292 .139173 82
8 .139173 .142053 .144932 .147809 .150686 .153561 .156434 81
9 .156434 .159307 .162178 .165048 .167916 .170783 .173648 80
10 .173648 .176512 .179375 .182236 .185095 .187953 .190809 79
11 .190809 .193664 .196517 .199368 .202218 .205065 .207912 78
12 .207912 .210756 .213599 .216440 .219279 .222116 .224951 77
13 .224951 .227784 .230616 .233445 .236273 .239098 .241922 76
14 .241922 .244743 .247563 .250380 .253195 .256008 .258819 75
15 .258819 .261628 .264434 .267238 .270040 .272840 .275637 74
16 .275637 .278432 .281225 .284015 .286803 .289589 .292372 73
17 .292372 .295152 .297930 .300706 .303479 .306249 .309017 72
18 .309017 .311782 .314545 .317305 .320062 .322816 .325568 71
19 .325568 .328317 .331063 .333807 .336547 .339285 .342020 70
20 .342020 .344752 .347481 .350207 .352931 .355651 .358368 69
21 .358368 .361082 .363793 .366501 .369206 .371908 .374607 68
22 .374607 .377302 .379994 .382683 .385369 .388052 .390731 67
23 .390731 .393407 .396080 .398749 .401415 .404078 .406737 66
24 .406737 .409392 .412045 .414693 .417338 .419980 .422618 65
25 .422618 .425253 .427884 .430511 .433135 .435755 .438371 64
26 .438371 .440984 .443593 .446198 .448799 .451397 .453990 63
27 .453990 .456580 .459166 .461749 .464327 .466901 .469472 62
28 .469472 .472038 .474600 .477159 .479713 .482263 .484810 61
29 .484810 .487352 .489890 .492424 .494953 .497479 .500000 60
30 .500000 .502517 .505030 .507538 .510043 .512543 .515038 59
31 .515038 .517529 .520016 .522499 .524977 .527450 .529919 58
32 .529919 .532384 .534844 .537300 .539751 .542197 .544639 57
33 .544639 .547076 .549509 .551937 .554360 .556779 .559193 56
34 .559193 .561602 .564007 .566406 .568801 .571191 .573576 55
35 .573576 .575957 .578332 .580703 .583069 .585429 .587785 54
36 .587785 .590136 .592482 .594823 .597159 .599489 .601815 53
37 .601815 .604136 .606451 .608761 .611067 .613367 .615661 52
38 .615661 .617951 .620235 .622515 .624789 .627057 .629320 51
39 .629320 .631578 .633831 .636078 .638320 .640557 .642788 50
40 .642788 .645013 .647233 .649448 .651657 .653861 .656059 49
41 .656059 .658252 .660439 .662620 .664796 .666966 .669131 48
42 .669131 .671289 .673443 .675590 .677732 .679868 .681998 47
43 .681998 .684123 .686242 .688355 .690462 .692563 .694658 46
44 .694658 .696748 .698832 .700909 .702981 .705047 .707107 45
60’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees
Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COSINE
71
Sines & Cosines D A T A
SINE Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’
45 .707107 .709161 .711209 .713250 .715286 .717316 .719340 44
46 .719340 .721357 .723369 .725374 .727374 .729367 .731354 43
47 .731354 .733334 .735309 .737277 .739239 .741195 .743145 42
48 .743145 .745088 .747025 .748956 .750880 .752798 .754710 41
49 .754710 .756615 .758514 .760406 .762292 .764171 .766044 40
50 .766044 .767911 .769771 .771625 .773472 .775312 .777146 39
51 .777146 .778973 .780794 .782608 .784416 .786217 .788011 38
52 .788011 .789798 .791579 .793353 .795121 .796882 .798636 37
53 .798636 .800383 .802123 .803857 .805584 .807304 .809017 36
54 .809017 .810723 .812423 .814116 .815801 .817480 .819152 35
55 .819152 .820817 .822475 .824126 .825770 .827407 .829038 34
56 .829038 .830661 .832277 .833886 .835488 .837083 .838671 33
57 .838671 .840251 .841825 .843391 .844951 .846503 .848048 32
58 .848048 .849586 .851117 .852640 .854156 .855665 .857167 31
59 .857167 .858662 .860149 .861629 .863102 .864567 .866025 30
60 .866025 .867476 .868920 .870356 .871784 .873206 .874620 29
61 .874620 .876026 .877425 .878817 .880201 .881578 .882948 28
62 .882948 .884309 .885664 .887011 .888350 .889682 .891007 27
63 .891007 .892323 .893633 .894934 .896229 .897515 .898794 26
64 .898794 .900065 .901329 .902585 .903834 .905075 .906308 25
65 .906308 .907533 .908751 .909961 .911164 .912358 .913545 24
66 .913545 .914725 .915896 .917060 .918216 .919364 .920505 23
67 .920505 .921638 .922762 .923880 .924989 .926090 .927184 22
68 .927184 .928270 .929348 .930418 .931480 .932534 .933580 21
69 .933580 .934619 .935650 .936672 .937687 .938694 .939693 20
70 .939693 .940684 .941666 .942641 .943609 .944568 .945519 19
71 .945519 .946462 .947397 .948324 .949243 .950154 .951057 18
72 .951057 .951951 .952838 .953717 .954588 .955450 .956305 17
73 .956305 .957151 .957990 .958820 .959642 .960456 .961262 16
74 .961262 .962059 .962849 .963630 .964404 .965169 .965926 15
75 .965926 .966675 .967415 .968148 .968872 .969588 .970296 14
76 .970296 .970995 .971687 .972370 .973045 .973712 .974370 13
77 .974370 .975020 .975662 .976296 .976921 .977539 .978148 12
78 .978148 .978748 .979341 .979925 .980500 .981068 .981627 11
79 .981627 .982178 .982721 .983255 .983781 .984298 .984808 10
80 .984808 .985309 .985801 .986286 .986762 .987229 .987688 9
81 .987688 .988139 .988582 .989016 .989442 .989859 .990268 8
82 .990268 .990669 .991061 .991445 .991820 .992187 .992546 7
83 .992546 .992896 .993238 .993572 .993897 .994214 .994522 6
84 .994522 .994822 .995113 .995396 .995671 .995937 .996195 5
85 .996195 .996444 .996685 .996917 .997141 .997357 .997564 4
86 .997564 .997763 .997953 .998135 .998308 .998473 .998630 3
87 .998630 .998778 .998917 .999048 .999171 .999285 .999391 2
88 .999391 .999488 .999577 .999657 .999729 .999793 .999848 1
89 .999848 .999894 .999932 .999962 .999983 .999996 1 060’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees
Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COSINE
72
D A T A Tangents & Cotangents
TAN Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’
0 0 .002909 .005818 .008727 .011636 .014545 .017455 891 .017455 .020365 .023275 .026186 .029097 .032009 .034921 88
2 .034921 .037834 .040747 .043661 .046576 .049491 .052408 87
3 .052408 .055325 .058243 .061163 .064083 .067004 .069927 86
4 .069927 .072851 .075775 .078702 .081629 .084558 .087489 85
5 .087489 .090421 .093354 .096289 .099226 .102164 .105104 84
6 .105104 .108046 .110990 .113936 .116883 .119833 .122785 83
7 .122785 .125738 .128694 .131652 .134613 .137576 .140541 82
8 .140541 .143508 .146478 .149451 .152426 .155404 .158384 81
9 .158384 .161368 .164354 .167343 .170334 .173329 .176327 80
10 .176327 .179328 .182332 .185339 .188349 .191363 .194380 79
11 .194380 .197401 .200425 .203452 .206483 .209518 .212557 78
12 .212557 .215599 .218645 .221695 .224748 .227806 .230868 77
13 .230868 .233934 .237004 .240079 .243157 .246241 .249328 76
14 .249328 .252420 .255516 .258618 .261723 .264834 .267949 75
15 .267949 .271069 .274194 .277325 .280460 .283600 .286745 74
16 .286745 .289896 .293052 .296213 .299380 .302553 .305731 73
17 .305731 .308914 .312104 .315299 .318500 .321707 .324920 72
18 .324920 .328139 .331364 .334595 .337833 .341077 .344328 71
19 .344328 .347585 .350848 .354119 .357396 .360679 .363970 70
20 .363970 .367268 .370573 .373885 .377204 .380530 .383864 69
21 .383864 .387205 .390554 .393910 .397275 .400646 .404026 68
22 .404026 .407414 .410810 .414214 .417626 .421046 .424475 67
23 .424475 .427912 .431358 .434812 .438276 .441748 .445229 66
24 .445229 .448719 .452218 .455726 .459244 .462771 .466308 65
25 .466308 .469854 .473410 .476976 .480551 .484137 .487733 64
26 .487733 .491339 .494955 .498582 .502219 .505867 .509525 63
27 .509525 .513195 .516875 .520567 .524270 .527984 .531709 62
28 .531709 .535446 .539195 .542956 .546728 .550513 .554309 61
29 .554309 .558118 .561939 .565773 .569619 .573478 .577350 60
30 .577350 .581235 .585134 .589045 .592970 .596908 .600861 59
31 .600861 .604827 .608807 .612801 .616809 .620832 .624869 58
32 .624869 .628921 .632988 .637070 .641167 .645280 .649408 57
33 .649408 .653551 .657710 .661886 .666077 .670284 .674509 56
34 .674509 .678749 .683007 .687281 .691572 .695881 .700208 55
35 .700208 .704551 .708913 .713293 .717691 .722108 .726543 54
36 .726543 .730996 .735469 .739961 .744472 .749003 .753554 53
37 .753554 .758125 .762716 .767327 .771959 .776612 .781286 52
38 .781286 .785981 .790697 .795436 .800196 .804979 .809784 51
39 .809784 .814612 .819463 .824336 .829234 .834155 .839100 50
40 .839100 .844069 .849062 .854081 .859124 .864193 .869287 49
41 .869287 .874407 .879553 .884725 .889924 .895151 .900404 48
42 .900404 .905685 .910994 .916331 .921697 .927091 .932515 47
43 .932515 .937968 .943451 .948965 .954508 .960083 .965689 46
44 .965689 .971326 .976996 .982697 .988432 .994199 1 45
60’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees
Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COTAN
73
Tangents & Cotangents D A T A
TAN Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)Degrees 0’ 10’ 20’ 30’ 40’ 50’ 60’
45 1 1.00583 1.01170 1.01761 1.02355 1.02952 1.03553 44
46 1.03553 1.04158 1.04766 1.05378 1.05994 1.06613 1.07237 43
47 1.07237 1.07864 1.08496 1.09131 1.09770 1.10414 1.11061 42
48 1.11061 1.11713 1.12369 1.13029 1.13694 1.14363 1.15037 41
49 1.15037 1.15715 1.16398 1.17085 1.17777 1.18474 1.19175 40
50 1.19175 1.19882 1.20593 1.21310 1.22031 1.22758 1.23490 39
51 1.23490 1.24227 1.24969 1.25717 1.26471 1.27230 1.27994 38
52 1.27994 1.28764 1.29541 1.30323 1.31110 1.31904 1.32704 37
53 1.32704 1.33511 1.34323 1.35142 1.35968 1.36800 1.37638 36
54 1.37638 1.38484 1.39336 1.40195 1.41061 1.41934 1.42815 35
55 1.42815 1.43703 1.44598 1.45501 1.46411 1.47330 1.48256 34
56 1.48256 1.49190 1.50133 1.51084 1.52043 1.53010 1.53986 33
57 1.53986 1.54972 1.55966 1.56969 1.57981 1.59002 1.60033 32
58 1.60033 1.61074 1.62125 1.63185 1.64256 1.65337 1.66428 31
59 1.66428 1.67530 1.68643 1.69766 1.70901 1.72047 1.73205 30
60 1.73205 1.74375 1.75556 1.76749 1.77955 1.79174 1.80405 29
61 1.80405 1.81649 1.82906 1.84177 1.85462 1.86760 1.88073 28
62 1.88073 1.89400 1.90741 1.92098 1.93470 1.94858 1.96261 27
63 1.96261 1.97681 1.99116 2.00569 2.02039 2.03526 2.05030 26
64 2.05030 2.06553 2.08094 2.09654 2.11233 2.12832 2.14451 25
65 2.14451 2.16090 2.17749 2.19430 2.21132 2.22857 2.24604 24
66 2.24604 2.26374 2.28167 2.29984 2.31826 2.33693 2.35585 23
67 2.35585 2.37504 2.39449 2.41421 2.43422 2.45451 2.47509 22
68 2.47509 2.49597 2.51715 2.53865 2.56046 2.58261 2.60509 21
69 2.60509 2.62791 2.65109 2.67462 2.69853 2.72281 2.74748 20
70 2.74748 2.77254 2.79802 2.82391 2.85023 2.87700 2.90421 19
71 2.90421 2.93189 2.96004 2.98868 3.01783 3.04749 3.07768 18
72 3.07768 3.10842 3.13972 3.17159 3.20406 3.23714 3.27085 17
73 3.27085 3.30521 3.34023 3.37594 3.41236 3.44951 3.48741 16
74 3.48741 3.52609 3.56557 3.60588 3.64705 3.68909 3.73205 15
75 3.73205 3.77595 3.82083 3.86671 3.91364 3.96165 4.01078 14
76 4.01078 4.06107 4.11256 4.16530 4.21933 4.27471 4.33148 13
77 4.33148 4.38969 4.44942 4.51071 4.57363 4.63825 4.70463 12
78 4.70463 4.77286 4.84300 4.91516 4.98940 5.06584 5.14455 11
79 5.14455 5.22566 5.30928 5.39552 5.48451 5.57638 5.67128 10
80 5.67128 5.76937 5.87080 5.97576 6.08444 6.19703 6.31375 9
81 6.31375 6.43484 6.56055 6.69116 6.82694 6.96823 7.11537 8
82 7.11537 7.26873 7.42871 7.59575 7.77035 7.95302 8.14435 7
83 8.14435 8.34496 8.55555 8.77689 9.00983 9.25530 9.51436 6
84 9.51436 9.78817 10.0780 10.3854 10.7119 11.0594 11.4301 5
85 11.4301 11.8262 12.2505 12.7062 13.1969 13.7267 14.3007 4
86 14.3007 14.9244 15.6048 16.3499 17.1693 18.0750 19.0811 3
87 19.0811 20.2056 21.4704 22.9038 24.5418 26.4316 28.6363 2
88 28.6363 31.2416 34.3678 38.1885 42.9641 49.1039 57.2900 1
89 57.2900 68.7501 85.9398 114.589 171.885 343.774 ∞ 0
60’ 50’ 40’ 30’ 20’ 10’ 0’ Degrees
Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) COTAN
74
D A T A Tr igonometry Formulae
Solution of Oblique Triangles
TAN B = bc
SINE B = ba
COS B = ca
a = Hypotenuseb = Perpendicularc = Base
COTAN B = cb
COSEC B = ab
SEC B = ac
Data Known
Solution of Right Angled Triangles
One Side& TwoAngles
All ThreeSides
Data Known Solution
Sides a & b c = a2 - b2 SIN B = b C = 90° - Ba
Sides a & c b = a2 - c2 SIN C = c B = 90° - Ca
Sides b & c a = b2 + c2 TAN B = b C = 90° - Bc
Side a & b = a x SIN B c = a x COS B C = 90° - BAngle B
Side a & b = a x COS C c = a x SIN C B = 90° - CAngle C
Side b & a = b c = b x COT B C = 90° - BAngle B SIN B
Side b & a = b c = b x TAN C B = 90° - CAngle C COS C
Side c & a = c b = c x TAN B C = 90° - BAngle B COS B
Side c & a = c b = c x COT C B = 90° - CAngle C SIN C
b
a
c
c
a
C
C
A
A
B
B
b
c
a
C
A
B
b
c
a
C
A
B
b
Two Sides &the IncludedAngle
Two Sides &the OppositeAngle
Solution
Call the known side a, the angle opposite it A, andthe other known angle B.
C = 180°° - (A + B) Area = a x b x SIN C2
b = a x SIN B c = a x SIN CSIN A SIN A
Call the known side a and b, and the known anglebetween them C.
B = 180°° - (A + C) Tan A = a x SIN Cb - (a x COS C)
c = a x SIN C Area = a x b x SIN CSIN A 2
Side c can also be found by:
c = a2 + b2 - (2ab x COS C)
Call the known angle A, the side opposite it a, andthe other known side b.
C = 180°° - (A + B) SIN B = b x SIN Aa
c = a x SIN C Area = a x b x SIN CSIN A 2
Call the sides a, b and c, and the angles oppositethem, A, B and C.
C = 180°° - (A + B) COS A = b2 + c2 - a2
2bc
SIN B = b x SIN A Area = a x b x SIN Ca 2
90°
c
a
C
A
B
b
M A C H I N I N G
MA
CH
IN
IN
G
75
Drilling 76 - 77
Milling 78 - 83
Reaming 84 - 85
Sawing 86 - 89
Tapping 90
Thread Milling 91
Turning 92 - 96
Types of Wear on a Carbide Insert 97
Lubricant Selection 98
Section
5
76
M A C H I N I N G Dri l l ingTit
aniu
mC
ast
Iron
Sta
inle
ss S
teel
Alloy S
teel
Carb
on S
teel
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed m/minFeed
Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength HSS HSS-CO HSS + TiNRange
machineability HB HRC N/mm2 Min Max Min Max Min Max
Mild, soft and free 1.1 machining non-alloy <130 - <400 28 32 - - 34 38 Med. to Heavy
low carbon steels
Non-alloy, case hardening, Structural
<200 - <700 25 28 - - 30 34 Medium1.2 and low to mediumcarbon steels
Non alloy, plain 1.3 and medium
<260 <26 <850 20 25 23 28 25 30 Mediumcarbon steels and castings
Generally low to 1.4 medium alloy <260 <26 <850 22 28 25 30 30 34 Medium
steels and castings
Medium to high 1.5 alloy steels, tool
>260 >26 >85016 20 18 22 20 24 Medium
steels and castings<340 <36 <1200
Heat treated 1.6 high alloy steels
>340 >36 >120012 16 14 18 15 19 Medium
and castings<450 <48 <1500
Soft and general easy to machine
2.1 Ferritic and <230 <20 <800 - - 14 18 20 24 Med. to Heavy
Martensitic stainless steels
and castings
Medium strength and reasonable
2.2 to machine <290 <30 <1000 - - 10 12 13 16 MediumAustenitic stainlesssteels and castings
Hard and difficult to machine. Ferritic
2.3 and Austenitic <340 <36 <1200 - - 4 8 6 10 Medium(duplex) stainless
steels and castings
Grey cast iron 3.1 Hardness - soft <180 - - 28 32 30 35 34 38 Medium
to medium
Grey cast iron 3.2 Hardness -
>180 - -20 25 24 28 28 34 Med. to Light
medium to hard<300
Malleable and 3.3 Nodular irons <220 - - 24 28 28 32 30 36 Medium
soft to medium
Malleable and 3.4 Nodular irons
>220- - 16 20 18 22 20 24 Med. to Light
medium to hard<300
4.1Pure Titanium
- - <700 35 40 - - - - Med. to Heavy(also pure Nickel)
Titanium alloys of4.2 a medium and - - <900
hard nature
Titanium of a - - >9004.3 hard and very- - <1250hard nature
HSS Drilling Feeds & Speeds
SPECIALISTDRILLS REQUIRED
i.e. Heavy Duty Cobalt Drills
77
Dri l l ing M A C H I N I N G
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed m/minFeed
Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength HSS HSS-CO HSS + TiNRange
machineability HB HRC N/mm2 Min Max Min Max Min Max
Heat resistant super alloys
5.1 including iron - - <500based high
temperature alloys
Heat resistant super alloys
5.2 Cobalt or Nickel - - <900based of a
medium to hardnature to machine
Heat resistant super alloys
Cobalt or Nickel - - 900-5.3 based, of a 1200
medium hard or very hard to
machine
6.1 Copper - - <500 30 45 - - 40 55 Medium
Brass - - <800 30 45 - - - - Medium6.2 (Alpha - long chip) - -
Brass6.3 (Beta - short chip)
- -<800 20 40 - - - - Medium
and soft Bronze- -
6.4 High strength- - <1200 - - 15 30 - - Med. to Heavy
Bronze
Unalloyed: 7.1 Aluminium, - - <150 35 40 - - 40 50 Med. to Heavy
Magnesium & Zinc
Aluminium alloys
7.2 less than 5% Si - - 150-300 35 40 - - 40 50 Med. to HeavyMagnesium & Zincalloys (long chip)
7.3Aluminium alloys - - 200-500 - - 25 30 30 40 Med. to Heavy
5% to 10% Si
Aluminium alloys
7.4 above 10% Si - - 200-- - 20 25 25 30 Med. to Heavy
(short chip) - - 500
Alu
min
ium
& M
agnesiu
mC
opper
Hig
h T
em
p. A
lloys
Power Requirements for Drilling
The formulae stated give an estimate
of power and thrust values in drilling.
Power in KW:
1.25 x D2 x K x N x (0.056 + 1.5F) *
100,000
To convert KW to HP multiply by 1.341
Thrust in Newtons11.4 x K x D x (100F)*
D = Dia of drill (mm)K = Material factor*where:N = Speed (RPM)F = Feed (mm/rev)
Gro
up
Materials HardnessMaterial
Factor K
1 Steel
1.1 130HB 1.31.2 200HB 1.41.3 260HB 1.91.4 260HB 1.91.5 260HB 2.7- 260HB-340 -
1.6 340HB 3.4
2Stainless 2.1 230HB 1.9
Steel 2.2 290HB 2.32.3 340HB 2.7
3 Cast Iron
3.1 180HB 1.03.2 180HB 1.5- 300 -
3.3 220HB 2.03.4 220HB 1.5- 300 -
4 Titanium
4.1 700N/mm2 1.44.2 900N/mm2 2.04.3 900-1250N/mm2 2.7
HSS Drilling Feeds & Speeds (continued)
SPECIALISTDRILLS REQUIRED
i.e. Heavy Duty Cobalt Drills
78
M A C H I N I N G Mi l l ing
HSS Milling Cutter Feed Rates
Useful FormulaeSpindle Speed ((ππ = 3.142):
Revs/min = Cutting Speed (M/min) x 1000 (mm)
( π x Cutting Diameter [mm])
Cutting Speed = Revs/min x π x Cutter Diameter (mm)
1000 (mm)
Table Feed:
Feed (mm/min) = Feed/Tooth (mm) x No. of Teeth x Revs/min
Feed/Tooth (mm) = Table Feed (mm/min)
(No. of Teeth x Revs/min)
CuttingSlotting Heavy Profiling Light Profiling
Diameter Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm)(mm)
Min Max Min Max Min Max
1 - 3 0.004 0.004 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.006
4 - 5 0.011 0.018 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.008
6 - 8 0.024 0.030 0.010 0.016 0.020 0.032
10 - 12 0.040 0.060 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.048
16 - 20 0.070 0.100 0.032 0.050 0.064 0.100
22 - 25 0.100 0.130 0.050 0.055 0.100 0.110
28 - 30 0.130 0.160 0.055 0.070 0.112 0.140
32 - 40 0.160 0.180 0.066 0.074 0.136 0.148
Above 40 - - 0.066 0.074 0.136 0.148
Based on Short Series Based on Regular Series End MillsSlot Drill
For longer series, reduce feed rate by 50%
Slotting, Ball Nose Slotting
& Die Sinking
Heavy Profiling Light Profiling
79
Mi l l ing M A C H I N I N G
HSS Milling Cutter Feed Rates (continued)
Coarse Pitch Coarse PitchFor aluminium & light alloys.Use factor of up to 3.5 xrecommended Feed/Tooth.
Normal PitchFor most materials. Generaluse.
Fine PitchFor increased tool life, use onhigh tensile or harder materials- tool steels, Titanium & Nickelalloys. Use Mid to low Feedrecommendation.
Normal Pitch
Fine Pitch
Teeth Chipping
Corrective Action - Order of Priority
Common Problems and Suggested Corrective Action
DecreaseFeed
IncreaseSpeed
EdgeCratering
DecreaseFeed
DecreaseSpeed
Change Coolant
Change CutterMaterial
Built up Edge
IncreaseFeed
IncreaseSpeed
Change Coolant
Poor Finish
DecreaseFeed
IncreaseSpeed
CutterConcentricity
Improve Stability
Chatter/Vibration
Improve Stability
CutterConcentricity
Change CutterGeometry
1 2 3 4
Cutter Wear
IncreaseFeed
DecreaseSpeed
Change CutterGeometry
Change CutterMaterial
CuttingSlotting Heavy Profiling Light Profiling
Diameter Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm) Feed/Tooth (mm)(mm)
Min Max Min Max Min Max
6 - 8 0.008 0.015 0.011 0.025 0.016 0.030
10 - 12 0.020 0.030 0.035 0.050 0.040 0.060
16 - 20 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.080 0.080 0.100
25 - 30 0.050 0.060 0.080 0.0100 0.0100 0.120
Above 30 0.065 0.070 0.120 0.130 0.130 0.140
Based on regular series ripper cut for longer series, reduce feed rate by 50%
Slotting, Ball Nose Slotting & Die
Sinking
Heavy Profiling Light Profiling
Roughing Cutters - HSS-E, HSS-E + TiCN, & ESM - END MILLS (4 & 6 FLUTE)
M A C H I N I N G Mi l l ing
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed (M/min)
Group Colour defines similarBrinell Rockwell
Strengthmachineability
HB HRCN/mm2 HSS-E HSS-E 10% HSS-E+TiCN
1.1 Mild, soft and free machining<130 - <400 32 - 36 40 - 60 74 - 78
low carbon steels
1.2 Non-alloy, case hardening, structural <200 - <700 32 - 36 40 - 60 74 - 78
and low to medium carbon steels
1.3 Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 25 - 30 32 - 40 58 - 65
steels and castings
1.4 Generally low to medium alloy <260 <26 <850 20 - 24 28 - 35 48 - 52
steels and castings
1.5 Medium to high alloy steels, tool >260 >26 >85020 - 24 28 - 35 48 - 52
steels and steels castings <340 <48 <1200
1.6 Heat treated high alloy steels and >340 >36 >120012 - 14 16 - 25 30 - 36
castings <450 <48 <1500
Soft and generally easy to 2.1 machine Ferritic and Martensitic <230 <20 <800 16 - 25 25 - 32 32 - 40
stainless steels and castings
Medium strength and 2.2 reasonable to machine Austenitic <290 <30 <1000 12 - 18 20 - 28 28 - 36
stainless steels and castings
Hard and generally difficult to 2.3 machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) <340 <36 <1200 7 - 13 15 - 20 18 - 22
stainless steels and castings
Carb
on
Alloy
Sta
inle
ss S
teels
80
HSS Milling Cutter SpeedsHSS-E 8% Cobalt For high productivityHSS-E 10% Cobalt PM For high productivity and consistentperformance, even after re-grindHSSE-E + TiCN Combining HSS-E and Titanium Carbon Nitridecoating for higher cutting speeds and prolonged tool life
81
Mi l l ing M A C H I N I N G
HSS Milling Cutter Speeds (continued) HSS-E 8% Cobalt For high productivity
HSS-E 10% Cobalt PM For high productivity and consistent performance, even after re-grind
HSSE-E + TiCN Combining HSS-E and Titanium Carbon Nitride coating
for higher cutting speeds and prolonged tool life
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed (M/min)
Group Colour defines similarBrinell Rockwell
Strengthmachineability
HB HRCN/mm2 HSS-E HSS-E 10% HSS-E+TiCN
3.1 Grey cast iron <180 - - 30 - 35 40 - 50 54 - 62
Hardness - soft to medium
3.2 Grey cast iron >180 - -22 - 26 35 - 38 40 - 48
Hardness - medium to hard <300 - -
3.3 Malleable and Nodular irons<220 - - 20 - 25 30 - 35 36 - 45
soft to medium
3.4 Malleable and Nodular irons >220- - 18 - 22 25 - 34 32 - 40
- medium to hard <300
4.1 Pure Titanium- - <700 25 - 30 32 - 38 -
(also pure Nickel)
4.2 Titanium alloys of a - - <900 7 - 10 10 - 15 -
medium and hard nature
4.3 Titanium alloys of a hard and - -
>9003 - 5 6 - 12 -
very hard nature <1250
5.1 Heat resistant super alloys including - - <500 8 - 12 10 - 16 14 - 18
Iron based high temperature alloys.
5.2 Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or - - <900 5 - 10 6 - 12 9 - 15
Nickel based, medium to hard nature.
Heat resistant super alloys, - - >9005.3 Cobalt or Nickel based, hard or - - <1200
3 - 5 4 - 6 5 - 9very hard nature to machine
6.1 Copper - - <500 80 - 120 - -
6.2 Brass - - <800 80 - 120 - -
(Alpha - long chip)
6.3 Brass (Beta - short chip) - - <800 60 - 100 - -
& soft Bronze
6.4 High strength bronze - - <1200 30 - 35 - 54 - 62
Tit
aniu
mC
ast
Iron
Hig
h T
em
p. A
lloys
Copper
M A C H I N I N G
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting End Mill Diameter
Group Colour defines similarBrinell Rockwell
Strength Speed Feed Per Tooth (mm)machineability
HB HRCN/mm2 (M/min) <6mm <12mm <25mm
1.1 Mild, soft and free machining<130 - <400 110 - 160
0.005 - 0.038 - 0.076 -low carbon steels 0.038 0.076 0.180
1.2 Non-alloy, case hardening, structural <200 - <700 60 - 120
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -and low to medium carbon steels 0.025 0.050 0.155
1.3 Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 65 - 100
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -steels and castings 0.025 0.050 0.155
1.4 Generally low to medium alloy <260 <26 <850 50 - 80
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -steels and castings 0.025 0.050 0.145
1.5 Medium to high alloy steels, tool >260 >26 >85050 - 80
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -steels and steels castings <340 <48 <1200 0.025 0.050 0.125
1.6 Heat treated high alloy steels and >340 >36 >1200 30 - 70 0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 -castings <450 <48 <1500 7 - 35 0.013 0.025 0.076
(<50HRC)
Soft and generally easy to 2.1 machine Ferritic and Martensitic <230 <20 <800 45 - 70
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -
stainless steels and castings0.025 0.050 0.150
Medium strength and 2.2 reasonable to machine Austenitic <290 <30 <1000 35 - 50
0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 -
stainless steels and castings0.013 0.025 0.130
Hard and generally difficult to 2.3 machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) <340 <36 <1200 25 - 35
0.005 - 0.010 - 0.018 -
stainless steels and castings0.010 0.018 0.100
Carb
on
Alloy
Sta
inle
ss S
teels
82
Mill ing
Solid Carbide Milling Cutter Feeds & Speeds
83
M A C H I N I N G
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting End Mill Diameter
Group Colour defines similarBrinell Rockwell
Strength Speed Feed Per Tooth (mm)machineability
HB HRCN/mm2 (M/min) <6mm <12mm <25mm
3.1 Grey cast iron <180 - - 60 - 150
0.013 - 0.050 - 0.076 -
Hardness - soft to medium 0.050 0.076 0.200
3.2 Grey cast iron >180 - -45 - 90
0.008 - 0.020 - 0.050 -
Hardness - medium to hard <300 - - 0.020 0.050 0.010
3.3 Malleable and Nodular irons<220 - - 40 - 85
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.075 -
soft to medium 0.025 0.075 0.180
3.4 Malleable and Nodular irons >220- - 24 - 120
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -
- medium to hard <300 0.025 0.050 0.155
4.1 Pure Titanium- - <700 60 - 80 - - -
(also pure Nickel)
4.2 Titanium alloys of a - - <900 35 - 50
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 -
medium and hard nature 0.025 0.050 0.150
4.3 Titanium alloys of a hard and - - <1250 25 - 35 0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 -
very hard nature 0.013 0.025 0.100
5.1 Heat resistant super alloys including - - <500 60 - 90
0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -
Iron based high temperature alloys. 0.025 0.025 0.50
5.2 Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or - - <900 30 - 60
0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -
Nickel based, medium to hard nature. 0.025 0.025 0.50
Heat resistant super alloys, - - 0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -
5.3 Cobalt or Nickel based, hard or - -
<1200 24 - 40
very hard nature to machine0.025 0.025 0.50
6.1 Copper - - <500 90 - 1500.050 - 0.050 - 0.155
-0.013 0.020 0.050
6.2 Brass - - <800 70 - 110
0.013 - 0.020 - 0.050 -
(Alpha - long chip) 0.050 0.050 0.155
6.3 Brass (Beta - short chip) - - <800 60 - 100
0.013 - 0.050 - 0.075 -
& soft Bronze 0.050 0.075 0.125
6.4 High strength bronze - - <1200 45 - 700.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 -
0.025 0.025 0.050
Tit
aniu
mC
ast
Iron
Hig
h T
em
p. A
lloys
Copper
Milling
Solid Carbide Milling Cutter Feeds & Speeds (continued)
M A C H I N I N G
84
Reaming
Materials Hardness Tensile Feed mm/rev
CuttingGroup Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Reamer DiameterSpeed
machineability HB HRC N/mm2 3 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 25 Over 25 M/min
Mild, soft and 1.1 free machining <130 - <400 - - - - -
low carbon steels
Non-alloy, case
1.2 hardening, structural <200 - <700 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .66 .64 - 1.0 40 - 70and low to medium
carbon steels
Non-alloy, plain 1.3 and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 - - - - -
steels and castings
Generally low to 1.4 medium alloy <260 <26 <850 - - - - -
steels and castings
Medium to high alloy >260 >26 >850
1.5 steels, tool steels <340 <48 <1200
.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 20 - 50and steels castings
Heat treated high >340 >36 >1200
1.6 alloy steels and<450 <48 <1500
- - - - -castings
Soft and generally
2.1 easy to machine Ferritic<230 <20 <800 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 30 - 50
and Martensitic stainlesssteels and castings
Medium strength and
2.2 reasonable to machine <290 <30 <1000 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 20 - 40
Austenitic stainless steels and castings
Hard and generally difficult to machine
2.3 Ferritic and Austenitic <340 <36 <1200 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 5 - 20(duplex) stainless
steels and castings
Grey cast iron 3.1 Hardness - <180 - - .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 60 - 100
soft to medium
Grey cast iron >180
3.2 Hardness - <300
- - .05 - .1 .1 - .2 .2 - .4 .4 - .64 30 - 60medium to hard
Malleable and 3.3 Nodular irons - <220 - - .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 60 - 90
soft to medium
Malleable and >220
3.4 Nodular irons - <300
- - .05 - .1 .1 - .2 .2 - .4 .4 - .64 30 - 60medium to hard
Cast
Iron
Sta
inle
ss S
teels
Alloy
Carb
on
HSS Reamer Feeds & Speeds
85
M A C H I N I N GReaming
Materials Hardness Tensile Feed mm/rev
CuttingGroup Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Reamer DiameterSpeed
machineability HB HRC N/mm2 3 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 25 Over 25 M/min
4.1 Pure Titanium - - <700 .15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .64 - 1.0 150 - 200
(also pure Nickel)
Titanium alloys 4.2 of a medium - - <900 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 35 - 50
and hard nature
Titanium alloys>9004.3 of a hard and - -<1250
- - - - -very hard nature
Heat resistant super
5.1 alloys including iron- - <500 - - - - -
based high temperature alloys
Heat resistant super
5.2 alloys, Cobalt or Nickel- - <900 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 5 - 15
based, medium to hard nature
Heat resistant super
5.3 alloys, Cobalt or Nickel - - >900 - - - - -
based, hard/very hard nature
6.1 Copper - - <500 .15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .8 - 1.25 50 - 75
6.2 Brass- - <800 .15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .8 - 1.25 125 - 200
(Alpha - long chip)
Brass 6.3 (Beta - short chip) - - <800 - - - - -
& soft Bronze
6.4 High strength bronze - - <1200 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 50 - 75
Unalloyed: 7.1 Aluminium, Magnesium - - <150 - - - - -
& Zinc
Aluminium alloys less >1507.2 than 5% Si Magnesium - -<300
.15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .64 - 1.0 150 - 300& Zinc Alloys (long chip)
7.3 Aluminium alloys - -
>200- - - - -
5% to 10% Si <500
7.4 Aluminium alloys above - -
>200- - - - -
10% Si (short chip) <500
Alu
min
ium
& M
agnesiu
mC
opper
Hig
h T
em
p.
Alloys
Tit
aniu
m
HSS Reamer Feeds & Speeds (continued)
86
M A C H I N I N G Sawing
Bandsaw Feed & SpeedFor best performance, cutting pressure should be adjusted for each different job.Generally, soft materials suit high cutting speed and light feed, hardmaterials suit low speed and heavy feed.If cutting speed is too high the teeth cannot “bite” the work material and rubthe surface causing friction and dulling of the band. If cutting speed is too lowthe process will become uneconomical. The speeds advised in the Speed & Tooth Form Tables will generally givethe best results. The following is a general guide.1. Pressure should be evenly applied. The blade should not be forced,
especially at the start of a cut, this will shorten band life and causedefective work.
2. On long straight cuts moderate pressure should be used in order toachieve the highest accuracy.
3. Feed pressures which are too heavy will also cause the machine to chatterand vibrate.
Swarf usually shows whether the feed needs to be adjusted.1. A free cut curl indicates ideal feed pressure, optimum cutting time and
longest band life, 2. Discoloured swarf indicates too much feed. This will cause teeth breakage
and the band to wear out rapidly, due to overheating. 3. Fine powdery swarf indicates too little feed pressure, causing the teeth to
rub the surface of the work instead of cutting it.
CoolantIt is always advisable to use coolant when cutting metal using a bandsaw, theexception being cast iron which should be cut dry There are many soluble oilsand light cutting oils available for this purpose. When cutting aluminium theuse of paraffin or beeswax is recommended.
Running-InA ‘running-in' period should be observed for each blade. The teeth on a newblade are exceptionally keen at the cutting edge and can be damaged if careand attention is not taken at the start of their life. Feed and speed should bereduced (especially feed) to allow the tooth point to be gradually honed in.The 'running in' period should extend to 200 sq cm. (30 sq ins) of materialsawn. During this period the feed and speed should be increased graduallyup to the optimum cutting rate
TensioningToo much band tensioning results in premature fatigue and breakage, it willalso damage machine wheels and bearings. Too little tensioning will result inbad cutting, chipped teeth, band jamming in cut. Correct tensioning is,therefore, vital to ensure best usage.Various types of machine have individual requirements. Reference should bemade to the manufacturer's manual for detailed advice. In general, the bandshould be tensioned that it does not slip when working, adjustment may benecessary from time to time to compensate for band stretch in use.Remember, however, that the tension should only ever be relieved when themachine is not in operation
Re-sharpening Life of bi-metal blades can be greatly increased by resharpening the teeth.The high speed steel tooth tips have uniform hardness and structurethroughout their full working depth. The teeth are effectively restored to theiroriginal state by re-sharpening. In order to maintain the blade’s condition itshould be frequently monitored - Deterioration in cutting time or accuracy ofcut indicates that it is time to consider re-sharpening.A well maintained blade that does not suffer deterioration of tooth set can beresharpened upto 3 times.
87
M A C H I N I N GSawing
Materials Hardness Tensile Work Material CuttingTooth
Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Thickness Speed Formmachineability HB HRC N/mm2 (mm) M/min
up to 25 85 - 130 10R1.1General purpose steels, 25 - 75 75 - 110 8R - 6Rto
mild and structural<200 - <700
75 - 150 60 - 100 6R - 4R1.2Over 150 60 - 90 4R - 3R
up to 25 50 - 100 10RNon-alloy, plain and25 - 75 45 - 75 8R - 6R1.3 medium carbon steels <260 <26 <85075 - 150 40 - 70 6R - 4Rand castingsOver 150 35 - 60 3H
up to 25 65 - 95 10RAlloy steels,25 - 75 45 - 75 8R - 6R1.4 generally low to medium <260 <26 <85075 - 150 40 - 70 6R - 4Rsteels and castingsOver 150 35 - 50 4R - 3H
up to 25 60 - 90 10RMedium to high alloy>260 >26 >850 25 - 75 55 - 75 8R - 6R1.5 steels, tool steels<340 <36 <1200 75 - 150 45 - 70 6R - 4Rand steel castings
Over 150 35 - 45 4R - 3H
up to 25 50 - 80 10R
1.6Heat treated high alloy >340 >36 >1200 25 - 75 50 - 75 8R - 6R
steels and castings <450 <48 <1500 75 - 150 40 - 65 6R - 4ROver 150 35 - 60 4R - 3H
up to 25 30 - 80 10R2.1 Stainless steels,25 - 75 25 - 45 8R - 6Rto free machine <290 <30 <100075 - 150 20 - 40 6R - 4R2.3 and austeniticOver 150 15 - 35 4R - 3H
up to 25 45 - 80 10R3.125 - 75 40 - 65 8R - 6Rto Grey Cast Iron <300 - -75 - 150 35 - 55 6R - 4R3.2Over 150 30 - 45 4R - 3H
up to 25 35 - 70 10R3.3 S.G. Iron25 - 75 30 - 60 8R - 6Rto nodular and malleable <300 - -75 - 150 25 - 45 6R - 4R3.4Over 150 20 - 35 4R - 3H
up to 25 75 - 150 10R6.1 Non ferrous metals25 - 75 65 - 135 8R - 6Rto brass, copper - - <80075 - 150 55 - 110 6R - 4R6.3 and bronzeOver 150 40 - 110 3H
up to 25 60 - 125 10R7.1Aluminium alloys 25 - 75 50 - 110 8R - 6Rto
zinc and magnesium - - <50
75 - 150 45 - 90 6R - 4R7.4Over 150 30 - 75 3H
Carb
on
Alloy
Sta
inle
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Cast
Iron
Copper
Alu
min
ium
Bi-Metal Bandsaw Speeds & Tooth Forms
88
M A C H I N I N G Sawing
Materials Hardness Tensile Work Material CuttingTooth
Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Thickness Speed Formmachineability HB HRC N/mm2 (mm) M/min
up to 6 55 32R - 24R1.1General purpose steels, 6 - 13 55 18R - 24Rto
mild and structural<200 - <700
13 - 50 50 10R - 8R1.250 - 100 45 6R
up to 6 45 6RNon-alloy, plain and6 - 13 45 14R - 10R1.3 medium carbon steels <260 <26 <85013 - 50 30 8Rand castings50 - 100 25 6R
up to 6 40 32R - 18RAlloy steels,6 - 13 40 14R1.4 generally low to medium <260 <26 <85013 - 50 30 10Rsteels and castings50 - 100 20 8R
up to 6 35 32R - 18RMedium to high alloy>260 >26 >850 6 - 13 35 14R1.5 steels, tool steels<340 <36 <1200 13 - 50 30 10Rand steel castings
50 - 100 20 8R
up to 6 30 32R - 18R
1.6Heat treated high alloy >340 >36 >1200 6 - 13 30 14R
steels and castings <450 <48 <1500 13 - 50 20 10R50 - 100 15 8R
up to 6 30 32R - 18R2.1 Stainless steels,6 - 13 30 18Rto free machine <290 <30 <100013 - 50 20 10R2.3 and austenitic50 - 100 15 8R
up to 6 30 8R3.16 - 13 30 18Rto Grey Cast Iron <300 - -13 - 50 35 14R3.250 - 100 20 10R
up to 6 25 18R3.3 S.G. Iron6 - 13 25 14Rto nodular and malleable <300 - -13 - 50 20 10R3.450 - 100 15 8R
up to 6 75 24R - 18R6.1 Non ferrous metals6 - 13 75 14H - 16Hto brass, copper - - <80013 - 50 50 6H6.3 and bronze50 - 100 30 3H
up to 6 150 24R - 18R7.1Aluminium alloys, 6 - 13 150 14H - 16Hto
zinc and magnesium - - <50
13 - 50 100 6H7.450 - 100 50 3H
Sta
inle
ss
Cast
Iron
Copper
Alu
min
ium
Carb
on
Alloy
Carbon Bandsaw Speeds & Tooth Forms
89
M A C H I N I N GSawing
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting CutsBar Diameter Or Similar Shapes
Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed Per <10 10-40 40-80 >80
machineability HB HRC N/mm2 M/min Minmm mm mm mm
Recommended TPI
1.1General purpose steels, to
mild and structural<200 - <700 25 - 35 70 - 90 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
1.2
Non-alloy, plain and1.3 medium carbon steels <260 <26 <850 20 - 30 50 - 70 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
and castings
Alloy steels,1.4 generally low to medium <260 <26 <850 20 - 30 50 - 70 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
steels and castings
Medium to high alloy>260 >26 >8501.5 steels, tool steels<340 <36 <1200
18 - 28 40 - 60 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3and steel castings
1.6Heat treated high alloy >340 >36 >1200
steels and castings <450 <48 <150015 - 25 30 - 45 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
2.1 Stainless steels,to free machine <290 <30 <1000 10 - 25 40 - 60 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 32.3 and austenitic
3.1to Grey Cast Iron <300 - - 30 - 40 70 - 90 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
3.2
3.3 S.G. Ironto nodular and malleable <300 - - 30 - 40 70 - 90 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 33.4
6.1 Non ferrous metalsto brass, copper - - <800 40 - 60 80 - 115 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 36.3 and bronze
7.1Aluminium alloys,to
zinc and magnesium - - <50 40 - 60 80 - 115 14 - 10 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
7.4
Sta
inle
ss
Cast
Iron
Copper
Alu
min
ium
Carb
on
Alloy
Powersaw & Hacksaw Speeds & TPI
M A C H I N I N G Tapping
Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting
Group Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed Hole Type Tap Type
machineability HB HRC N/mm2 M/min
1.1 Mild Steel <130 - <400 15 - 20
Various Straight Flute
1.2Case Hardening
<200 - <700 15 - 20 Through Hole Spiral Point& Structural Steel
1.3 Medium Carbon Steel <260 <26 <850 15 - 20
Blind Hole Spiral Flute
1.4 Low Alloy Steel <260 <26 <850 10 - 15
1.5Medium to High 260 - 26 - 850 -
6 - 10 Through Hole Spiral PointAlloy Steel 340 36 1200
1.6 Heat Treated Steel340 - 36 - 1200 -
4 - 6
Blind Hole Spiral Flute
450 48 1500
2.1Free Machining
<230 <20 <800 8 - 10
Through Hole Spiral Point
Stainless
2.2Medium Strength
<290 <30 <1000 6 - 8 Blind Hole Spiral FluteAustenitic Stainless
2.3Difficult to Machine,
<340 <36 <1200 4 - 6Duplex Stainless
3.1 Grey Cast Iron - Soft <180 - - 18 - 25Blind &
Straight Flute
3.2 Grey Cast Iron - Hard180 -
- - 15 - 18Through Hole
300
3.3Malleable &
<220 - - 8 - 12
Through Hole Spiral Point
Nodular Iron
3.4Malleable & 200 -
- - 4 - 6Nodular Iron - Hard 300
7.1Unalloyed Aluminium -
- - <150 20 - 25Zinc - Magnesium
7.2Aluminium Alloy
- -150 -
17 - 22Blind &
Flutelessless than 5% Si 300
7.3Aluminium Alloy
- -200 -
15 - 20
Through Hole
5% to 10% Si 500
7.4Aluminium Alloy
- -200 -
12 - 15 Blind & Straight Fluteabove 10% Si 500 Through Hole (for Cast Irons)
Production Tapping Speeds
Power Requirements For TapsMany factors are involved whenconsidering power requirements for aparticular application. Factors such asthe choice of tap design, tapping drillsize, depth of threaded hole, lubricantand tapping speed all play a part indetermining these requirements.To estimate the power requirementsfor varying percentage thread depths,the following general formula andconstants may be used:
Tapping Power (KW) = C x D x p2 x N x K10000
HP = KW x 1.341Where D = Thread Diameter (mm)
p = Pitch (mm)N = Spindle speed RPMK = Material Factor ConstantC = A constant based on %
thread depth, as follows:C % Thread Depth
0.231 600.326 750.433 80
90
Carb
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Alloy
Sta
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Cast
Iron
Alu
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91
Thread Mill ing M A C H I N I N G
1. Initial position of the thread mill. 4. Helical interpolation of pitch value.
2. Quick approach to bottom position. 5. Helical clearance interpolation.
3. Helical move to start position 6. Clearance above the workpiece.
on the workpiece
Thread Milling MethodTo obtain the best performance fromthread mills, it is recommended that thesmallest thread mill possible be used,taking into account the required pitch and thread depth into consideration.
ROUGH THE DIAMETERS TO CORRECT SIZE PRIOR TO THREADING.
An additional allowance of 0,1 to 0,2mm on diameter is necessary in order to machine a perfect thread form.
Example:Internal threading Drill tapping size 8,50M10 Drill thread mill size
8,30/8,40
External threading Turn die size 10,00 M10 turn thread mill size
10,10/10,20
92
M A C H I N I N G Turning
Materials Hardness Tensile Roughing Finishing
Group Colour defines Brinell Rockwell Strengthsimilar machineability HB HRC N/mm2
1.1 Generalpurposesteels,
to mild steel & <200 - <700 90-180 0.25-2.0 150-180 0.1-0.3
1.2 structural steel
Non-alloy, plain
1.3 and medium carbon <260 <26 <850 75-130 0.25-2.0 30-170 0.1-0.3
steels and castings
Alloy Steels,
1.4 generally low tomedium <260 <26 <850 80-180 0.2-2.0 180-400 0.05-0.3
steels and castings
Medium to high alloy
1.5 steels, tool steels>260 >26 >850
50-95 0.25-2.0 100-140 0.1-0.3
& steel castings<340 <36 <1200
Heat treated
1.6 high alloy >340 >36 >1200
50-90 0.2-1.5 90-130 0.05-0.2
steels and castings
2.1 Stainless steels,
to free machining <290 <30 <1000 50-100 0.2-1.0 80-120 0.05-0.3
2.3 & austenitic
3.1
to Grey Cast Iron <300 - - 55-105 0.2-1.0 90.130 0.05-0.3
3.2
3.3 S.G. Iron
to Nodular iron & <300 - - 80-120 0.2-1.0 120-150 0.05-0.3
3.4 Malleable Iron
6.1 Non ferrous metals
to brass, copper, - - <800 120-180 0.2-1.3 150-300 0.05-0.3
6.3 bronze
7.1 Aluminium alloys
to zinc & - - <50 <300 0.2-1.3 <300 0.05-0.3
7.4 magnesium
CuttingSpeedM/min
Feedmm/rev
CuttingSpeedMin
Feedmm/rev
P30/P40 Grade P30 Grade
P30/P40 Grade P30 Grade
P30/P40 Grade P30 Grade
P30/P40 Grade P30 Grade
P30/P40 Grade P30 Grade
P30/P40 Grade P30 Grade
K20 Grade K20 Grade
K20 Grade K20 Grade
K20 Grade K20 Grade
K20 Grade K20 Grade
Alu
min
ium
Copper
Cast
Iron
St/
Ste
el
Alloy
Carb
on
Brazed Tool Feeds & Speeds
93
Turn ing M A C H I N I N G
Carb
on S
teels
Alloy S
teels
Group 1: Carbon & Alloy SteelsQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
Material Description BS 970 En & Other Brinell Rockwell TensileGroup of Material 1988 Standards Hardness Hardness Strength
Group HB HRC N/mm2
Mild, soft and free 230Mo7 & En1 & En2 up to 130 - up to 4001.1 machining non-alloy, 050A12 En3B Leadloy
low carbon steels.
Non-alloy, case
1.2 hardening, structural 060A35, 6, 14, 32, 43 up to 200 - up to 700and low to medium
carbon steels.
Non-alloy, plain and 1.3 medium carbon steels 080M46 & En8 9, 10, 43 up to 260 up to 26 up to 850
and castings.
Generally low to 708M40/42, En16, 17, 19
medium alloy steels 817M40, (RS) En31,1.4
and cast steels. 534 A99, BM2, 3440B, 351, up to 260 up to 26 up to 850
BT42 36, S2-10-1-8(soft)
Medium to high alloy BO1, BM2, En24, 25,
steels, tool steels and BT42, 826M40 26(T.U.V.) from 260 from 26 from 8501.5
steel castings. & 830M31 S95, S97, S98 upto 340 up to 36 up to 1200(annealed)
Heat treated high BO1, 826M40 En25, 26, from 340 from 36 from 12001.6 alloy steels and & 830M31 27(W.X.Z.) up to 450 up to 48 up to 1500
castings. S97, S98(H&T)
Turning Operation P01 - P10 P05 - P15 P10 - P25 P20 - P40 P35 - P50
Groups 1.1 to 1.6 Fine General Light Medium HeavyFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0 4.0 to 12.0
Groups 1.1 - 1.2 - 1.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) 350-500 250-400 150-250 100-180 100-150
Group 1.4 - 1.5 Cutting Speed (m/min) 250-400 150-250 120-220 80-150 80-140
Group 1.6 Cutting Speed (m/min) 100-250 100-200 100-180 80-140 70-120
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over
Group 2: Stainless Steels.Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
Sta
inle
ss S
teels
Material Description BS 970 En & Other Brinell Rockwell TensileGroup of Material 1988 Standards Hardness Hardness Strength
Group HB HRC N/mm2
Soft and generally easy 303 S21 En562.1 to machine Ferritic and 416 S37 En57 up to 230 up to 20 up to 800Martensitic stainless 431 829 En60steels and castings.
Medium strength and 304 S15 En80 reasonable to machine 321 S17 En58AM2.2 Austentic (duplex)
316 L En58Jup to 290 up to 30 up to 1000
stainless steels 320 S12 316and castings.
Hard and generally difficult to machine
317 S16 Duplex2.3 Ferritic and Austenitic 310 Alloys
up to 340 up to 36 up to 1200(duplex) stainless
steel castings.
M10 M10 - M15 M10 - M20 M20 - M30 M30 - M40 Turning Operation
Groups 2.1 to 2.3 Fine General Light Medium HeavyFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0 4.0 to 12.0
Group 2.1 Cutting Speed (m/min) 200-290 180-250 150-250 120-180 90-150
Group 2.2 Cutting Speed (m/min) 180-220 150-210 120-200 90-160 70-110
Group 2.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) 120-150 100-130 80-100 60-80
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over
ISO PMK Calculator
94
M A C H I N I N G Turning
Gre
y C
ast
Iron
Malleable
Cast
Iron
Group 3: Cast IronQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
Material Description B.S. Other BrinellGroup of Material Standards Standards Hardness
Group HB
Grey cast iron3.1 Hardness - soft to Grade 150 Grey Cast Iron Soft up to 180
medium Grade 400
Grey cast iron.3.2 Hardness - medium Grade 200 Grey Cast Iron Hard from 180 to 300
to hard Grade 400
Malleable & 420/12, P440/7, S.G. Iron, Mehanite3.3 Nodular Irons 700/2, 30g/72 Black & White Heart up to 220
Malleable & 420/12, P440/7, S.G. Iron, Mehanite from 220 to 3003.4 Nodular Irons 700/2, 30g/72 Black & White Heart max
K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K25 K20 - K35 K20 - K40 Turning Operation
Groups 3.1 to 3.4 Fine General Light Medium HeavyFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.00 to 4.0 3.00 to 6.0 4.0 to 12.0
Groups 3.1 - 3.2 Cutting Speed m/min 200-300 175-280 150-250 130-220 80-180
Groups 3.3 - 3.4 Cutting Speed m/min 180-200 160-270 130-250 100-180 90-150
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over
Group 4: Titanium & AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
Tit
aniu
m
Material Description B.S. Other TensileGroup of Material Standards Standards Strength
Group N/mm2
Pure Titanium4.1 (also pure Nickel). TA1 to 9 Ti 99.0 up to 700
Titanium alloys of a4.2 medium and hard TA10 to 14, TA17, Ti - 2AL fup to 900
nature TA28
Titanium alloys of a TA10 to 13, TA28 Ti AL from 900 up to 4.3 hard and very hard 1250
K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K20 K20 - K40Turning Operation
Groups 4.1 to 4.3 Fine General Light MediumFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0
Group 4.1 Cutting Speed m/min 130-190 95-130 60-100 50-90
Group 4.2 Cutting Speed m/min 50-70 40-60 20-50 20-40
Group 4.3 Cutting Speed m/min
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0
Discuss individual applications with your local Cromwell Tools Company
ISO PMK Calculator (continued)
95
Turning M A C H I N I N G
Material Description B.S. Other TensileGroup of Material Standards Standards Strength
Group N/mm2
Heat resistant-super alloys NA 11 Nickel 200
5.1 including Iron NA 12 BS 3468 - Nickel 270 up to 500based high AUS 104 Ni Resist 2B
temperature alloys.
Heat resistant- Nimonic 75,super alloys, Hastelloy C
5.2 Cobalt or Nickel HR203 Monel 400, Inconel up to 900based of a medium 3027 - 76 600,to hard nature, to Haynes Alloys 263
machine.
Heat resistant- super alloys, HR8 Inconel 718,
5.3 Cobalt or Nickel HR401, 601 Waspalloy, from 900 up to 1200based of a hard Nimonic 80,
nature, to machine. Rene 41
Group 5: High Temperature AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K25 K20 - K35 K20 - K40 Turning Operation
Groups 6.1 to 6.4 Fine General Light Medium HeavyFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.00 to 4.0 3.00 to 6.0 4.0 to 12.0
Groups 6.1 - 6.2 Cutting Speed m/min 400-800 400-700 200-400 200-300 180-250
Groups 6.3 - 6.4 Cutting Speed m/min 250-350 300-450 180-250 150-230 130-200
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over
Group 6: Copper & Copper AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
Tit
aniu
m
Material Description B.S. Other BrinellGroup of Material Standards Standards Hardness
Group HB
6.1 Copper C101 Commercially pure up to 500
Brass Admiralty Brass6.2 (Alpha - long chip) CZ108, CZ106 Muntz up to 800
to hard Red Brass
Brass (Beta - short CZ120, CZ109, Manganese Bronze6.3 chip) Nodular Irons PB104 Naval Brass up to 800
High Strength AB1 type Ampco 18, Ampco 26 up to 12006.4 Bronze
K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K20 K20 - K40Turning Operation
Groups 5.1 to 5.3 Fine General Light MediumFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0
Group 5.1 Cutting Speed m/min 15-50 15-45 15-45 15-45
Group 5.2 Cutting Speed m/min 15-50 15-45 15-45 15-45
Group 5.3 Cutting Speed m/min 15-50 15-45 15-45 15-45
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0
Tit
aniu
m
ISO PMK Calculator (continued)
96
M A C H I N I N G Turning
Pla
sti
cs &
Non M
eta
llic
Material Description B.S. En & OtherGroup of Material Standards Standards
Group
8.1 Thermoplastic Polystyrene, nylon, PVC cellulose Nylon, Holstalen, Makrolonacetate & nitrate
8.2 Thermo-setting plastics Ebonite, Bakelite Bakelite, Pertinax
Reinforced plastics & Kevlar Printed Circuit Board CFK, GFK, AFK8.3 composite materials Tufnol
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
K01 - K10 K05 - K15 K10 - K25 K20 - K35 K20 - K40 Turning Operation
Groups 7.1 to 7.4 Fine General Light Medium HeavyFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.00 to 4.0 3.00 to 6.0 4.0 to 12.0
Groups 7.1 - 7.3 Cutting Speed m/min 600-800 500-700 500-700 500-700 500-700
Group 7.4 Cutting Speed m/min 500-700 400-600 300-600 300-600 300-600
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over
Group 8: Plastics & Non-Metallic MaterialsQuestion 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?
Turning Operation K10 K15
Groups 8.1 to 8.3 Fine General Light Medium HeavyFinishing Finishing Roughing Roughing Roughing
Depth of Cut (mm) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2.0 1.0 to 4.0 3.0 to 6.0 4.0 to 12.0
Group 8.1 Cutting Speed (m/min) 120-400 100-350 100-350 100-300 100-250
Group 8.2 Cutting Speed (m/min) 120-400 100-350 100-350 100-300 100-250
Group 8.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) 120-400 100-350 100-350 100-300 100-250
Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over
Material Description B.S. EN & Other TensileGroup of Material Standards Standards Strength
Group N/mm2
Unalloyed: Aluminium, Magnesium extruded7.1 Magnesium & ZInc LMO, 1B (1050A) aluminium up to 150
Aluminium alloys less Admiralty Brass7.2 than 5% Si Magnesium CZ108, CZ106 Muntz up to 800
& ZInc alloys (long chip) Red Brass
Aluminium alloy LM2, 4, 16, 18, 21, 22, Silicon from 2007.3 5% to 10% Si 2, 25, 26, 27 L109 aluminium up to 500
Aluminium alloys above
7.4 10% Si (short-chip) LM6, 12, 13, 20, 28, High silicon from 200Reinforced 29, 30 aluminium up to 500
aluminium alloys
Alu
min
ium
& M
agnesiu
m
Group 7: Aluminium, Magnesium, Zinc & their AlloysQuestion 1 - What type of material is be machined?
ISO PMK Calculator (continued)
97
Types of Wear on a Carbide Insert M A C H I N I N G
Type of WearFlank Crater Plastic Notching Thermal Chipping Edge Built Up PossibleWear Wear Deformation Cracking (Frittering) Fracture Edge Solution
Increase • • • Speed
Decrease • • • • • Speed
Increase • • Feed
Decrease • • • • • Feed
Make Tool • More Rigid
Select Harder • • • • More Wear
Resistant Grade
Select Harder• • • • More Wear
ResistantGrade
• • • SelectTougher Grade
• • • Select Grade with Harder
Coating
• • • • Select Chip Breaker with Higher Angle
orSharper Edge
Machin
eIn
serts
98
M A C H I N I N G Lubricant Selection
Material
Steel 1.1 � � � �
1.2 � �
1.3 � �
1.4 � � �
1.5 � � � �
1.6 � � � �
Stainless 2.1 � � � � � �
Steel 2.2 � � � � �
2.3 � � � � �
Cast Iron 3.1 � � �
3.2 � � �
3.3 � � � �
3.4 � � � �
Titanium 4.1 � � � � �
4.2 � � � � � �
4.3 � � � � � �
Nickel 5.1 � � � � � �
5.2 � � � � � �
5.3 � � � � � �
Copper 6.1 � � �
6.2 � � �
6.3 � � �
6.4 � � � � �
Aluminium 7.1 � � �
Magnesium 7.2 � � �
7.3 � � �
7.4 � �
Synthetic 8.1 � �
Materials 8.2 � � �
8.3 � �
Gro
up
Solu
ble
Oil
Solu
ble
Oil
with
Extr
em
e P
ress
ure
Additiv
e
Hig
h O
il Solu
ble
Sem
i-syn
thetic
Syn
thetic
Sem
i-syn
thetic
with E
xtr
em
e
Pre
ssure
Additiv
e
Chlo
rinate
d
Sulp
hurise
d &
oth
er
specia
lised o
ils
Air B
last
LubricantsThe selection of the most appropriate cutting lubricant willincrease the efficiency of cutting tools, the following is a guide:
� = EXCELLENT � = ACCEPTABLE
Note: When Fluteless Tapping, a coolant with an ExtremePressure Additive is recommended.
See Pages 100 - 101
for FullMaterial
Descriptions
Dilution Guidelines
Specific dilution ratesshould all derive from amid-range start point, i.e. 20/40 - 1 = 30 - 1
Mineral Soluble CuttingFluid
General Purpose. For awide range of machinetools & materials: 20 - 1
Long Life. For costeffective machining:20/40 - 1
Extreme Pressure LongLife Soluble cutting fluid:20/40 - 1
Extreme Pressure HighPerformance for heavyduty operations ondifficult to machinesteels & alloys: 20/40 - 1
Semi - Synthetic Cutting
& Grinding Fluid
General Purpose.Versatile enablingr a t i o n a l i s a t i o nthroughout the workshop:40/50 - 1
Extreme PressureChlorine Free: 20/40- 1
Extreme Pressure LongLife . Offers good clarity,ideal where visibility isimportant: 20/45-1
Extreme Pressure LongLife High PerformanceChlorine Free: 20/40 - 1
Specialist Cutting Fluid
High Performance LongLife for use withAluminium and Alloys:15/25 - 1
Long life Semi-Syntheticwith good clarity for highproductionmachine tools:30/40 -1
M A T E R I A L S
MA
TE
RIA
LS
99
Machining Groups 100 - 101
Metal & Alloy Properties 102 - 107
Periodic Table 108 - 109
Steels - Comparative Specifications 110 - 116
Section
6
100
M A T E R I A L S Machin ing Groups
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.1
2.2
2.3
Carb
on
Alloy
070M20
080M15
230M07
En1
En2
En3
1.0402
1.1141
Non-alloy, plainand mediumcarbon steelsand castings
Medium tohigh alloy
steels, toolsteels andcastings
Soft and
generally easy
to machine
Ferritic and
Martensitic
stainless
steels and
castings
Mediumstrength andreasonable to
machineAusteniticstainless
steels andcastings
Hard andgenerallydifficult tomachine
Ferritic andAustenitic(duplex)stainless
steels andcastings
Non-alloy, casehardening
structural andlow to mediumcarbon steels
Generally lowto medium
alloy steels,tool steels and
castings
Heat treatedhigh alloysteels andcastings
ISO AISI/SAEHardness Tensile
StrengthN/mm2
Group
Sta
inle
ss S
teels
Leaded Steels.Mild, soft andfree machiningnon-alloy lowcarbon steels
Materials
C22
C15
C10
1016
1020
1015
<130 - <400
Brinell RockwellHB HRC
BS970:
1991
BS970:
1955 DIN
150M19
210M15
214M15
En6
En14
En32
En202
1.1141
1.1160
1.1170
1.1178
C15
22Mn 6
28Mn 6
Ck30
1016
1030
1330
1524
<200 - <700
070M55
080M40
212A42
226M44
En8
En9
1.0535
1.0727
1.1186
C55
45S20
Ck40
1040
1055
1139
<260 <26 <850
605M36
606M36
635M15
655M13
665M17
708M40
722M24
En16
En19
En34
En36
En40
En351
En31
1.5752
1.7220
1.7225
1.7361
1.8523
14NiCr14
34CrMo4
42CrMo4
32CrMo12
39CrMoV -
13 9
3415
4137
4140
4142
4615
52100
<260 <26 <850
817M40
826M31
826M40
En24T
En25T
En26T
BD2
1.6565
1.6743
40CrNiMo
-6
32NiCrMo
-10 4
H13
4340
P20
D2
260- 26-
340 36
850 -
1200
826M31
826M40
230M31
En24Y
En25Y
En26Y
1.6743
1.6745
32NiCrMo-10 4
40NiCrMo-10 5
-340- 36-
450 45
1200 -
1500
Hardened Tool Steels
826M31
826M40
230M31
En24
En25
En26
1.6743
1.6745
32NiCrMo-10 4
40NiCrMo-10 5
-- 45-
55
1420 -
1800
HardenedTool Steels
826M31
826M40
230M31
En24
En25
En26
1.6743
1.6745
32NiCrMo-10 4
40NiCrMo-10 5
-- 55-
70>1800
403S17
430S17
416S21
416S41
420S29
431S29
441S49
En56B
En56Am
En57
En60
En56A
1.4005
1.4006
1.4016
1.4021
X12CrS 13X10Cr 13X6Cr 17
X20Cr 13
410S
416
416Se
420
430
431Se
<230 <20 <800
303S31
303S42
316S11
En58AM
En58J
En80
1.4305
1.4404
X10CrNiS-18 9
XCrNiMo
303
303Se
316L
<290 <30 <1000
X12CrNi -17/7
301
Ferralium
17/7PH
17/4PH
Crucible
301
<340 <36 <1200Zenon
100*(Non-BS)
- 1.4568
Colour defines similar machineability
Pla
stics N
on-M
eta
llic
101
Machin ing Groups M A T E R I A L S
Cast
Iron
Hig
h T
em
pera
ture
Alloys
Copper,
Bra
ss, B
ronze
MaterialsBS DIN AISI/SAE
Brinell TensileHB N/mm2Group
Alu
min
ium
Magnesiu
m
Heat resistantsuper alloys,
Cobalt or Nickelbased, of mediumto hard nature to
machine
HR203, 3027-67Nimonic 75,Hastelloy C,Monel 400,Inconel 600
HaynesAlloys,263
Nimonic 75,Monel 400,Hastelloy C,
Inconel
Nimonic 75,Monel 400,Hastelloy C,Inconel 600
- <900
Heat resistantsuper alloys,
Cobalt or Nickelbased, or veryhard nature to
machine
HR8H401, 601
Inconel 718,Waspalloy
Nimonic 80,Rene 41
Inconel 718,Waspalloy
Nimonic 80A
Inconel 718, 625Nimonic 80
->900
<1200
CopperBS 2873, -C101,
-C102, -C103Commercially pure
E-Cu57, SE-Cu 101 SAE CAI22 - <500
Brass(Alpha - long chip)
CZ180, CZ106 Admiralty Brass
Muntz Red BrassCuZn37, CuZn28
SAE 74BSAE 74CSAE 79C
- <800
Brass(Beta - short chip)
& soft Bronze
CZ120, CZ109PB104, ManganeseBronze,Naval Brass
CuZn39Pb2,CuZn40, CuSn8,
CuSn6Zn
E 88SAE CA 327
SAE 43- <800
High strengthBronze
AB1, Ampco 18,Ampco 26
Ampco 18,Ampco 25
SAE 701 BSAE CA 624
- <1200
Heat Resistantsuper alloysincluding ironbased, hightemperature,
alloys
NA11, NA12 BS3468-AUS 104
Nickel 200,Nickel 270,Ni Resist 2B
Nickel 200, Nickel 270
Ni99.6
Nickel 200,Nickel 230
- <500
Unalloyed :Aluminium,
Magnesium &Zinc
LMO, 1B (1050A)Magnesium
extrudedaluminium
A199.5 EC, 1060, 1100 - <150
Aluminium alloysless than 5% SiMagnesium &
Zinc alloys (longchip)
LM5, 10, 12(N4(5251)Low silicon
wrought & cast
AlCuMg2,AlMgMn0.8
380, 520.0,520.2, 2024,
6061-
<150
>300
Aluminium alloys5% to 10% Si
LM2,4,16,18, 21,22,24,25,26,27
L109
GD-AlCi8CuG-AlSi5Mg
319.0, 333.0,319.1, 356.0
-<200
>500
Aluminium alloysabove 10% Si(short chip)
LM6,12,13,20,28,29,30, High silicon
G-AlSi18, G-AlSi12
4032, 222.1A332.0
-<200
>500
Reinforcedplastics &compositematerials
Printed CircuitBoard Tufnol,CFK,
GFK, AFK
Kevlar PrintedCircuit Board
Kevlar - -
Thermoplastic
Polystyrene, nylon,PVC cellulose
acetate & nitrate,Makrolon
PVC NylonHolstalen
Polystyrene NylonPVC
- -
Thermo settingplastics
Ebonite, Bakelite,Pertinax PTFE Bakelite Bakelite - -
Titanium alloys ofa hard and very
hard nature
TA10 to 13, TA28Ti-A
TiAl6V4,TiAl6V5Sn,
TiAl4Mo4Sn2
AMS4929,AMS4971
- >900
<1250
Titanium alloys ofa medium and
hard nature
Ta10 to 14,TA17, TA28
Ti-2Al
TiAl6V4, TiAl5Sn2
AMS4929>500
- <900
Pure Titanium, Pure Nickel
TA1 to 9 Ti99.0
Ti99.8ASTM B348/4,
ASTMB 367/C1,ASTM B265/2
- <700
Malleable andNodular irons -Medium to hard
420/12, P440/7700/2 30g/72 S.G.S.G. iron, mehanite,black & white heart
GGG40, GGG70GT45-06,GTW45-07
ASTM A220 grade 90001,ASTM A602
grade M8501
>220-
<300
Malleable andNodular irons -soft to medium
420/12,P440/7,700/2, 30g/72
S.G. iron, mehanite,black & white heart
GGG40, GGG70GTS45-06,GTW45-07
ASTM A220 grade 40010,ASTM A602
grade M45041
<220 -
Grey cast ironHardness -
medium to hard
Grade 200,Grade 400
GG25, GG40
ASTM A48 class 40, 60
>180-
<300
Grey cast ironHardness - soft to
medium
Grade 150,Grade 400
GG10, GG40
ASTM A48 class 20, 40
<180 -
Tit
aniu
m&
Nic
kel
Colour defines similar machineability
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
8.1
8.2
8.3
102
M A T E R I A L S Metal & A l loy Propert ies
Tool MaterialsHigh Speed Steel (HSS)Used for all types of tools standard and special in very intricate forms.Used when low cost tooling is required or where machine or workpiecestability is not good. Withstands intense friction generated heat whencutting metal.Cobalt High Speed Steel (HSS-E)When Cobalt is added to HSS alloy it allows the tool material to be run at ahigher spindle speed, giving extended tool life and improved performance.Sintered High Speed Steel (HSSE-PM)This tool material is much denser and harder than drawn HSS and will runsignificantly faster speeds than the above and will give better tool life. Itmay be used on more difficult to machine materials or those that are veryabrasive.Tungsten CarbideA Sintered amalgum of tungsten compounds which result in a very hardmaterial that will cut at far higher cutting speeds than High Speed Steel.Most often produced in the form of throw away inserts which avoid theneed to re-grind the tool or even take it out of the machine, can also bebrazed onto steel shanks to give a hard resilient cutting edge on a tougheconomical tool body.CermetA Japanese development using titanium compounds instead of tungsten,while generally more brittle than tungsten, cermet does not reactchemically with ferrous materials so severely. The advantages of these twofeatures mean that cermet can run faster that tungsten carbide andprovides a far superior surface finish and maintains it longer.CeramicsAre used mostly for cutting cast irons at cutting speeds in excess of 1000metres/minute. Turning hard materials and machining superalloys is alsoachieved with some ceramic grades.Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)For turning hard abrasive materials giving long tool life at high speeds.Poly Crystalline Diamond (PCD)Mostly used on high silicon aluminium when large quantities ofcomponents are involved.
Tool Surface TreatmentsBright FinishAssociated with high speed steel drills, milling cutters, taps, reamers, formtools, etc.Steam TemperSome standard HSS drills and taps are steam tempered to improve thesurface hardness and reduce the surface friction for easier chip removal.NitridingProvides a surface on HSS which resists abrasion. Taps for cast ironapplications should be nitrided for example.Surface coating by vapour deposition (PVD or CVD) including:Titanium Nitride (TiN)Titanium Carbonitride (TiCN)Titanium Aluminium Nitride (TiAlN)These coatings can be used on most of the aforementioned tool materialsand generally provide a hard low friction surface with a tough core and ahard outer case for maximum strength.
Resistant to shock loading and theability to run at a significantly fasterspeeds than the base material. Thelow fr ict ion surface helps chipevacuation and prevents chip weldingand build up on edges. TiCN is mostoften used on HSS-E milling cutters.TiN is associated more with drills andtaps. Turning inserts use multi layersof various coatings in differentthicknesses to create highperformances coated carbide grades.
Non-ferrous Metal and Alloy Properties
Aluminium: Greyish white inappearance. Extremely lightweight.Malleable, soft, highly resistant tocorrosion. Excellent conductor ofelectricity.
Aluminium Alloys: Contain small amounts of other elements such as Copper,Nickel, Chromium, Manganese, Magnesium, Silicon and Zinc. The addition ofthese elements directly effects the strength, hardness, and other properties ofthe soft pure Aluminium. Lightweight strong and resistant to corrosion.
Brass: An alloy of mainly copper and zinc though it may contain some Tin.Yellow in appearance. Good conductor of heat and electricity. Highly resistantto corrosion though it does tarnish easily.
Bronze: An alloy consisting of approx 90% copper and 10% tin. Reddish yellowin appearance. Harder and tougher then brass.
Bronzes: Are a series of alloys that are basically a mixture of copper and tinthough they may contain some zinc.
Copper: Soft reddish-brown in appearance. Malleable, tough, ductile andcorrosion resistant. Excellent conductor of electricity.
Gun metal: Very similar composition and characteristics to that of bronzeexcept that a small amount of copper is replaced with zinc. Which improvesthe casting and machinablitly.
Lead: dull grey in appearance. Very soft, malleable and casts very well.Resistant to corrosion.
Phosphor bronze: The constituents that are used to produce it are determinedby whether the metal is tobe cast or worked to shape. Resistant to wear andcorrosion.
Tin: Silvery white in appearance. Malleable, ductile and has good corrosionresistance.
Zinc: Bluish white in appearance. Very resistant to corrosion.
Comparison of Coating Properties
103
Meta l & A l loy Propert ies M A T E R I A L S
Tool Surface Treatments (continued)
TiN TiCN TiALN
CoatingTitanium Titanium TitaniumNitride Carbo- Alum.
Nitride Nitride
Hardness 2,900 4,500 4,500
(HV 0.05) ± 200 ± 400 ± 500
Adhesion 70 70/80 62
Coefficient 0.65 0.45 0.42
of Friction
Surface
Roughness 0.2 0.15 0.18
(Rq µm)
Oxidation 400°C to 350°C to 800°C to
Temp. 500°C 400°C 900°C
104
M A T E R I A L S Metal & A l loy Propert ies
Basic Forms of Heat TreatmentAnnealing: Softens metal allowing further work. Also relievesinternal stresses and strains from previous working or use.The steel is heated to a temperature determined by itscarbon content, and then allowed to cool very slowly.
Case Hardening: Mild steel with less then 0.3% carboncannot be hardened in the normal way, but the surface ofmild steel can be changed to high carbon steel and this inturn can be hardened in the normal way. This produces atough ductile core and a hard outer case resistant to wear,Case hardened steel has many engineering uses. Theprocess has four main stages;
1. Carburising creates a high carbon steel outercasing bysurrounding the steel with a carbon rich source (solid, powderor gas) and heating it to a specific temperature for a setperiod of time. Carbon is absorbed by the surface of the steelto form a high carbon steel case. The depth of this case isdepends on how long the steel is heated for. The steel isthen cooled slowly. At this stage the core of the steel willhave a coarse grain structure due to the prolonged heatingtime. This makes the steel soft.
2. The steel is heated again and oil-quenched to refine thegrain structure and toughen the core.
3. To harden the outercasing the steel is re-heated andquenched in oil or water.
4. Tempering of the steel is carried out in the normal way totoughen the surface to the required degree.
Hardening: Changes the chemical and structural make up ofsteel. When heated above its upper critical point Austeniteforms, if the steel is then cooled naturally it will revert back toits natural pearlite composition. If however the temperature ofthe metal is lowered quickly by quenching in water or oil thischange does not take place - an extremely hard and brittleconstituent termed martensite is formed. Low carbon steels(less then 0.3%) can not be hardened in this way as too littlemartensite is produced. Water and oil produce differenteffects when used for quenching. Water produces very hardsteel - oil produces slightly softer steel, less likely to crack ordistort.
Normalising: Refines the grain structure of the steel after ithas been subjected to temperatures over the critical range(i.e. complicated forgings) and to remove internal stressescaused by cold working, (bending, rolling, hammering etc).While the process is similar to annealing the effect is to bringthe steel back to its normal condition without softening thesteel for further working. The steel is heated to just above itsupper critical point (normalising temperature) and allowed tocool in still air. It is only kept at the normalising temperaturelong enough to ensure it is evenly heated.
Tempering: Once hardened steel is too brittle for mostengineering applications. To restore some of its normaltoughness and ductility the steel is tempered by heating thesteel to a temperature below its critical point, usuallybetween 200ºC and 300ºC this converts some of themartensite back to pearlite. The exact temperature dependson how the steel will be used. Higher temperatures producesofter, less brittle steel. A balance between loss of hardnessand gain in toughness has to be found.
Colour Chart ForHardening &Forging Steel should beviewed in a dark orfaintly lit room -Chart should beviewed in normaldiffused daylight.Colours varyaccording to metalcomposition andare only for guide.
Colour Chart ForTemperingWhen steel isheated in air oxideforms on thesurface. The colourchanges as thetemperature risesand can be used togauge the amountof temper. Coloursvary according tometal compositionand are only forguide.
330OC Grey
320OC Grey
310OC Light Blue
300OC Blue
290OC Dark Blue
280OC Violet
270OC Purple Red
260OC Red Brown
250OC Yellow Brown
240OC Deep Straw
230OC Yellow
220OC Straw
210OC Yellow White
1200OC White
1100OC Light Yellow
1050OC Yellow
980OC Light Orange
930OC Orange
870OC Light Red
810OC Light Cherry
760OC Cherry
700OC Dark Cherry
650OC Blood Red
600OC Brown Red
105
Meta l & A l loy Propert ies M A T E R I A L S
Element Properties in Alloys
Al AluminiumStrongest de-oxidiser and combines with Nitrogen. In small additionsrestricts grain growth. Improves scale resistance so effectively used as analloying element in ferritic heat resisting steels.Melting Point: 660.37°C Boiling Point: 2467°C Density (20°C): 2.702g/cm3
B BoronImproves the deep hardening of constructional steels causing an increase incore hardness of case hardening steels. Has a high neutron absorptioncross-section. Melting Point: 2300°C Boiling Point: 2550°C Density (20°C): 2.34g/cm3
Be BerylliumBeryllium Copper alloy is anti-magnetic and can stand greater load changes.Nickel-Beryllium is a very hard and corrosion resistant steel. Melting Point: 1278°C Boiling Point: 2970°C Density (20°C): 1.8477g/cm3
C CarbonForemost alloy element of steel. Every unalloyed steel contains silicon,manganese, phosphorus and sulphur. When Carbon is introduced thisincreases the hardening properties of steel. However elasticity, forging,welding and cutting properties suffer. Carbon content has no effect oncorrosion resistance to water, acids and gases. Melting Point: 3500°C Boiling Point: 4827°C Density (20°C): 2.62g/cm3
Ca CalciumIncreases the scale resistance of heat conductor materials. Melting Point: 839°C Boiling Point: 1484°C Density (20°C): 1.55g/cm3
Ce CeriumA strong de-oxidant, promotes desulphurising. Improves the hot working ofhigh alloy steel and also the non-scaling properties of heat resisting steels. Melting Point: 795°C Boiling Point: 3257°C Density (20°C): 6.773g/cm3
Co CobaltObstructs grain growth at high temperatures. Often an element of highspeed steel, hot work steel and heat resisting raw materials. It actsfavourably on the graphitic formation and increases residual magnetism,coercive force and thermal conductivity. If subjected to neutron rays it formsa strong radio active Isotope Cobalt 60.Melting Point: 1495°C Boiling Point: 2870°C Density (20°C): 8.90g/cm3
Cr ChromiumIncreases hardness and strength but reduces elasticity slightly. Improvesresistance to heat and non scaling properties. The higher the Chromecontent the more corrosion resistant the steels become. Strong Carbideformer. The tensile strength of steel rises by 8-10kg/mm2 per 1% Cr. Melting Point: 1857°C Boiling Point: 2672°C Density (20°C): 7.19g/cm3
Cu CopperCopper increases the strength and the yield point of steel, but it impairs itsproperties of elasticity. A small amount of Copper renders steel resistant torusting though it does not impair the welding properties of steel. Melting Point: 1083°C Boiling Point: 2567°C Density (20°C): 8.96g/cm3
106
M A T E R I A L S Metal & A l loy Propert ies
Element Properties in Alloys (continued)
H HydrogenHarmful to steel as it causes embrittlement by a reduction of elasticity andreduction of areas without increasing the yield point or tensile strength.Cause of the “flaking” problem and promotes hair line cracks. Melting Point: -259°C Boiling Point: -252°C Density (20°C): 0.08988g/cm3
Mn ManganeseImproves the strength of steel, but impairs elasticity, good forging andwelding properties. Higher presence of manganese with carbon, increasesthe wear resistance dramatically. With up to 3% of manganese the tensilestrength is increased by 10kg/mm2 for every percent of manganese.increases the depth of hardening.Melting Point: 1245°C Boiling Point: 1962°C Density (20°C): 7.43g/cm3
Mo MolybdenumImproves tensile strength, heat resistance and welding properties. Oftenused with chromium. Similar behaviour to tungsten. When used withchromium or nickel, it can produce high yield points and tensile values. Hasa tendency to form carbide and is the alloy element of choice in high speedand hot working steels. Melting Point: 2617°C Boiling Point: 4612°C Density (20°C): 10.22g/cm3
N NitrogenIn austenitic steels, stabilises the structure and increases hardness, yieldpoint and mechanical properties at high temperatures. Allows surfacehardness through nitride formation. Can be harmful as it decreases thetoughness during precipitation. Melting Point: -209.9°C Boiling Point: -195.8°C Density (20°C): 1.2506g/cm3
Nb/Cb Niobium/ColumbiumAlways found together and very difficult to separate, so they are alloyedtogether, usually as stabilisers. Melting Point: 2468°C Boiling Point: 4927°C Density (20°C): 8.57g/cm3
Ni NickelIncreases the strength of steel (less than silicon or manganese), elasticitydropping slightly. Ensures good hardening, especially when Chromium ispresent. Chrome Nickel steels are stainless and resistant to scaling andheat. Increases the notch impact value of structural steels, especially at lowtemperatures. Suitable for use in austenitic steels. Melting Point: 1453°C Boiling Point: 2732°C Density (20°C): 8.902g/cm3
O OxygenHarmful to steel but its influence depends on the type and composition ofthe compounds as well as the atomic properties. Melting Point: -218.4°C Boiling Point: -183°C.
P PhosphorusThere are various kinds of phosphorus, viz white (yellow), red (purple), blackand others. Phosphorus is considered to be detrimental to steel so that it isendeavoured to keep the phosphorous content in high-grade steel at amaximum of 0.03 - 0.05%. Melting Point: 44.1°C Boiling Point: 280°C Density (20°C): 1.82g/cm3.
Element Properties in Alloys (continued)
Pb LeadAlloyed to free-machining steels in amounts of 0.2 - 0.5%. Because of its
fine homogeneous distribution it allows the formation of short turnings and
better cutting surfaces, therefore better machining. Lead has no affect on
steel structure.
Melting Point: 327.5°C Boiling Point: 1740°C Density (20°C): 11.34g/cm3
S SulphurProduces “red shortness”, harmful as it makes steel brittle. Contents of
0.025% or 0.030% are permitted.
Melting Point: 112.8°C Boiling Point: 444.6°C Density (20°C): 2.07g/cm3
Se SeleniumUsed in free-machining steels like Sulphur. Enhances machineability. In
stainless steels it reduces the corrosion resistance (less than sulphur).
Melting Point: 217°C Boiling Point: 684.9°C Density (20°C): 4.79g/cm3
Si SiliconSilicon is present in all steels like manganese. The term “Silicon Steels”,
refers to the steels containing above 0.04%. Silicon is not a metal, instead
it is called a metalloid (like phosphorus). It increases mechanical strength,
resistance to scaling and density. Elasticity is affected slightly and tensile
strength is increased by 10kg/mm2 for each percent of silicon, (same
applies to the yield point). A high Silicon content (about 14%) enables steel
to resist chemical attack, but can no longer can be forged.
Melting Point: 1410°C Boiling Point: 2355°C Density (20°C): 2.329g/cm3
Ti TitaniumVery hard metal, strong carbide former. An alloying element mainly used in
stainless steels to stabilise against inter-granular corrosion. Also has grain
refining properties.
Melting Point: 1660°C Boiling point: 3287°C Density (20°C): 4.54g/cm3
V VanadiumA small addition improves the hot hardness and reduces the grain growth.
Works well in structural and tool steels, increases the cutting properties in
high speed steels. Strong carbide former, increases the tensile strength
and yield point. Good combination with Chromium in structural and heat
resisting steels and with Tungsten in high speed and hot work steels.
Melting Point: 1890°C Boiling Point: 3380°C Density (20°C): 5.80g/cm3
W TungstenImproves the strength properties, increases the hardness and life of cutting
edges, also maintains a good heat resistance level. Used as an alloy
element. Tensile and yield strengths are increased by 4kg/mm2 per percent
Melting Point: 3410°C Boiling Point: 5660°C Density (20°C): 19.3g/cm3
Zr ZirconiumCarbide former. Extra element for de-oxidation, desulphurisation and
eliminating Nitrogen, as it leaves minimal de-oxidation by product.
Melting Point: 1852°C Boiling Point: 4377°C Density (20°C): 6.9g/cm3.
107
Meta l & A l loy Propert ies M A T E R I A L S
10
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Colour Code:
Alkali Metals Other Metals Non-metals
Alkali Earth Metaloids HalogensMetals
Transitional Lanthanides NobleMetals & Actinides Gases
element nameatomic number
element symbol1995 atomic weight (mean relative mass)
Elements - Periodic Table
1 Key: Group Number 18
hydrogen helium
1 2
H He1.00794(7) 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.002602(2)
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne6.941(2) 9.012182(3) 10.811(7) 12.0107(8) 14.00674(3) 15.9994(3) 18.9984032(5) 20.1797(6)
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorous sulphur chlorine argon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar22.989770(2) 24.3050(6) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.981538(2) 28.0855(3) 30.973761(2) 32.066(6) 35.4527(9) 39.948(1)
potassium calcium scandium titanium vandium chromium manganese iron colbalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr39.0983(1) 40.078(4) 44.955910(8) 47.867(1) 50.9415(1) 51.9961(6) 54.938049(9) 55.845(2) 58.933200(9) 58.6934(2) 63.546(3) 65.39(2) 69.723(1) 72.61(2) 74.92160(2) 78.96(3) 79.904(1) 83.80(1)
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe85.4678(3) 87.62(1) 88.90585(2) 91.224(2) 92.90638(2) 95.94(1) [98.9063] 101.07(2) 102.90550(2) 106.42(1) 107.8682(2) 112.411(8) 114.818(3) 118.710(7) 121.760(1) 127.60(3) 126.90447(3) 131.29(2)
caesium barium Hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn132.90545(2) 137.327(7) 178.49(2) 180.9479(1) 183.84(1) 186.207(1) 190.23(3) 192.217(3) 195.078(2) 196.96655(2) 200.59(2) 204.3833(2) 207.2(1) 208.98038(2) [208.9824] [209.9871] [222.0176]
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium ununnilium unununium ununbium
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Fr Ra ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub[223.0197] [226.0254] [261.1089] [262.1144] [263.1183] [264.12] [265.1306] [268] [269] [272] [277]
* lanthanides
** actinides } see next page
10
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Elements - Periodic Table (continued)
* lanthanides
** actinides
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu138.9055(2) 140.116(1) 140.90765(2) 144.24(3) [144.9127] 150.36(3) 151.964(1) 157.25(3) 158.92534(2) 162.50(3) 164.93032(2) 167.26(3) 168.93421(2) 173.04(3) 174.967(1)
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr[227.0277] 232.038(1) 231.03588(2) 238.0289(1) [237.0482] [244.0482] [243.0614] [247.0703] [247.0703] [251.0796] [252.0830] [257.0951] [258.0984] [259.1011] [262.110]
Symbols and namesThe symbols of the elements, their names, and their spellings arethose recommended by IUPAC. (International Union of Pure & AppliedChemistry)
Atomic numberThe atomic number corresponds to the number of protons in thenucleus of an atom of that element. It also corresponds to the numberof electrons in the neutral atom.
Standard atomic weightsIn the above table these are the IUPAC 1995 values.
"An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from aspecified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of theelement to 1/12 of the mass of Carbon 12" in its nuclear and electronicground state.
A sample of any element consists of one or more isotopes of thatelement. Each isotope is a different weight. The relative amounts ofeach isotope for any element represent the isotope distribution for thatelement. The atomic weight is the average of the isotope weightsweighted for the isotope distribution and expressed on the Carbon 12scale as mentioned above.
Elements for which the atomic weight is contained within squarebrackets have no stable nuclides and are represented by one of theelement’s more important isotopes. The last significant figure of eachvalue is considered reliable to ±1 except where larger uncertainty is
given in parentheses.
UnitsAtomic mass units
Group numberThe group number is an identifier used to describe the column of thestandard periodic table in which the element appears.
Groups 1-2 (except hydrogen) and 13-18 are termed main groupelements.
Groups 3-11 are termed transition elements.
Main group elements in the first two rows of the table are called typicalelements.
The following names for specific groups in the periodic table are incommon use:
Group 1: alkali metalsGroup 2: alkaline earth metalsGroup 11: coinage metals (not an IUPAC approved name) Group 15: pnictogens (not an IUPAC approved name)Group 16: chalcogens Group 17: halogensGroup 18: noble gases
In addition, groups may be identified by the first element in each group- so the Group 16 is sometimes called the oxygen group.
110
M A T E R I A L S Steel - Comparative Specifications
Changing StandardsBS 970 is the UK standard covering steel for mechanical andallied engineering purposes and dates back to 1942(Emergency Number Series), since then there havebeen several revisions.
In 1970 the standard underwent majorchange, introducing a new six digit numberingsystem and the division of the standard into sixparts, each covering different categories of steel.
In 1983 and 1996 the standard was alsorestructured, main changes were asfollows:
1. Parts 1-4 of the 1970standard were revisedand combined to formPart 1 of the newstandard.
2. The provisions for the valuesof steel are still covered by BS 970: Part 4: 1970 and thosefor steels for hot formed springs by BS 970: Part 2: 1988. Bright Barsfor general engineering are covered by BS 970: Part 3: 1991.
3. The steel standard has been restructured sothat each section contains all the steelsintended for a particular purpose.
4. Steels containing micro alloy and boron were introduced, certain steelswere added and some deleted.
5. To reduce the number of steels generally in use, steels were split intotwo categories.
“Category 1”- a rationalised series for use in new designs and inestablished designs wherever possible.
“Category 2”- shown in italic type on the opposite pages, are non-preferred, from a steel manufacturing point of view.
Users are recommended to consult the complete standards for detailedinformation, particularly for details of testing and inspection procedures,freedom from defect requirements, steel-making and casting procedures aswell as for a range of graphs showing hardenability curves.
The standards can be obtained from: British Standards Institution.
Notes
The following pages give comparisons between the old EN series and new sixdigit reference. Comparison is also given between the new six digit referenceto standardised references used in Germany and the USA.
Comparisons are based on chemical composition and type analysis althoughsome variation in the main element can exist. Mechanical properties havenot been taken into account.
Users should treat tables only as a guide and the appropriate standardshould be consulted before specifying materials.
111
Steel - Comparative Specifications M A T E R I A L S
BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-1991 1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME
ENCarbon Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- - 015A03 - 1005 1.0314 D 6-2
- - 030A04 - 1006 1.0313 D 8-2
040A04 040A04 040A04 2A, 2A/1, 2B 1006 1.0313 D 8-2
040A10 040A10 040A10 2A, 2A/1, 2B 1010 1.0301 C 10
040A12 040A12 040A12 2A, 2A/1, 2B 1012 - -
- 040A15 040A15 - 1015 1.0401 C 15
- - 040A17 - 1017 1.0426 ASt 41
- 040A20 - 1020 1.0402 C 22
- - 040A22 2C, 2D 1023 1.0402 C 22
045A10 045A10 - - 1010 1.0301 C 10
045M10 045M10 045M10 32A 1010 1.0301 C 10
- - 050A04 - 1008 1.0333 St 13
- - 050A10 - 1010 1.0301 C 10
- - 050A12 - 1012 - -
- - 050A15 - 1015 1.0401 C 15
- - 050A17 - 1017 1.0426 ASt 41
- - 050A20 2C, 2D 1020 1.0402 C 22
- - 050A22 - 1023 1.0402 C 22
- - 050A86 - 1086 1.1830 C 85 W
055M15 055M15 - 2 1016 - -
- - 060A10 - 1010 1.0301 C 10
- - 060A12 - 1010 1.0301 C 10
- - 060A15 - 1015 1.0401 C 15
- - 060A17 - 1017 1.0426 ASt 41
- - 060A20 - 1020 1.0402 C 22
- - 060A22 - 1023 1.0402 C 22
- - 060A25 - 1025 - -
- - 060A27 - 1029 1.0415 D 25-2
- - 060A30 - 1030 - -
- 060A32 060A32 - 1035 1.1180 Cm 35
- - 060A35 - 1035 1.1180 Cm 35
- - 060A37 - 1038 1.1183 Cf 35
- 060A40 060A40 - 1040 1.1186 Ck 40
- - 060A42 - 1042 - -
- 060A45 - - 1045 1.1191 Ck 45
- 060A47 060A47 - 1045 1.1191 Ck 45
- - 060A52 - 1050 1.1210 Ck 53
- 060A57 060A57 - 1055 1.0535 C 55
060A62 060A62 060A62 43D 1060 1.0601 C 60
060A67 060A67 060A67 - 1064 - -
060A72 060A72 060A72 - - - -
060A78 060A78 060A78 - - - -
060A81 060A81 - - 1080 - -
- - 060A83 - - - -
- - 060A86 - 1084 - -
- - 060A96 44, 44B - -
- - 060A99 - - - -
- - 070A72 42 1070 - -
- - 070A78 42 - - -
070M20 070M20 070M20 3A, 3C 1023 1.0402 C22
- 070M26 070M26 3 1026 - -
070M55 070M55 070M55 9 1055 1.0535 C55
080A15 - 080A15 32 1016 1.0401 C15
112
M A T E R I A L S Steel - Comparative Specifications
BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-1991 1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME
EnCarbon Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- - 080A17 - 1018 - -080A20 - 080A20 - 1021 - -
- - 080A22 - - - -- - 080A25 - 1026 - -- - 080A27 5A 1029 - -
080A30 080A30 080A30 5B 1030 - -
- 080A32 080A32 5C 1035 1.1180 Cm 35
- 080A35 080A35 8A 1035 1.1180 Cm 35
- 080A37 080A37 8B 1038 -
- 080A40 080A40 8C 1040 1-1186 Ck40
080A42 080A42 080A42 8D 1042 -
080A47 080A47 080A47 43B 1046 1.1730 C45W
- 080A52 080A52 43C 1053 - -
- 080A57 080A57 - 1055 1.0535 C 55
- - 080A62 - 1060 1.0601 C 60080A67 080A67 080A67 43E 1065 - -
- - 080A72 - 1070 - -- - 080A78 - 1080 - -- - 080A83 - 1085 - -- - 080A86 - 1085 - -- 080H36 080H36 - 1035 - -
- 080H41 080H41 - 1039 - -
- 080H46 080H46 - 1046 - -080M15 080M15 080M15 32C 1016 1.0401 C 15080M30 080M30 080M30 5 1030 1.1178 Ck30
- 080M36 080M36 - 1035 -080M40 080M40 080M40 8 1040 1.1186 Ck40
- 080M46 080M46 - 1045 1.1191 Ck45080M50 080M50 080M50 43A 1049 - -
Carbon Manganese Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- 120M19 120M19 - - - -
- 120M28 120M28 - 1526 1.1161 26 Mn 5
- 120M36 120M36 15B - - -125A15 125A15 125A15 - - - -
130M15 130M15 130M15 201 - - -- 135M44 - - - - -
150M19 150M19 150M19 14A, 14B 1524 - -- 150M28 150M28 14A, 14B - - -
150M36 150M36 150M36 15 - 1.1167 36 Mn 5- 150M40 - - 1541 - -
Boron Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
17OH15 17OH15 - - - - -170H20 170H20 - - 15B21H 1.5523 19 MnB 4170H36 170H36 - - 15B35H - -170H41 170H41 - - - 1.5527 40 MnB 4173H 16 173H 16 - - - - -174H20 174H20 - - - - -175H23 175H23 - - - - -185H40 185H40 - - - - -
Carbon and Carbon Manganese Free Cutting Steels (Category 2 Shown in Italics)
210A15 21OA15 21OA15 - 1117 - -
210M15 210M15 210M15 32M 1117 - -- 212A37 212A37 8BM - - -
212A42 212A42 212A42 8DM - - -
113
Steel - Comparative Specifications M A T E R I A L S
BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-1991 1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME
EnCarbon and Carbon Manganese Free Cutting Steels (Category 2 Shown in Italics)
- 212M36 212M36 8M 1140 1.0726 35 S 20
- - 212M44 8M - - -
214A15 214A15 214A15 - 1118 - -
214M15 214M15 214M15 202 1118 - -
- 216A42 - - - - -
- 216M28 216M28 - 1132 - -
216M36 216M36 216M36 15AM 1137 - -
- 216M44 - - - - -
- 220M07 220M07 1113 1.0711 9 S 20
- 225M36 225M36 - - - -
- - 225M44 - 1144 - -
226M44 226M44 - 8M 1144 1.0727 45 S 20
230M07 230M07 230M07 1A 1213 1.0715 9 SMn 28
230M07Pb 230M07 Pb - 1A Pb 12L14 1.0718 9 SMn Pb28
240M07 240M07 - 1BSilico Manganese Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- - 250A53 45 9255 1.0904 55 Si 7
- - 250A58 45A 9260 1.0909 60 Si 7
- - 250A61 45B 9260 1.0909 60 SI 7Micro - Alloy Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
280M011 280M011 - - - - -Stainless Heat Resisting & Valve Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- - 302S25 58A 302 - -
302S31 302S31 - - 302 - -
- - 303S21 58M 303 1.4305 X12 CrNiS 18 8
303S31 303S31 - 58M 303 1.4305 X10 CrNiS 18 9
- - 303S41 58M 303Se - -
303S42 303S42 - 58AM 303Se 1.4305 X10 CrNiS 18 9
304S11 304S11 - - 304L 1.4306 X2 CrNi 19 11
- - 304S12 - 304L 1.4306 X2 CrNi 18 9
304S15 304S15 304S15 58E 304 1.4301 X5 CrNi 18 10
304S31 304S31 - - 304 1.4301 X5 CrNi 18 10
- - 310S24 - 310 1.4842 X6 CrNi 25 20
310S31 310S31 - - 310 1.4845 X12 CrNi 25 21
- - 315S16 58H - 1.4420 X5 CrNiMo 17 13 2
316S11 316S11 - - 316L 1.4404 X2 CrNiMo 18 10
- - 316S12 - 316L 1.4404 X2 CrNiMo 18 10
316S13 316S13 - - 316L 1.4435 X2 CrNiMo 18 14 3
- - 316S16 58J 316L 1.4435 X2 CrNiMo 18 12
316S31 316S31 - - 316 1.4401 X5 CrNiMo 17 12 2
316S33 316S33 - - 316 1.4436 X5 CrNiMo 17 13 3
- - 317S12 - 317L 1.4438 X2 CrNiMo 18 16
- - 317S16 - 317 1.4449 X5 CrNiMo 17 1 3
- - 320S17 58J 316Ti 1.4573 X10 CrNiMoTi 18 1
32OS31 32OS31 - - 316Ti 1.4571 X6 CrNiMoTi 17 12 2
- - 321S12 58B, 58C 321 1.4541 X10 CrNiTi 18 9
- - 321S20 58B, 58C - 1.4878 X12 CrNiTi 18 9
321S31 321S31 - - 321 1.4541 X6 CrNiTi 18 10
- - 325S2 1 58M - - -
325S31 325S31 - - - - -
- - 326S36 58JM 316Se - -
- - 331S40 54 EV9 - -
114
M A T E R I A L S Steel - Comparative Specifications
BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-1991 1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME
EnStainless Heat Resisting & Valve Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- † 331S42 54A EV9 - -- - 347S17 58F, 58G 347 1.4550 X6 CrNiNb 18 10
347S31 347S31 - - 347 1.4550 X10 CrNiNb 18 9- † 349S52 - EV8 1.4871 X53 CrMnNiN 21 9- † 349S54 - EV8 1.4871 X53 CrMnNiN 21 9- † 352S52 - - - -- † 352S54 - - - -- † 381S34 - EV4 - -- † 401S45 52 HNV3 1.4718 X45 CrSi 9 3
403S17 403S17 403S17 - 403 1.4000 X7 Cr 13410S21 410S21 41OS21 56A 410S 1.4006 X10 Cr 13416S21 416S21 416S21 56AM 416 1.4005 X12 Cr S 13416S29 416S29 416S29 56BM - - -416S37 416S37 416S37 56CM - - -416S41 416S41 416S41 56AM 416Se - -42OS29 42OS29 42OS29 56B 420 1.4021 X20 Cr 1342OS37 42OS37 42OS37 56C - - -
- - 42OS45 56D 420F 1.4028 X30 Cr 13- - 430S15 60 430 1.4016 X8 Cr 17
430S17 430S17 430S17 - 430 1.4016 X6 Cr 17431S29 431S29 431S29 57 431 1.4057 X20 CRNI 17 2
- - 441S29 57 - - -- - 441S49 - 431Se - -- † 443S66 59 HNV6 1.4747 X80 CrNiSi 20
Alloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- - 503A37 12B - - -- - 503A42 12C - - -- - 503H37 - - - -- - 503H42 - - - -- - 503M40 12 - - -- - 523A14 206 5015 1.7012 13 Cr 2
523H15 523H15 - - 5015 1.7012 13 Cr 2523M15 523M 15 523M15 - 5015 1.7015 15 Cr 3
- - 526M60 11 5160 - -527A17 527A17 - - 5115 - -
- - 527A19 207 5120 1.7121 20 Cr MnS 33- - 527A60 48 5160 1.7176 55 Cr 3- 527H17 - - 5115 -- - 527H60 - 5160 1.7176 55 Cr 3
527M17 527M17 - - 5115 - -- - 527M20 - 5120 1.7121 20 Cr MnS 33- 530A30 530A30 18A 5130 1.7030 28 Cr 4
- 530A32 530A32 18B 5130 1.7033 34 Cr 4
- 530A36 530A36 18C 5132 1.7034 37 Cr 4
- 530A40 530A40 18D 5140 1.7035 41 Cr 4
- - 530H30 - 5130 1.7030 28 Cr 4- 530H32 530H32 - 5130 1.7033 34 Cr 4- 530H36 530H36 - 5132 1,7034 37 Cr 4- 530H40 530H40 - 5140 1.7035 41 Cr 4
530M40 530M40 530M40 18 5140 1.7035 41 Cr 4- - 534A99 31 52100 1.3505 100 Cr 6- 535A99 535A99 31 52100 1.3505 100 Cr 6
590A15 590A 15 - - - 1.7131 16 Mn Cr 5
59OH17 59OH17 - - - 1.7131 16 Mn Cr 5
115
Steel - Comparative Specifications M A T E R I A L S
BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-1991 1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME
EnAlloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
590M17 590M17 - - - 1.7131 16 Mn Cr 5- 605A32 605A32 16B - - -
- 605A37 605A37 16C - - -
- 605H32 605H32 - - - -
- 605H37 605H37 - - - -
- - 605M30 16D - - -605M36 605M36 605M36 16 - - -606M36 606M36 606M36 16M - - -
- - 608H37 - - - -- - 608M38 17 - - -
635A14 635A14 635A14 - - - -
635H15 635H15 635H15 - - - -
635M15 635M15 635M15 351 - - -
637A16 637A16 637A16 - - - -
637H17 637H l 7 637H l 7 - - - -
637M17 637M17 637M1 7 352 - - -
- - 640A35 111A 3135 1.5710 36 NiCr 6- - 640H35 - 3135 1.5710 36 NiCr 6- - 640M40 111 A3141 1.5711 40 NiCr 6- - 653M31 23 - 1.5755 31 NiCr 14k- - 655A12 - - 1.5752 14 NiCr 14
655H13 655H13 655H13 - - 1.5752 14 NiCr 14
655M13 655M13 655M13 36A - 1.5752 14 NiCr 14
- - 659A15 - - 1.5860 14 NiCr 18- - 659H15 - - 1.5860 14 NiCr 18- - 659M15 39A - 1.5860 14 NiCr 18- - 665A17 - 4615 - -- - 665A19 - 4620 - -- - 665A22 35A - - -- - 665A24 35B - - -
665H17 665H17 665H17 - 4615 - -
665H20 665H20 665H20 - 462OH - -
665H23 665H23 665H23 - - - -
665M17 665M17 665M 17 34 4615 - -
665M20 665M20 665M20 - 4620 - -
665M23 665M23 665M23 35 - - -
- 708A25 - - - - -
- 708A30 - - 4130 - -
- 708A37 708A37 19B 4137 1.7220 34 CrMo 4
- 708A40 - - 4140 1.7225 42 CrMo 4
- 708A42 708A42 19C 4142 1.7225 42 CrMo 4
- 708A47 - - 4147 1.7228 50 CrMo 4
708H20 708H20 - - - - -- 708H37 708H37 - 4137H 1.7220 34 CrMo 4- 708H42 708H42 - 4142H 1.7227 42 CrMoS 4- 708H45 - - 4145H - -
708M20 708M20 - - - - -708M40 708M40 708M40 19A 4140 1.7225 42 CrMo 4
- 709A37 - - - 1.7220 34 CrMo 4
- 709A40 - - - 1.7225 42 CrMo 4
- 709A42 - - - 1.7225 42 CrMo 4
709M40 709M40 709M40 19 - 1.7225 42 CrMo 4720M32 720M32 - - - 1.7361 32 CrMo 12722M24 722M24 722M24 40B - 1.7361 32 CrMo 12
116
M A T E R I A L S Steel - Comparative Specifications
Steel BS 970 BS 970 BS 970 AISI/ WERK- KURZ-
1983 1970/72 1955 SAE STOFF NAME
EnAlloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
- - 735A50 47 6150 1.8159 50 CrV 4
- - 785M19 13 - - -
- - 805A15 - 8615 - -
805A17 805A17 805A17 - 8617 1.6523 21 NiCrMo 2
805A20 805A20 805A20 - 8620 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22
805A22 805A22 805A22 - 8622 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22
- - 805A24 - 8625 - -
- - 805A60 - 8660 - -
805H17 805H17 805H17 - 8617H 1.6523 21 NiCrMo 2
805H20 805H20 805H20 - 862OH 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22
805H22 805H22 805H22 - 8622H 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22
- - 805H25 - 8625H - -
- - 805H60 - 866OH - -
805M17 805M17 805M17 361 8617 1.6523 21 NiCrMo 2
805M20 805M20 805M20 362 8620 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22
805M22 805M22 805M22 - 8622 1.6543 21 NiCrMo 22
- - 805M25 363 8625 - -
808H17 808H17 - - - - -
808M17 808M17 - - - - -
- - 815A16 - - - -
815H17 815H17 815H17 - - - -
815M17 815M17 815M17 353 - - -
- - 816M40 110 - 1.6511 36 CrNiMo 4
- 817A37 - - 4340 - -
- 817A42 - - 4340 - -
817M40 817M40 817M40 24 4340 1.6566 40 NiCrMo 6
- - 820A16 - - - -
820H17 820H17 820H17 - - - -
820M17 820M17 820M17 354 - - -
822A17 - 822A17 - - - -
822H17 822H17 822H17 - - - -
822M17 822M17 822M17 355 - - -
823M30 - 823M30 - - 1.6580 30 CrNiMo 8
826M31 826M31 826M31 25 - 1.6743 32 NiCrMo 10 4
826M40 826M40 826M40 26 - 1 6745 40 NiMoCr 10 5
- - 830M31 27 - 1.6746 32 NiCrMo 14 5
832H13 832H13 832H13 - - 1.6657 14 NiCrMo 13 4
832M13 832M13 832M13 36C 9310 1.6657 14 NiCrMo 13 4
- - 835A15 - - 1.6723 15 NiCrMo 16 5
835H15 835H15 835H15 - - 1.6723 1 5 NiCrMo 16 5
835M15 835M15 835M15 39B - 1.6723 15 NiCrMo 16 5
- 835M30 835M30 30B - 1.6747 30 NiCrMo 16 6
897M39 897M39 897M39 4OC - 1. 8523 39 CrMo V 13 9
- - 905M31 41A - 1.8507 34 CrAlMo 5
905M39 905M39 905M39 41B - 1.8509 41 CrAiMo 7
- - 925A60 - - - -
- - 945A40 100C - - -
945M38 945M38 945M38 100 - - -
M E A S U R I N G
ME
AS
UR
IN
G
117
Calipers & Dividers 118
Calipers - Vernier, Dial & Digital 119
Edge & Centre Finders 120 - 121
Engineers’ Squares 122
External Micrometers 123 - 124
Height & Depth Gauges 125
Protractors & Combination Sets 126 - 127
Refractometers 128 - 129
Sine Bars 130
Section
7
118
M E A S U R I N G Cal ipers & Div iders
CalipersFor taking transfer measurements orcomparisons of dimensions. Whentaking an internal measurement, thelegs are opened until they are justtouching the maximum dimension. It isusual to rock the calipers backwardand forward to make sure theadjustment is correct and gives a truemeasurement. This can then bechecked accurately using a micrometeror with a try square and rule.
Spring TypeThe legs pivot on a roller and aretensioned by a bow spring. Adjustmentis made by opening or closing the legsby means of an adjusting nut whichgives a much finer setting than can beobtained with firm joint type. Thenominal size is the distance from thecentre of the roller to the point of theleg, this measurement also beingeffective capacity.
Firm Joint TypeThe legs are hinged using a largeheaded nut and screw when tightenedprovides a rigid joint without play. Thecalipers have bowed tapered legs forexternal work or straight tapered legswith feet bent outward for internalwork.
Jenny Calipers Also known as hermaphrodite or oddleg calipers. Jenny calipers are usedfor scribing lines from the edge of aplate or shoulder, they are made in thefirm joint type with large nut and screwto provide rigidity. The scribing leg ispointed and hardened or alternativelyfitted with a replaceable point. Theother leg is shaped with a toe orprojection for locating from the datum.
DividersDividers are designed for marking outof circles on steel or the transferenceof measurements from a mastertemplate. They are used by holding thepeg and pressing it towards the work,the pivoting leg is kept in the centrelocation and the scribing leg marks atrue circle.
SpringType
JennyCalipers
Dividers
119
Cal ipers - Vern ier , D ia l & Dig ita l M E A S U R I N G
How to Read a Vernier Caliper.Reading in two-hundreths of a millimetre (0.02 mm)The main scale is graduated in millimetres and numbered every tendivisions. The Vernier scale is divided into 50 divisions over a distance of49mm, each division equalling 0.98mm. The difference between a divisionon the main scale to one on the Vernier scale is 0.02mm (1/50mm).
To take a reading, note the position of the zero line on the Vernier scale inrelation to the main scale i.e. 21mm. To this should be added the numberof divisions from zero on the Vernier scale to the line coincident with a lineon the main scale i.e 42 divisions or 42/50 of a millimetre (0.84 mm).
Reading: 21.00mm + 0.84 mm = 21.84 mm.
Reading in thousandths of an inch (0.001”)The main scale is graduated and numbered in inches, witheach inch graduated and numbered in tenths (0.1”). Each
numbered subdivision is graduated into four unnumbereddivisions (0.025”). The Vernier scale is divided into 25 divisions over adistance of 1.225”, each division equalling 0.049”. The differencebetween a division on the main scale to one on the Vernier scale is 0.001”(one thou’)
To take a reading, note the position of the zero line on the Vernier scale inrelation to the main scale i.e. 1.250”. To this should be added the numberof divisions from zero on the Vernier scale to the line coincident with a lineon the main scale i.e. 12 (0.012”).
Reading : 1.250” + 0.012” = 1.262”.
Dial Type Vernier CaliperThe whole numbers (centimetres andmillimetres) are read from the main scalefrom zero to the chamfered edge of thecursor. The decimal numbers are readfrom the dial, numbered divisions beingthe first decimal place and unnumbereddivisions the second decimal place.
To read the measurement, note the reading on the main scale i.e 13mm.To this must be added the reading on the dial i.e. 0.74mm.
Reading : 13mm + 0.74mm = 13.74mm
Electronic Digital CaliperMeasurements are clearly presented onan LCD display, easily switchable tometric or imperial readout. Resolution is0.01mm or 0.0005” with an accuracy to0.03mm or 0.001”.
The zero reset is available at any pointand converts the readout to show actualdeviations (plus or minus) between likecomponents or from a set standard. The zero reset also providesautomatic compensation for wear and eliminates the need for recalibration.
120
M E A S U R I N G Edge & Centre F inders
Edge & Centre Finders- Cylinder Type
For fast accurate worklocation. Used on f lat surfaces,straight edges, shoulders,grooves, studs, dowels,centre points and scribedlines.
To locate an edge, f irstsecure the finder in a colletor chuck, the work table isthen traversed to cause therotating edge finder to makecontact with the workpiece (fig 1).
Upon touching the workpiece,the edge finder’s contactpoint wil l be forced intorunning concentrically withthe body (fig 2). Any furthermovement to “off-centre” willcause a distinct wobble.
At this point, the distancefrom the work edge to thecentre of the finder is equalto half the diameter of thecontact point.
Datum l ines and centrepoints are located using thecombination edge and centrefinder (fig 3).
This has a cone shapedcontact point which islowered into position barelytouching the workpiece at thepoint you wish to measure.
The finder is made to runconcentrically using a steelrule or straight edge (fig 4).
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.375”Shank 10mmBody 10mmShank 0.200”Body 0.500”
Edge & Centre Finders
Combination
Double Edge
Plain Edge
Edge Finders
fig 2
fig 3
fig 4
fig 1
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”Shank 0.200”Body 0.375”
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”
120
M E A S U R I N G Edge & Centre F inders
Edge & Centre Finders- Cylinder Type
For fast accurate worklocation. Used on f lat surfaces,straight edges, shoulders,grooves, studs, dowels,centre points and scribedlines.
To locate an edge, f irstsecure the finder in a colletor chuck, the work table isthen traversed to cause therotating edge finder to makecontact with the workpiece (fig 1).
Upon touching the workpiece,the edge finder’s contactpoint wil l be forced intorunning concentrically withthe body (fig 2). Any furthermovement to “off-centre” willcause a distinct wobble.
At this point, the distancefrom the work edge to thecentre of the finder is equalto half the diameter of thecontact point.
Datum l ines and centrepoints are located using thecombination edge and centrefinder (fig 3).
This has a cone shapedcontact point which islowered into position barelytouching the workpiece at thepoint you wish to measure.
The finder is made to runconcentrically using a steelrule or straight edge (fig 4).
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.375”Shank 10mmBody 10mmShank 0.200”Body 0.500”
Edge & Centre Finders
Combination
Double Edge
Plain Edge
Edge Finders
fig 2
fig 3
fig 4
fig 1
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”Shank 0.200”Body 0.375”
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”
Diameters
Shank 0.200”Body 0.500”
M E A S U R I N G Engineers’ Squares
Engineers’ Squares These tools have been developed in three grades for use in workshopinspection and gauge rooms. They are made to BS939.
Grade ‘AA’ (Reference) is designed primarily for references purposes in gaugerooms.
The working faces are hardened and finished to an accuracy of a0.006mm per 300 mm length of blade (0.00025” per foot). Theedges of the blades are bevelled to a narrow working face so thatany deviation between work and blade can be quickly detected.
Great care must be exercised when using these precision tools andfor reliable gauge tests it is recommended that all checks aremade at the internationally recognised measuring temperature of20°C (68°F)
The two larger sizes of this type of precision square (450mm and600mm) are fitted with a special design of blade to ensure that thetool is within the specified close limits when held horizontally.
Grade ‘A’ (Inspection) is made with all theworking faces hardened and finished to anaccuracy of 0.0416mm per 1000mm length ofblade (0.0005” per foot) and is suitable fortoolroom and inspection room work.
Grade ‘B’ (Workshop) is the most popular type and is made to an accuracy of0.083mm per 1000mm length of blade (0.001” per foot). The blade ishardened and tempered but the stock is not heat treated.
Toolmakers’ Adjustable Steel SquaresThis tool is a modification of the engineers’ square and is fitted withreplaceable adjustable blades instead of the fixed blade. To increase theapplications of this square, one of the replaceable blades is ground with 45°and 30° angle ends. These modifications make the tool very useful for anumber of applications in restricted places. With the rule blade fitted it can beused as a depth gauge. The stock and blades have working faces hardened
and precision ground. The rule blade is available withgraduations in 0.5mm or 1/64ths of an inch.
1. Angle Blade Hardened and tempered. Precisionground on edges. Accurately ground angles.
2. Narrow Rule Hardened and accuratelygraduated.
3. Plain Square Blade hardened and tempered.Precision ground on edges. When the clamp isreleased blade can be removed or set to any desired
position.
4. Stock hardened, all faces ground.
122
13
2
4
123
Externa l Micrometers M E A S U R I N G
How to Read a MicrometerReading in 0.01 mm (Hundredths of a Millimetre)
Metric micrometers can be read to 0.01 mm (one hundredth of amillimetre). As the screw on metric micrometers has a pitch of 0.5mm sotwo revolutions of the thimble will move the spindle through 1.0mm. Onthe sleeve the datum line is graduated with two sets of lines - the setbelow the line reading in millimetres and the set above the line reading inhalf millimetres.(N.B. On earlier models the millimetres are graduated above the datumline with half millimetres below.)
The thimble is divided into fifty equal divisions, figured in fives so thateach small division on the thimble represents 1/50 of 0.5mm which equals0.01 mm.
To read the metricmicrometer, first note thewhole number ofmillimetre divisions on thesleeve (main divisions)then observe whetherthere is a half millimetrevisible (minor divisions)and lastly read thethimble for hundredths(thimble divisions) i.e. theline on thimble coincidingwith the datum line.
Example for reading shown above:Main Divisions: 1 x 1.mm = 1.00Minor Divisions: 1 x 0.5mm = 0.50Thimble Divisions: 20 x 0.01mm = 0.20Reading: 1.70mm
Reading in thousandths of an inch (1/1000” or 0.001”)
The inch reading micrometer screw has 40 threads per inch, so that onecomplete revolution moves it 1/40” (0.025”) and in 1/25 of a turn it willmove 1/25 of 1/40” which is 0.001”. The sleeve has marked on it maindivisions representing tenths of an inch - that is 0.001” each. Every maindivision is sub-divided into four minor divisions representing 0.025”each. The thimble is divided into twenty-five equal thimble divisions andas one full turn is equal to one minor division on the sleeve (0.025”)then one division on the thimble will be 1/1000” or 0.001”. Thus to readthe setting shown, count the number of tenths (main divisions), add thenumber of minor divisions multiplied by 0.025”, then add the number of thousandth divisions on the thimble (thimbledivisions) i.e. the line on the thimble coinciding with the datum line.
124
M E A S U R I N G Externa l Micrometers
1. Anvil End - Cutaway frame facilitates usage in narrow slots.2. Spindle and Anvil Faces - Glass hard, optically flat tungsten carbide.3. Spindle - Ground thread, made from hardened alloy steel.4. Locking Lever - Effective at any position. Retains spindle alignment.5. Sleeve - Adjustment setting for zero setting. Marked clearly and
divided accurately. Satin chrome plated.6. Thimble - Each graduation clearly numbered and divided accurately.
Satin chrome plated.7. Screw Adjusting Nut - Allows accurate adjustment of the main nut.8. Main Nut - Long thread length to prolong the micrometers working life.9. Ratchet - Even pressure through an improved design.10. Thimble Adjusting Nut - Controls position of thimble.11. Steel Frame - Drop forged pearl chrome plated.
2
3 96 10854 7
11
1
External MicrometersThe most important features of micrometers are:Accuracy - Conforms with the relevant British standard specification.Spindle - One piece alloy steel hardened throughout and stabilised. Easy Reading - Thimbles and sleeves are accurately divided and clearlymarked, having a pearl chrome finish to prevent glare.Frames - All frames up to and including 150mm (6”) capacity, are madefrom steel drop forgings.
Interchangeable Anvil MicrometersBy using interchangeable anvils of different lengths, these micrometershave a larger capacity than the ordinary micrometer with a fixed anvil. Thisfeature enables several articles of various dimensions to be quickly andc o n v e n i e n t l ymeasured with theone micrometer. Adjustment - for wearon the screw and zerosetting, is exactly as forexternal micrometers,using the large key. Forwear on the anvils,adjustment is made by thetwo anvil adjusting nuts,using the two small keys. Always use the standards forchecking after interchanging anvil.
125
ProjectionInside bore or slot
Deep Hole
Stepped
Height & Depth Gauges M E A S U R I N G
Vernier Height GaugesHeight gauges are designed to provideaccurate and precise verticalmeasurements from a surface plate ortable of grade “A” limits. The scale isengraved on a vertical beam ofrectangular, triangular, or other section,and the base must be of ampleproportions to ensure rigidity to theinstrument. The sliding jaw is providedwith a vernier scale reading to 0.02mmand a suitable assembly or clamp isdesigned to read direct from zero.
1. Beam2. Fine adjustment clamp3. Vernier scale4. Main scale5. Base6. Scriber clamp7. Scriber8. Sliding jaw9. Fine adjustment roller
Depth GaugeMicrometersThe measuring faces of base androds are hardened
The rods are marked withrespective capacity and aresquare to base in any position.
1. Thimble2. Thimble Cap3. Interchangeable Rods
Typical Applications:
1
1
2
29
8
3
4
5
7 6
3
126
M E A S U R I N G Protractors
Universal Bevel ProtractorsUsed for the measurement and marking out of angles. Thebody of the gauge is graduated through 360o and a bevelledsegments fitted on the rotating centre, graduated on bothsides of the zero line with a vernier scale to read to 1/12 of a
degree or 5 minutes of arc.
The graduated scales and the vernier plates arepearl chrome plated for easy reading and theblades hardened and tempered.
A ful ly universal type has anadditional locating leg on which is
fitted an adjustable acuteangle attachment, makingthe instrument capable ofmeasuring the smallestangle from zero. On this
type a separate small knurledpinion engages with a gear in theback of the protractor which enablesfine adjustments to be made.
The ratio between the small pinion and the internal gear is 8 to 1 whichmakes it possible to rotate the centre slowly so that the vernier scale canbe set very precisely. The small pinion thumbscrew can be withdrawn aftermaking the adjustment and clamping the rotating centre to prevent anyfurther movement and allows the gauge to lie flat on a plate for markingout or gauging purposes.
How to Read a Universal Bevel Protractor.Whole numbers of degrees can be read by simply taking readings with thezero line on the vernier. Where this line coincides with a line on the Mainscale, an exact number of wholedegrees is indicated.The vernier on a bevel protractorenables readings to be taken to fiveminutes or 1/12 of a degree. Onedivision on the vernier is this amountshorter than the two divisions on themain scale.
If the zero line on the vernier does not coincide exactly with a line on themain scale, it is necessary to findthe vernier line which does coincidewith a main scale line; and thisindicates the number of five minutesor 1/12 of a degree to be added to thewhole of degrees.To take a reading, therefore, notethe number of whole degrees, andthen count in the same direction, the number of divisions on the vernierscale form the zero line to the first line on the vernier scale that coincideswith a line on the main scale. As each of these is five minutes, multiply byfive and the number of minutes to be added to the whole number ofdegrees will be indicated.
127
M E A S U R I N GProtractors & Combination Sets
Combination SetsThe combination set consists of:Rule - Hardened and accurately graduated in 300 mm, 450 mm and 600 mmlengths.Range of graduations available:
One side in half millimetres and 32nds of an inch.Reverse side in millimetres and 64ths of an inch.
Square head - Drop forged steel (containing spirit level and scriber).Centre head - Drop forged steel.Protractor head - graduated to read from 0-180o in both directions and alsofitted with a spirit level.
1. Spirit Levels2. Square Head3. Protractor Head
4. Steel Rule5. Centre Head6. Scriber
Typical applications:
Try square& height gauge
Centre lineof disc Depth
gauge
Rule set at 90º andused as depth gauge
Mitre 45º
45º Anglegauge
Measuringangle ofhexagon
Measuringangle of slide
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
128
M E A S U R I N G Refractometers
Refractometers
An optical instrument which uses the variation in refractive index of fluids at different concentrations to measure dilution ratios.
Instructions:Readings will vary according to Temperature. It is recommended that the refractometer should becalibrated before every use.
CalibrationUse a standard of known value, on the refractive index. Distilled water being zero, is recommended.
1. Open cover plate, and ensure both prism, and inner face of cover plate areclean. Use a soft clean and lint free cloth.2. Place a drop of distilled water onto the centre of the prism and close thecover.3. The sample will spread over the surface of the prism and become a thinfilm.4. With a light source (daylight is preferable) above the prism cover, lookthrough the eyepiece. Focus is adjusted by means of rotating the adjuster. Theline of measurement is the boundary line between the blue and white zones.5. Using the small screwdriver provided adjust the calibration screw until theboundary line is exactly at zero on the scale.
The refractor is now ready for use.6. To measure a sample from the coolant system, take a drop from the outletpipe of the machine. This avoids picking up any tramp oil from the surface ofthe coolant tank.7. After cleaning (drying) the prism and inner face of the cover plate, place adrop from the sample onto the centre of the prism.8. Close the lid and take a reading by looking through the eyepiece (focus asnecessary by rotating the adjuster) and record the figure where the boundaryline passes through the scale.9. Clean prism and cover after use. The reading taken should be related to therefraction index figure given for the particular product and dilution by themanufacturer.
If this figure is not available the following is an alternative means ofestablishing one. After following the calibration procedure (steps 1 to 4) mix a small sample ofthe emulsion in a measuring cylinder, using the manufacturers recommendedproportion of oil to water. This sample may then be measured following steps7 to 9 to establish the correct scale reading for that particular product anddilution. You can now compare using steps 6 to 9, a sample from the machineto determine the strength of the coolant in the system. The higher the reading,the more concentrated the mix is. The nearer to zero the reading is, theweaker the solution.
0123456789101112131415
No 1333
1340
1345
1350
1355
BX %20ºC
CalibratedRefractive
Scale
Calibration
Screw Cower
Refraction
Prism
Barrel
Cover Plate
Eyepiece &
Focus Adjuster
129
Refractometers M E A S U R I N G
Application
Maintaining the correct mixture in coolant systems is vital to ensure optimumperformance from cutting tools. To protect the machine and work piece fromcorrosion and to reduce the risk of health hazards arising from incorrectconcentrations of water soluble oils. To economise the use of water cuttingfluids and grinding fluids
NOTE: Dilution ratio does not necessarily give an indication of the condition ofthe emulsion. Bacteria and/or pH level can effect coolant
The pH Scale
pH is a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous fluid. pHshould be measured using pH papers, which are available from your localdistributor. The end of the paper should be dipped into the test fluid. with amatter of seconds it will change colour. This colour can then be matched to astandard pH colour chart. Always test a sample from the outlet pipe of themachine. This avoids picking up tramp oil from the surface of the coolanttank.
Typical fresh cutting fluids are in the range pH 9 to 9.5
Each division on the scale is a factor of 10 from the next, eg. pH 9 is tentimes more alkaline than pH 8.
The pH level should never be above 10 as this will cause skin irritation.
Bacteria prefer slightly acidic condition, ie. just below pH 7 but start to beencouraged at anything below around pH 8. Bacteria can live at pH9 and asthey work they excrete acid waste which reduces the pH of the emulsion,further improving their enviroment.Alkaline pH’s reduce corrosion of ferrous materials and above pH 12 there isno corrosion on these materials.Cutting fluids are usually formulated to have a fresh emulsion pH in the range9.0 - 9.5, ie. as high as possible to resist bacteria and corrosion withoutcausing skin problems.
2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 131
More Acidic Neutral More Alkaline
pHLevel
Very little bacteriaGrowth
Very little bacteria Good for Aggressive to the
Growth bacteria Growth Skin NoCorrosionOn ferrousMaterial
3 4
M E A S U R I N G Sine Bars
Sine Bars A Sine Bar is used to setup angles on a layout table or in a millingmachine vice. It consists of a bar with two pins mounted at an accuratepredetermined distance. One end is raised to a measured height by usinggauge blocks or an adjustable parallel. As the length between the pins isalways a constant value, trigonometry can be used to determine the anglerequired in order to achieve a specific height, or vice-versa.
See Page 74 for Solution of Right Angled Triangle.
1. Table/Vice Roll-Pin. Rests on the inspection table or machine bed.2. Gauge Block Roll-Pin. Rests on top of the gauge block(s)3. Steel Bar. Precision machined to ensure flatness . 4. Catch Plate or Shoe. Allows a workpiece to berested on the bar for inspection, markingor positioning prior to fixturing andmachining.
How to Use a Sine Bar
1. To set an angle on a sine bar,sine plate, compound sine plate,or other sine tool, you mustfirst determine the centredistance of the device “a”and the angle you wish toset “B”.
2. Find the sine of angle “B”from the tables on pages 70and 71 of this handbook.
3. This figure is multiplied by the centre distance “a” of the sine bar orplate. The result is the gauge height required “b”. Gauge blocks areproduced down to units of 0.001mm - for workshop purposes the gauge
height should be rounded to 2 or 3decimal places.
4 . Assemble a stack of gaugeblocks to the required height andplace them under the “gauge blockroll-pin” of the sine bar, and thedesired angle is set.
5 . I f the device has a lockingmechanism it should be tightened atthis point. The sine bar is now readyto use to check, hold or mark therequired angle.
130
Gauge(s)bB
To obtain the gauge height needed toset a 52O 20” angle on a 125mmbar, look up the sine of 52O 20”
a = 52O 20”Sine 52O 20” = .791579
b = .791579 x 125mm = 98.947mm
a
1
3
24
To obtain the gauge height needed toset a 30O angle on a 125mm bar,
look up the sine of 30O
a = 30O
Sine 30O = .50000b = .50000 x 125mm = 62.50mm
T O O L I N G
TO
OL
IN
G
131
Bandsaw Blades 132 - 133
Brazed Tip Lathe Tools 134 - 137
Butt-Welded Lathe Tools 138 - 139
Cutting Tools (Shank Type) 140 - 143
Files 144 - 149
Indexable Insert Designation 150 - 151
Indexable Threading 152 - 153
Indexable Toolholders 154 - 161
PMK Carbide Classification 162 - 163
Shank Dimensions 164 - 167
Taps 168 - 174
Section
8
132
T O O L I N G Bandsaw Blades
Regular
Hook
Staggered
Blade MaterialsHard Edge Flexible Back high carbon steel blade combineslong blade life and efficiency, under average conditions, withlower costs. For general sawing of low alloys, non-ferrousmetals and synthetics and is available with regular, hook andskip teeth.Premium high carbon steel blade is specially heat treated toproduce a spring tempered back, giving greater tensile strengthand straighter, more accurate cutting at higher feeds. It issuitable for interrupted cuts and is available with regular, hookand skip teeth.Powerband Matrix II Edge Bimetal. With a matrix II high speedcutting edge that resists heat, abrasion and shock on productionapplications and a flexible back, giving greater tensile strength,this blade is suitable for a wide range of materials andapplications including small radius cutting and production cuttingof alloy steels, stainless etc. Available with regular, hook andvariable pitch teeth.Powerband II - M42 Edge Bimetal. Powerband II has an M42high speed steel cutting edge giving greater hardness and heatresistance. It is recommended for increased blade life whencutting such materials as austenitic stainless steels, nickelbase alloys, titanium and similar tough or high-hardness metals.Available with regular, hook and variable pitch teeth.
Tooth TypesRegular Tooth. For cutting and contouring most ferrous metals.With straight face teeth which continuously rake chips out ofthe saw cut.Skip Tooth. With 0º rake angle. Widely spaced teeth provideextra chip clearance, shallow gullets increase band strength.For cutting large sections of soft non-ferrous metals. Hook Tooth. With a 10º positive rake angle for fast cuttingrates at reduced feed pressures. For non-ferrous metals, non-metallic and tough alloys. Rounded gullets allow fast chipclearance.
Pitch TypesIn general, thin work requires a greater number of teeth per inch(fine pitches), whereas larger sections are best suited to fewerteeth per inch (coarse pitches).Constant Pitch. With uniform teeth spacing, set, gullet depthand rake angle throughout the entire length of the blade.Variable Pitch. With varying size of teeth and gullet depth overa regular and predetermined length of the blade. This disruptsthe harmonics produced when sawing certain materials andstructures such as tubing, angle etc. The repeatability of patternis very closely controlled. A very smooth finish and substantialreductions in noise levels result from using variable pitch blades.
Tooth Set TypesRaker Set. Recommended for materials over 1/4” (6mm) thickand for curve cutting. Teeth are set left, right and straight insequence.Wavy Set. Recommended for materials under 1/4” (6mm)thick. Teeth are set in groups, left then right. Available withregular teeth only and used generally on finer pitch bladese.g. 24 and 32TPI.Staggered Set. Used only on variable pitch blade. Teeth areset alternately left and right with intermittent straight rakerteeth.
Skip
Raker
Wavy
Constant
Variable
133
Bandsaw Blades T O O L I N G
Bandsaw Trouble Shooting. Shown below is a selection of the mostcommon problems encountered with metal cutting bandsaw blades, alongwith the most likely causes and suggested courses of action.
Likely Causes Suggested Action� Incorrect blade tension � Check and/or adjust blade tension�Worn or mis-aligned blade guides � Renew and adjust guides�Damaged blade surface � Renew blade� Feed pressure too high � Reduce feed pressure�Guides too far apart � Adjust guides�Defective weld � Check weld alignment�Blade in contact with wheel flanges � Check and adjust blade alignment
Blade Breakage & Fatigue
Likely Causes Suggested Action� Incorrect blade speed and/or feed � Refer to cutting chart� Lack of blade support � Check and adjust blade guides�Worn or damaged blade � Replace with new blade� Incorrect blade tension � Check and/or adjust tension�Wrong tooth pitch � Refer to cutting chart� Position of material in vice � Check material is clamped correctly
Likely Causes Suggested Action� Incorrect blade speed and/or feed � Refer to cutting chart and adjust�Wrong blade selection � Check manufacturer’s recommendations�Guides worn or loose � Check and adjust guides�Blade tension too low � Adjust for correct tension�Worn blade teeth � Replace with new blade�Machine out of alignment � Check machine set-up�Uneven hardness in material � Check material
Inaccurate or Rough Cuts
Likely Causes Suggested Action� Improper break-in of new blade ��Check manufacturer’s recommendations� Teeth too fine or too coarse for �Select correct pitch blade according to
application makers recommendations� Feed pressure too high �Reduce feed pressure refer to cutting chart�Cutting speed too low �Adjust blade speed� Improper or insufficient cutting fluid �Check fluid and change or strengthen�Scale or uneven hardness in material �Check hardness of material�Movement of material in vice �Check machine vice and ensure
material is held firm�Defective chip brushes �Check/adjust brushes
Tooth Chipping & Stripping
Blade Vibration or Squeal
Likely Causes Suggested Action�Blade incorrectly fitted, i.e. teeth � Install blade correctly
running the wrong way � Check manufacturer’s� Incorrect break-in period of blade recommendations�Speed and feed of blade too high � Refer to cutting chart�Wrong blade selection � Check manufacturer’s recommendations
for type of material being cut�Hard sections of material � Check hardness of material� Improper or incorrect cutting fluid � Check and adjust fluid
Premature Dulling of Teeth
Likely Causes Suggested Action�Blade tension too low � Check and/or adjust blade tension�Blade guides too tight � Refer to machine operators manual�Speed too slow � Refer to cutting chart� Feed pressure too high � Refer to cutting chart�Drive wheel surface � Check and clean drive
contaminated wheel surface
Blade Stalling
SSTTOOPP
134
T O O L I N G Brazed Tip Lathe Tools
Brazed Tip Turning andBoring ToolsThe shapes shown are generallymanufactured in three standard grades.P40
Roughing to heavy roughing of steel andsteel castings using heavy feeds andlow to medium cutting speeds. Alsoused under unfavourable conditions,and for intermittent cutting. Alsosuitable for planing and for manganesesteel.P30
for heavy duty turning and boring on allclasses of steel. Suitable for interruptedcutting and machining at low speedsand heavy feeds.K20
General purpose. Ideal for machiningcast iron, non-ferrous metals, bakeliteetc. Combines wear resistance withtoughness when rough turning atmoderate speeds. Suitable for high feedrates. Manufactured to ISO/DIN and BHMA
Standards.
In addition to a range of shapes allstyles are available in various sizesbased on standard shank sizes. When specifying tool numbers it shouldbe noted that Metric (ISO) shank sizesare prefixed “M”. Imperial (BHMA)shank size tools generally have slightlymore carbide in the tips when comparedto the nearest metric equivalent : 1/2”being larger than 12mm for example.All illustrations are for right hand tools -left hand are also available as standard.
Straight Round Nosed Turning Tools No.s 010 to 030
Cranked Round Nosed Turning Tools No.s 12 to 31
Light Turning & Boring Tools No.s 40 to 60
135
Brazed Tip Lathe Tools T O O L I N G
Brazed Tip Turning and Boring Tools (continued)
Brazed Tip Cranked Turning & Facing Tools No.s 192 to 213
Straight Recessing Tools No.s 230 to 246
Parting Off Tools No.s 260 to 276
Bar Turning Tools No.s 100 to 118
Bar & Knee Turning Tools No.s 132 to 141
Cranked Turning Tools No.s 160 to 180
136
T O O L I N G Brazed Tip Lathe Tools
Brazed Tip Turning and Boring Tools (continued)
Square Shank Boring Tools Used 90º in Bar No.s 280 to 293
Square Shank 80º Boring Tools No.s 300 to 326
Round Shank Boring Tools Used 45º in Bar No.s 331 to 381
Round Shank Boring Tools Used 90º in Bar No.s 396 to 403
External Threading ToolsNo. 2055 (55o) No. 2060 (60o)
Internal Threading ToolsNo. 2155 (55o) No. 2160 (60o)
Plowrake Toolsfor Planing Steel
Plowcast Toolsfor Planing Cast Iron
137
Brazed Tip Lathe Tools T O O L I N G
Brazed Tip Turning and Boring Tools (continued)
Square Shank Boring BarsISO 8 DIN 4973
Round Shank Boring BarsISO 8 DIN 4973
Square Shank Boring BarsISO 9 DIN 4974
Round Shank Boring BarsISO 9 DIN 4974
Cranked Facing Tools ISO 5 DIN 4977
Cranked Knife Turning Tools No.s 2130 to 2147 ISO 6 DIN 4980
Parting ToolsISO 7 DIN 4981
138
T O O L I N G Butt-Welded Lathe Tools
Butt-Welded Turning and Boring ToolsManufactured from top quality sintered steels. For use on a wide range ofapplications from roughing to finishing.Manufactured to BS 1296: Part 3: 1978.In addition to a range of shapes all styles are available in various sizesbased on standard shank sizes.
Also Available for CuttingLeft Hand Thread - No. 13LH
RightHand
LeftHand
RightHand
LeftHand
Cuts In Either Direction
Light Turning & Facing Tools
Straight Nose Roughing Tools
Knife or Side Cutting Tools
External Screw Cutting Tools(Right Hand)
Parting Off Tools
Round Nose Planer Tools
Facing Tools
Right Angle Recessing Tools
Right Angle Parting Off Tools
RightHand
LeftHand
RightHand
LeftHand
RightHand
LeftHand
RightHand
LeftHand
RightHand
LeftHand
1
3
2 13 19 20
4
7 8
16
17
16LH
25 26
27 28
No Rake
139
Butt-Welded Lathe Tools T O O L I N G
Butt-Welded Turning and Boring Tools (continued)
Square Nosed Turning &Facing Tools
Swan Necked Finishing Tools
Boring Tools Zero Rake(Right Hand)
Cranked Internal Recessing Tools
Stepped Parting Blanks
Hardened Tool Blanks
Boring Tools 10° Rake -(Right Hand)
Boring Tools
Boring Tools 10° Rake -(Right Hand)Boring Tools (Right Hand)
Internal ScrewCutting Tools (Right Hand)
RightHand
LeftHand
RightHand
LeftHand
Cuts in Either Direction
NB: Cutting Edge is On or Below the level
of the Base of the Tool
Also Suitable for Tools for Work on brass and
Gun-Metal
29
4039
30
50A
57A
57B
57C
52
60
61
Hump Back Parting Tools
Form Tool Blanks
NoRake
47
50
Through Boring Tools (Right Hand)
50B
62
140
T O O L I N G Cutt ing Too ls (Shank Type)
Drill Axis
Shank
OverallLengthHelix
Angle
Back Tapered
over this
length
PointAngle
Tang
FluteLength
Point Length
LipLength
Lead of
Helix
BodyClearance
Land orMargin
Cutting Lip
Face
Body
Diameter
Annotation - Twist DrillsFor Shank Dimensions (DIN-228B) See Page 166
ChiselEdge
Outer Corner
Heel
Flute
Flank
Chisel EdgeAngle
Chisel EdgeCorner
Web or CoreTaper
Initial or LipClearance
Angle
AxialRake
Angle atPeriphery
Depth ofBody
Clearance
Body ClearanceDiameter
141
Cutting Tools (Shank Type) T O O L I N G
PrimaryClearance
SquareSize
Shank
SquareLength
Taper LeadAngle
TaperLead
Length
Land
Flute
Circular Land
RadialFaceCutting
Edge
Clearance
ClearanceAngle
Heel
Positive Rake Angle
Negative Rake Angle
Diameter
Length ofBevelLead
BevelLeadAngle
Tang
Shank
OverallLength
RecessLength
CutLength
HelixAngle
Bevel
BevelLead
SecondaryClearance
OvercutFace
UndercutFace
For Shank Dimensions (DIN-228B) See Page 166
Annotation - Reamers
142
T O O L I N G Cutting Tools (Shank Type)
CentreAxis
Shank
Thread Length
CutLength
OverallLength
HelixAngle
Weldon Shank
EndTeeth
Clearance
End TeethGash End Teeth
Land
EndRecess
Centre Hole
Positive RadialRake Angle
Secondary Clearance Land
CuttingEdge
End TeethGash Undercut
Face
For Shank Dimensions (BS 122:4)
See Page 165
SecondaryClearance Angle
Primary Clearance Land
Primary Clearance Angle
Flute Heel
Diameter
Annotation -
Shank Cutters
143
Cutting Tools (Shank Type) T O O L I N G
Key:
1. Overall Length2. Thread Length (including chamfer)3. Shank Length (including square)4. Lead Length5. Shank Diameter6. Length of Driving Square7. Size across Flats of Square8. Female Centre9. Male Centre10. Back Taper
11. Point Diameter (chamfer)12. Chamfer Angle13. Rake Angle14. Width of Land15. Width of Flute16. Radial Thread Relief 17. Web Diameter18. Spiral Point Rake Angle19. Spiral Point Angle20. Spiral Point Length21. Angle of Helical (Spiral) Flute
1
2 3
4 6
10 13
16
17
15
14
12
18 20
21
8
7
8/95
9
19
11
Annotation - Taps For Shank
Dimensions (BS 122:4)
See Page167
144
T O O L I N G Files
How to Use a FileAs with all cutting tools, incorrect use of a file could lead toserious personal injury. NEVER USE A FILE UNLESS THETANG IS PROTECTED WITH A HANDLE. File handles havebeen designed to fit the palm of the hand comfortably so asto give improved control - an important consideration forefficiency and precision.
The following points should be remembered in order toimprove performance, reduce filing time and ensure a betterfinish.
Use a ViceFix your work tightly in a vice to prevent chatter. Ensure non-marking vice jaws are used to hold delicate work pieces.
Maintain a RhythmMaintain a steady rhythm with constant pressure - justenough for the file to bite comfortably into the workpiece.
Only File Away From YouTo avoid unnecessary tooth wear, lift the file clear of the workon the return stroke.
Treat New Files With CareFile carefully at first with a new file and avoid using on sharpedges. Old files should be used for descaling, dressingcastings, and onmild steel. Keepnew files for useon harder metals.
When holding a file inone hand, the forefinger is generallyplaced on top of the handle in linewith the file. Where possible, guidethe file with both hands. The baseof the thumb should be on top of thefile in line with the handle when heavystrokes arerequired.
When a lightstroke requiring lesspressure is to be used,the thumb should be atright angles to thelength of the file.
145
Files
How to Use a File (continued)There are three main methods of filing - Straight filing, Draw filling and
Lathe filing.
Straight FilingIn straight filing, the file is pushed lengthwise in an
almost straight line. The work is normally held in
a vice which should be at elbow height. Too
much pressure should be avoided as
this can result in a rocking
movement which gives a rounded
surface. It can also cause
excessive wear on the file.
Too little pressure, especially
on harder metals, will allow
the file to slide over the
metal and the teeth will
quickly become dull.
Draw FilingDraw filing is carried out by
holding the file firmly at both
ends and pushing and pulling
the width of the file along the
length of the work. When carried out
correctly, draw filing will produce a finer
finish than straight filing.
Lathe FilingWhen work to be filed is revolving in a lathe, the file should be used with a
stroking action allowing it to glide slightly along the work. This will help to
avoid making ridges and will keep the file clear of chips. Because of their
sharpness, new files are best avoided for lathe work where a very fine
finish is required. Lathe work should not be touched by hand as oil and
moisture can coat the surface and it is then difficult for the file to take
hold.
Care of FilesAs it is virtually impossible to re-sharpen file teeth, the following hints will
help to prolong the life of your files.
Hang your files on a rack. Wooden file handles can fit into spring clips or
rest on tool hooks, most plastic handled files have a hole provided,
especially for the purpose of hanging from a hook or rail. If files are thrown
into a drawer or tool box, or left lying on a bench with other tools, there is
a danger that damage to the teeth will occur.
Rust will damage file teeth. It is therefore advisable to oil files after use.
All grease must however be removed before the files are used again.
T O O L I N G
146
T O O L I N G Files
Engineers’ Hand FilesAvailable in a comprehensive range of shapes, sizes and cut styles.Manufactured to BS 498 : 1990.
Hand - Parallel edges, one edge uncut. For flat filing, corner filing anddeburring. Multi-purpose filing and other work where a safe or uncut edgeis needed. Double cut. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Flat - Edges taper towards front. Applications as for hand files. Preferredwhere taper allows access into tight spaces and angles. For general workon iron, steel, etc. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Round - Diameter tapers towards point. Suitable for filing internal andexternal concave surfaces. Available in Bastard, Second and Smooth Cut.
Half-Round - Edges and surfaces taper towards point Dual application;suitable for concave surfaces, flat filing and large diameters. Files forrapid removal of metal. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Square - Parallel edges, surfaces taper towards point. For groove,rectangular hole and internal corner filing. Preferable to a Flat File becauseof its heavier section. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Three Square - Equilateral section (60° angles). Tapered towards point. Forfiling acute angles, internal corners and flat filing, clearing out squarecorners and for filing HSS tools after machining. Available in bastard,second and smooth cut.
Knife - Two equal surfaces, tapered to knife point. For filing and deburringnarrow grooves, slits and gear-teeth. Used principally by tool and die makerson work having acute angles. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Double CutTwo sets of diagonal rows of teeth, with the second set of teeth cut in opposite direction and on top of the first. The first set of teeth is known as ‘overcut’ and the second as ‘upcut’, upcut being the finer. Double cut files are used with heavierpressure than single cut and remove material faster from the workpiece.
Bastard CutSecond Cut Smooth Cut
147
Files T O O L I N G
Engineers’ Hand Files (continued)Warding - Parallel surfaces, edges tapered to a point. For narrow grooves,keyways, slots etc. Warding Files are used by locksmiths in repairing or filingward notches in keys. Also suited for use in narrow space. All sides doublecut. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Pillar - Parallel edges, surfaces tapered towards end. Narrow version of handfile. For use where access is restricted. These files are designed for millwrights and mechanics for use in enlarging key-ways, slots, etc, close to theshoulder. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Double Ended Saw - Edges taper towards point. For filing and sharpeningsaws. Points are left uncut. Instead of having a tang, both ends of these filesare tapered. They are used for sharpening saws having a 60° angle. Theteeth are cut from each end towards the centre. Single cut only.
Taper Saw - Edges taper towards point. For filing and sharpening hand saws.Points are left uncut. Taper Saw Files are used for filing every type ofhandsaw which have 60° angle teeth. These files are single cut and haveedges that are set and cut for filing the gullet between the saw teeth.
Farmers Own (Handy) - For sharpening reaper knives, matchetes, hoes, etc,with hanging hole in the integral handle. Single cut. Also available in doublecut, bastard and second cut.
Pitsaw - These files are extremely suitable for sharpening pitsaws. They are also used as multi-purpose files. Available in second cut.
Feather edge Saw - These files are generally used for filing saws where angle ofteeth is less than 60°. They are manufactured in heavy and regular sections.
Straight Tooth Mill Saw - Available with one or two round edges. Paralleledges, both edges cut for filing and sharpening saws.
Single CutSingle set of parallel diagonal rows of teeth, Oftenused with light pressure to produce a smooth surfacefinish or put a keen edge on knives, shears and saws.
148
T O O L I N G Files
Precision Hand FilesAvailable in tanged pattern and round handled needle pattern and differfrom Engineers’ files in application and fineness of cut. Manufactured toBS 498 : 1990.
Hand - Parallel edges, one edge uncut. For flat filing, corner filing anddeburring. Multi-purpose and for other work where a safe or uncut edge isneeded. Double cut. Available in cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Round - Diameter tapers towards point. Suitable for internal and externalconcave surfaces. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Half-Round - Edges and surfaces taper towards point dual application;suitable for concave surfaces and flat filing. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Square - Parallel edges, surfaces taper towards point. For groove,rectangular hole and internal corner filing. Preferable to a flat file becauseof its heavier section. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Three Square - Equilateral section (60° angles). Tapered towards point. Forfiling acute angles, internal corners and flat filing, clearing out squarecorners and for filing HSS tools after machining. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Knife - Two equal surfaces, tapered to knife point. For filing and deburringnarrow grooves, slits and gear-teeth. Used principally by tool and diemakers on work having acute angles. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Warding - Parallel surfaces, edges tapered to a point. For narrow grooves,keyways, slots etc. Warding files are used by locksmiths in repairing orfiling ward notches in keys. Also suited for use in narrow space. All sidesdouble cut. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Pillar - Parallel edges, surfaces tapered towards end. Narrow version ofhand file. For use where access is restricted. These files are designed formill wrights and mechanics for use in enlarging key-ways, slots, etc., andfiling close to the shoulder. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
149
Fi les T O O L I N G
Precision Hand Files (continued)Narrow Pillar (Tanged only) - Narrower alternative to standard pillar.Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Crossing (Fish-back) - For use on concave surfaces. Two curved surfaces(different radii) taper towards fine point. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Barrette - One flat cutting surface with safe non-cutting back and sides.For precision filing of angles and flats. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Milled Tooth Hand FilesManufactured from alloy steel and feature undercut teeth produce a moreaggressive cut than conventional files requiring less operator effort.Suitable for use on a wide variety of materials including aluminium, steels,alloys, brass, copper, wood, plastics etc. Available in four blade lengthsand two tooth forms. Hand style supplied as standard.
Wood Rasps Designed for general use and softer materials such as wood, plastic andfillers. Single cut in a variety of sizes.
Curved CutTeeth are arranged in curved contours across the file face. Normally used in automotive body shops for smoothing body panels.
Rasp CutSeries of individual teeth which are formed by a single pointed tool. Produces a rough cut that is used primarily on wood, hooves, aluminium and lead.
Hand
Flat
Half Round
Symbol ShapeNose
FigureAngle
H Hexagonal 120ºO Octagonal 135ºP Pentagonal 108ºS Square 90ºT Triangular 60ºC 80ºD 55ºE Rhombic 75ºF 50ºM 86ºV 35ºW Trigon 80ºL Rectangular 90ºA 85ºB Parallelogram 82ºK 55ºR Round -
T O O L I N G
Shape1 Corner/Edge Preparation or Radius7
Symbol ReliefAngle
A 3ºB 5ºC 7ºD 15ºE 20ºF 25ºG 30ºN 0ºP 11ºZ Others
Relief Angle2
Symbol Shape of Hole Chipbreaker Shape
N Without
R Without Hole Single-sided
F Double-sided
A Without
M Cylindrical Hole Single-sided
G Double-sided
W Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutsingle-side
T 40°-60° Countersink Single-sided
Q Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutdouble-side 40°-60°
U Countersink Double-sided
B Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutsingle-side 70°-90°
H Countersink Single-sided
C Partly cylindrical hole, Withoutdouble-side 70°-90°
J Countersink Double-sided
X Special Type
Hole & Chipbreaker Type4
Indexable Insert Designation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TT NN MM GG 1166 0044 TT NN -- XXXX
R
150
CornerSymbol Radius
mm
00 0.03
02 0.2
04 0.4
08 0.8
12 1.2
16 1.6
20 2.0
24 2.4
28 2.8
32 3.2
AA 45ºD 60ºE 75ºF 85ºP 90º
Special
AAFF
0088
FA 3ºB 5ºC 7ºD 15ºE 20ºF 25ºG 30ºN 0ºP 11ºZ Special
χr
α0
Symbol Corner Height Thickness (s) I.C. Dia.(class) (m) (s) (d)
A ±0.005 ±0.025 ±0.025F ±0.005 ±0.025 ±0.013C ±0.013 ±0.025 ±0.025H ±0.013 ±0.025 ±0.013E ±0.025 ±0.025 ±0.025G ±0.025 ±0.13 ±0.025
J ±0.005 ±0.025±0.05
}*±0.13
K ±0.013 ±0.025±0.05±0.13
}*
L ±0.025 ±0.025±0.05±0.13
}*
M±0.08
}* ±0.13±0.05
±0.18 ±0.13 }*
N±0.08
±0.025±0.05
±0.18 }*
±0.13 }*
U±0.13
±0.13±0.08
±0.38 }*
±0.25 }*
Indexable Insert Designation T O O L I N G
Sym
bol
Sym
bol
Sym
bol
Sym
bol
Sym
bol
Sym
bol
Lengt
h
Lengt
h
Lengt
h
Lengt
h
Lengt
h
I.C.
dia.
(mm)
KVDTW
Sym
bol
Lengt
h
Sym
bol
SR C
Lengt
h
03 3.97 03 4.0 06 6.9 06 3.97 3.97
04 4.76 04 4.8 08 8.2 05 5.8 4.76
05 5.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.0
05 5.56 05 5.6 03 3.8 09 9.6 06 6.8 5.56
06 6.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.0
06 6.35 06 6.5 04 4.3 11 11.0 07 7.8 6.35
07 7.94 08 8.1 05 5.4 13 13.8 09 9.7 7.94
08 8.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.0
09 9.525 09 9.525 09 9.7 06 6.5 16 16.5 11 11.6 16 16.6 16 19.7 9.525
10 10.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10.0
12 12.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12.0
12 12.7 12 12.7 12 12.9 08 8.7 22 22.0 15 15.5 22 22.1 12.70
15 15.875 15 15.875 16 16.1 10 10.9 27 27.5 19 19.4 15.875
16 16.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16.0
19 19.05 19 19.05 19 19.3 13 13.0 33 33.0 23 23.3 19.05
20 20.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20.0
22 22.225 22 22.6 38 38.5 27 27.1 22.225
25 25.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25.0
25 25.4 25 25.4 25 25.8 44 44.0 31 31.0 25.4
31 31.75 31 31.75 32 32.2 55 55.0 38 38.8 31.75
32 32.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32.0
Lengt
h
* Detail of accuracy will vary according to shape and size of insert - further details are available on request.
Symbol Condition of ShapeCutting Edge
F Sharp Edge
E Honed Roundededge
W.T Honed Chamferededge
S Combination honed edge
Symbol Thick
01 1.5902 2.38T2 2.7803 3.18T3 3.9704 4.7605 5.5606 6.3507 7.9409 9.52
Thic
k
9
Symbol Hand
R RightL Left
N Neutral
Hand ofInsert
Chipbreakers are not part of ISODesignation. Each manufacturerdesignates a chipbreaker in hisown way.
N
R
L
Chipbreaker10
Thickness6
Symbols of major cutting edge8Accuracy3
Cutting Edge Length5
151
152
T O O L I N G
Fig. 1
Pitchmm 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0
Tpi 48 24 16 12 10 8 64
Number of passes 3-6 4-9 5-11 6-13 7-15 8-17 10-20 11-22
Indexable Threading
Note: 1. For most standard applications, the middle of the road is a good starting point.
2. For most materials, the tougher the material, the higher the number ofcutting passes you select.
3. As a general rule of thumb, less passes are better than more speed.4. Infeed per pass should ensure an even machine load.
Number of Passes Recommended
Internal - Left Hand ThreadExternal - Left Hand Thread
External - Right Hand Thread Internal - Right Hand Thread
Insert Selection ProcedureA From diagrams (Fig. 1) decide on threading method to be used.
B Select insert style according to thread form. Pitch often determinesthe size of insert which may be used, i.e. the bigger the pitch, thelarger the insert needed.
C Based on the workpiece material, select a suitable grade. Use therecommended cutting speed and number of passes as a starting pointthen fine tune the cutting conditions until a balance of optimumproduction and tool life is established.
D Select a suitable toolholder with a height suitable for the machine where it is intended to be used.
ChangeAnvilto
NegativeAnvil
ChangeAnvilto
NegativeAnvil
Change Anvilto Negative
Anvil
Change Anvilto Negative Anvil
Left HandToolholder & Insert
Right HandToolholder & Insert Right Hand
Toolholder & Insert
Left Hand Toolholder & Insert
Left HandToolholder & Insert
Right Hand Toolholder & Insert
Left Hand Toolholder & Insert
Right Hand Toolholder & Insert
153
T O O L I N G
L ToolholdersAnvil’s Angle γ and Order Codes
(IC) 4.5 3.5 2.5 std +0.5 -0.5 -1.5
16mm EX-RHAE16+4.5 AE16+3.5 AE16+2.5 AE16 AE16+0.5 AE16-0.5 AE16-1.5or IN-LH
(3/8”) EX-LHAI16+4.5 AI16+3.5 AI16+2.5 AI16 AI16+0.5 AI16-0.5 AI16-1.5or IN-RH
22mm EX-RHAE22+4.5 AE22+3.5 AE22+2.5 AE22 AE22+0.5 AE22-0.5 AE22-1.5or IN-LH
(1/2”) EX-LHAI22+4.5 AI22+3.5 AI22+2.5 AI22 AI22+0.5 AI22-0.5 AI22-1.5or IN-RH
Important Note about Threading Inserts
External left hand and internal right hand or internal left
hand and external right hand inserts can not be inter-
changed, because:-
A The form for internal and external threads is different.
B The clearance on internal inserts is generally greater
than for that of external.
C The seat angle on internal and external toolholders is
different.
L = Insert Edge Length IC = Inscribed Circle
Indexable Threading
Threading Toolholders
Fig. 2
Threading toolholder pockets are manufactured with a 1.5º positive helixangle as standard. Other anvils are available to change the helix angle ofthe insert as required by the diameter and pitch of the thread.
Fig. 2 shows the determination of recommended helix angle by both chartand formula.
Note: Negative helix angles anvils are used:-A When threading a right hand thread with a left hand toolholder.B When threading a left hand thread with a right hand toolholder.
See diagram (Fig. 1) for illustration.
Simplified formula
Metric: ß = 20P/D Inch: ß = 20/(P x D)
e.g. D = 30mm (1.18”)
P = 1.5mm (16 TPI)
Metric: ß = 20 x 1.5/30 = 1
Inch: ß = 20/(16 x 1.18) = 1*
*Rounded to nearest 1/2°
Tan ß = P
πD
154
T O O L I N G Indexable Toolholders
CKJNR/LTop Clamp
CSBPR/LTop Clamp
CSSPR/LTop Clamp
CTCPNTop Clamp
CTFPR/LTop Clamp
CTGPR/LTop Clamp
MVJNR/LTop Clamp & Pinlock
CSDPNTop Clamp
MVVNNTop Clamp & Pinlock
PCBNR/LLever Lock
PCLNR/LLever Lock
PDJNR/LLever Lock
PDNNRLever Lock
PRSNR/LLever Lock
PCKNR/LLever Lock
Application Examples - External Toolholders
155
Indexable Toolholders T O O L I N G
Application Examples - External Toolholders (Continued)
PSBNR/LLever Lock
PSKNR/LLever Lock
PSSNR/LLever Lock
PTFNR/LLever Lock
PTGNR/LLever Lock
PWLNR/LLever Lock
SCLCR/LScrew-on
SCKCR/LScrew-on
SDJCR/LScrew-on
SDNCNScrew-on
SRDCNScrew-on
SRGCR/LScrew-on
SSDCNScrew-on
SSSCR/LScrew-on
STFCR/LScrew-on
STGCR/LScrew-on
SVLBR/LScrew-on
SVVBNScrew-on
156
T O O L I N G Indexable Toolholders
CSKPR Top Clamp
CTFPR Top Clamp
MWLNRTop Clamp & Pinlock
PDUNR/L Lever Lock
PSKNR/L Lever Lock
PTFNR/L Lever Lock
SCLCR/L Screw-on
SDUCR/L Screw-on
STFCR/LScrew-on
SCLCR/LScrew-on
SCLPR/LScrew-on
STUPR/L & STUCR/L Screw-on
CrossFeed ‘X’
Saddle Feed ‘Z’
Saddle & CrossFeed ‘X’,‘Z’
Limited Axial Feedproportional toAxial Feed
PCLNR/L Lever Lock
Right hand boring
bars shown.
Feed Direction
MDUNR/L Top Clamp & Pinlock
Application Examples - Boring Bars
157
Indexable Toolholders T O O L I N G
Application Examples - Cartridge Units
Threading Toolholders
CSKPRTop Clamp
CrossFeed ‘X’
Saddle Feed ‘Z’
Saddle & CrossFeed ‘X’,‘Z’
Limited Axial Feedproportional to AxialFeed
Feed Direction
CTFPRTop Clamp
CTWPRTop Clamp
PCFNRLever Lock
PCLNRLever Lock
PSKNRLever Lock
PTFNRLever Lock
STFCRScrew-on
PTWNRLever Lock
CTSPRTop Clamp
CTTPRTop Clamp
PTSNRLever Lock
STGCRScrew-on
PTTNRLever Lock
STSCRScrew-on
DER/LDual Top Clamp or Screw-on
DIRTop Clamp or Screw-on
SIR/L
Screw-on
STTCRScrew-on
Right hand holders
shown.
158
T O O L I N G Indexable Toolholders
ISO Designation - External Toolholders
B
Lead Angle3
G
N
V
C
J
S
W
D
K
T
F
L
U
Insert Shape2 Clearance4
B
C
N
P
Shank Height6
Expressed in mm
C D K
R S T
V W
Single Digit No. precededby ‘0’ e.g: h=8mm is indicated by 08
Shank Width7
Expressed in mm
Single Digit No. precededby ‘0’ e.g: h=8mm is indicated by 08
Tool Length8
Length in mm
D
E
F
H
K
M
P
Q
R
S
60
70
80
100
125
150
170
180
200
250
Clamping System1
C Clamp
M Multi Lock
P Lever
S Screw
Cutting Edge Length9 Expressed in mm
R WTSC, D
K, V
1
P
2
C
3
K
4
N
5
R
6
20
7
20
8
K
9
12
Hand5
R
L
N
159
T O O L I N GIndexable Toolholders
ISO Designation - Boring Bars
Bar Type1
S Solid Steel Bar
A Steel - through coolant
C Carbide Shank
Carbide Shank withE
Through Coolant
Note:Cutting EdgeLengths aredetailed to lowest wholenumber e.g.12.7mm =12mm
ISO Designation - Cartridge Units
Bar Length3
J 110
K 125
M 150
Q 180
R 200
Cutting Edge Height6
Single Digit No. preceded by ‘0’e.g: b=8mm is indicated by 08
Length in mm
Expressed in mm
Bar Length7
‘C’Indicates Cartridge
‘A’Indicates Holderis designed to
ISO 5611
Basic Diameter2
Single Digit No. preceded by ‘0’ e.g: b=8mm is indicated by 08
Expressed in mm
Note: Details as above see ExternalToolholders
Note: Details as above see External Toolholders
4
6
7
8
Clamping System
Insert Shape
Lead Angle
5
9
Clearance
Hand
Cutting EdgeLength
1 3 4
5
Clamping System Insert Shape Lead Angle2
8
Clearance
Hand Cutting Edge Length
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S 50 W P S K N R 19
8 9
P T F N R 16 CA 16
S 250
T 300
U 350
V 400
W 450
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
160
T O O L I N G Indexable Toolholders
Cutting Edge Length7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
D E R 16 16 H 16
ISO Designation - Threading Toolholders
Hand3
Length in mm
R
L
l ic
06 6mm 5/32”
08 8mm 3/16”
11 11mm 1/4”
16 16.5mm 3/8”
22 22mm 1/2”
27 27.5mm 15.875
5
Round Shank
(Boring Bars)
= Diameter in mm
For Rectangular
Shanks,
Height is expressed
in mm
Single Digit No.
preceded by ‘0’
E.g. h=8mm is
indicated by 08
Shank Width4
Round Shank
(Boring Bars) = 00
For Rectangular
Shanks,
Height is expressed
in mm
Single Digit No.
preceded by ‘0’
E.g. h=8mm is
indicated by 08
Shank Height
E External
I Internal
Type of Holder2
6 Tool Length
H 110
K 125
M 150
P 170
R 200
S 200
Clamping System1
DDual-Top Clamp
or Screw
S Screw on
C Clamp
161
T O O L I N G
Dimensional Notation
h = Shank Height or A/F
D min
h1 = Tip Height
b = Shank Width
d = Shank Diameter
f = Width Offset
a = Insert Approach Length
D = Min. Boring Diameter
l1 = Overall Length to Tip
l2 = Neck Length
l3 = Min. Adjustment
Length
d1 = Clamp Screw Bore
Diameter
d2 = Neck Diameter
x = Clamp Screw Angle
e = Clamp Screw Centre
Annotation - Cartridge Units
Annotation - Threading
Toolholders
Indexable Toolholders
Annotation - Boring BarsAnnotation - External Turning
Toolholders
162
T O O L I N G PMK Carbide Classification
HighFeed
HighSpeed
Carbide Description Application Description
ISOGeneral
SymbolCategory Designation Workpiece Material Use and Working Conditions
of Material tobe Machined
HighWear
Resist-ance
HighTough-ness
P01
P10
P20
P30
P40
P50
Steel, steel castings
Steel, steel castings
Steel, steel castingsMalleable cast iron
with long chips
Steel, steel castingsMalleable cast iron
with long chips.
Steel, steel castingswith sand inclusion
and cavities
Steel, steel castingsof medium or low
tensile strength, withsand inclusion and
cavities.
*Workpieces which are difficult to machine have casting or forging skins, hardspots,etc. Variable depth of cut, unstable workpiece or machine.
Ferrousmetals
with longchips
Finish turning and boring, highcutting speeds, small depthsof cut, close tolerance work,fine finish, stable conditions.
Turning, copy turning,threading and milling, highcutting speeds, small ormedium depths of cut.
Turning, copy turning, milling,medium cutting speeds and
depths of cut.
Turning, milling, medium or low cutting speeds. Medium or large depths of cut, andmachining in unfavourable
conditions.*
Turning, slotting, low cuttingspeeds, large depths of cut,with the possibility of large
cutting angles for machiningin unfavourable conditions* andwork on automatic machines.
For operations that are verytough carbide: turning,
slotting, low cutting speeds,large depths of cut. With the
possibility of large cuttingangles for machining in
unfavourable conditions* andwork on automatic machines.
P
ISO 513:1991 (BS7662:1993)Blue P - Representing machining of long chipping materials such as steel, cast steel, stainless steel and malleable iron.
Yellow M - Representing machining of more demanding materials such as austeniticstainless steel, heat resistant materials, manganese steel, alloyed cast iron, etc.
Red K - Representing machining of short chipping materials such as cast iron,hardened steel and non-ferrous materials such as aluminium, bronze, plastics, etc.
Within each main area there are numbers indicating the varying demands ofmachining, from roughing to finishing. Starting at group 01 which representsfinish-turning and finish-boring with no shocks and with high cutting speed, lowfeed and small cutting depth, through a semi-roughing, semi-finishing area tomedium-duty, general purpose at 25 and then down to group 50 for roughingat low cutting speeds and very heavy chiploads. Demands for wear resistanceand toughness vary with the type of operation and increase upwards anddownwards, respectively.
163
PMK Carbide Classification T O O L I N G
Carbide Description Application Description
Ferrousmetals
with longor short
chips andnon-ferrous
metals
M
M10
M20
M30
M40
Steel, steel castings,manganese steel,
Grey cast iron, alloycast iron
Steel, steel castingsaustenitic or
manganese steel,grey cast iron
Steel, steelcastings,austenitic
steel, grey cast iron,high temperatureresistant alloys.
Mild free-cuttingsteel, low-tensilesteel, Non-ferrousmetals and light
alloys
Turning, medium or highcutting speeds. Small ormedium depths of cut.
Turning, milling. Mediumcutting speeds and depths
of cut.
Turning, milling. Mediumcutting speeds, medium or
large depths of cut.
Turning, parting off,particularly on
automatic machines.
K01
K10
K20
K30
K40
Very hard grey castiron, chilled castingsof over 85 Shore,
high siliconaluminium
alloys, hardenedsteel, highly abrasive
plastics, hardcardboard, ceramics.
Grey cast iron over220 Brinell,
malleable cast ironwith short chips,hardened steel,
silicon aluminiumalloys, copper alloys,plastics, glass, hardcardboard, porcelain,
stone.
Grey cast iron up to220 Brinell, non-ferrous metals:
copper, brass andaluminium
Low hardness greycast iron, low tensilesteel, compressed
wood
Softwood or hardwood Non-ferrous
metals
*Workpieces which are awkward to machine; casting or forging skins, hardspots, etc.variable depth of cut, interrupted cut, unstable workpiece or machine.
Turning, finish turning, boring,milling, scraping
Turning, milling, drilling,boring, broaching, scraping
Turning, milling, boring,broaching demanding very
tough carbide
Turning, milling, slotting formachining in unfavourableconditions* and with thepossibility of large cutting
angles
Turning, milling, slotting formachining in unfavourableconditions* and with thepossibility of large cutting
angles
K
Ferrousmetals withshort chipsnon-ferrousmetals andnon-metallicmaterials
HighFeed
HighSpeed
HighWearResist-ance
HighTough-ness
HighFeed
HighSpeed
HighWearResist-ance
HighTough-ness
ISO
Symbol
General
Category
of material to
be machined
Designation Workpiece Material Use and Working Conditions
164
T O O L I N G Shank Dimens ions
InternationalStandards
DIN 69871/A -ISO7388/1 -
NFE 62540Commonly
interchangeablewith
ANSI/CaterpillarShanks
Taper D D1 f g I L
30 31.75 46 20 M12 22 48.4
35 38.10 53 22 M12 24 56.5
40 44.45 63 25 M16 27 65.4
45 57.15 85 30 M20 33 82.8
50 69.85 100 35 M24 38 101.8
JapaneseStandard
BT-MAS 403
ISO StandardIS0 R 297-2583 -
DIN 2080
Taper D D1 d max f g L I I1min
30 31.75 50 45 15.9 M12 47.8 19.1 35
40 44.45 63.55 50 15.9 M16 68.4 19.1 35
45 57.15 82.55 63 15.9 M20 82.7 19.1 35
50 69.85 97.5 80 15.9 M24 101.75 19.1 35
DIN
BT
ISO Including Quick Change.
Shown below are basic dimensions for the three most popular shankstandards for spindle nose tooling and the respective sizes of taper.
Taper D D1 L f l g
30 31.75 46.0 69 8.76 10.7 M12
40 44.45 63.5 93 7.98 9.9 M16
Quick Change
Taper D D1 f g I L L1
30 31.75 50 8 M12 9.61 68.39 -
40 44.45 63 10 M16 11.6 93.40 7
45 57.15 80 12 M20 15.2 106.8 -
50 69.85 97.5 12 M24 15.2 126.8 13
ISO
OTT Groove
L1
D1
Df
I
g
L
D1
Df
I
g
L
D1
Df
I
d g
L
D1
Df
I
g
L
165
Shank Dimensions T O O L I N G
Metric Imperial
d1 I2 I3 d1 l2 l3-0,025 (min) (min) -0,001 (min) (min)
mm mm mm in in in6 37.5 9.5 1/4 1 15/32 3/8
10 38 9.5 3/8 1 1/2 3/8
12 38 9.5 1/2 1 1/2 3/8
16 39 9.5 5/8 1 17/32 3/8
25 52.5 15 1 2 1/16 9/16
32 54 15 1 1/4 2 1/8 9/16
BS122. 1980 PT 4
d1 l1 b e l2 h1
h6 +1,0 +0,05 -1,0 +1,0 h13mm mm mm mm mm mm
3 284 285 286 36 4.2 18 4.88 36 5.5 18 6.610 40 7 20 8.412 45 8 22.5 10.416 48 10 24 14.220 50 11 25 18.225 56 12 32 17 2332 60 14 36 19 3040 70 14 40 19 3863 90 18 50 23 60.8
DIN 1835A/B
d1 25 to 32mm
d1 6 to 20mm
d1 6 to 63mm
166
T O O L I N G Shank Dimensions
Morse d1 d2 d6 d7 l3 l4 l5 a b θθ r1 r2
Taper -1 h 13
1 12.065 12.2 9.0 8.7 62.0 65.5 13.5 3.5 5.2 1°25’43” 5 1.22 17.780 18.0 14.0 13.5 75.0 80.0 16.0 5.0 6.3 1°25’50” 6 1.63 23.825 24.1 19.1 18.5 94.0 99.0 20.0 5.0 7.9 1°26’16” 7 2.04 31.267 31.6 25.5 24.5 117.5 124.0 24.0 6.5 11.9 1°29’15” 8 2.55 44.399 44.7 36.5 35.7 149.5 156.0 29.0 6.5 15.9 1°30’26” 10 3.06 63.348 63.8 52.4 51.0 210.0 218.0 40.0 8.0 19.0 1°29’36” 13 4.0
DIN 228 - 1 Form A Shanks
DIN 228 - 1 Form B - Morse Taper Shank
K a d1 d2 d4 l1 l2 l4(Morse) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 3.5 12.065 12.2 9.0 53.5 5 22.02 5.0 17.780 18.0 14.0 64.0 5 31.53 5.0 23.825 24.1 19.0 81.0 7 33.54 6.5 31.267 31.6 25.0 102.5 9 42.55 6.5 44.399 44.7 35.7 129.5 10 52.5
Bridgeport R8 - Shanks
UNF
5/32”
167
Shank Dimensions T O O L I N G
Tap Shank & SquareDimensions
To select thecorrect tapholder/collet for a specific tap diameter, the table belowprovides detailsof the shank and square sizes specifiedfor ISO and DIN standardtaps.
Tap Size ISO DIN 376
UNC Shank Square Shank SquareMetric UNF BA Diameter A/F Diameter A/F
BSW mm mm mm mm
M11 7/16” 8.00 6.30 8.00 6.20M12 1/2” 9.00 7.10 9.00 7.00M14 9/16” 11.20 9.00 11.00 9.00M16 5/8” 12.50 10.00 12.00 9.00M18 11/16” 14.00 11.20 14.00 11.00M20 3/4” 14.00 11.20 16.00 12.00M22 7/8” 16.00 12.50 18.00 14.50M24 1” 18.00 14.00 18.00 14.50M27 11/8” 20.00 16.00 20.00 16.00M30 20.00 16.00 22.00 18.00M33 11/4” 22.40 18.00 25.00 20.00M36 13/8” 25.00 20.00 28.00 22.00M39 11/2” 28.00 22.40 32.00 24.00M42 15/8” 28.00 22.40 32.00 24.00
Tap Size ISO DIN 371
UNC Shank Square Shank SquareMetric UNF BA Diameter A/F Diameter A/F
BSW mm mm mm mm
M3 Nos 4-5 No. 5 3.15 2.50 3.50 2.70M3.5 No 6 No. 4 3.55 2.80 4.00 3.00M4 4.00 3.15 4.50 3.40M4.5 No 8 No. 3 4.50 3.55 6.00 4.90M5 No 10 No. 2 5.00 4.00 6.00 4.90M5.5 No 12 No. 1 5.60 4.50 6.00 4.90M6 1/4” No. 0 6.30 5.00 6.00 4.90M7 9/32” 7.10 5.60 7.00 5.50M8 5/16” 8.00 6.30 8.00 6.20M9 9.00 7.10 9.00 7.00M10 3/8” 10.00 8.00 10.00 8.00
168
T O O L I N G Taps
The correct tapping drill size is important in ensuring that the strength ofthe thread is maintained whilst minimising the volume of swarf producedand torque required.
Tapping Drill Sizes for Fluteless Taps are Different.See Page 172.
For Standard Taps other than FlutelessThe following sizes are in line with BS 1157, however, specific drill sizescan be calculated as follows:
Tapping drill size = M - (0.01299 x % depth required)TPI
Where M = Major diameter, TPI = Threads per inch
A simple method which works on the ‘Vee’ threads is as follows:
Tap drill size = M (ins) - 1TPI
or: Drill size = M (mm) - Pitch (mm)
% Thread engagement = Basic major of thread - Drill Diameter x 1002 x External thread depth
Single Depth of ThreadUnified and ISO metric 0.6134 x pitchWhitworth 0.6403 x pitchBA 0.600 x pitch
Recommended drill sizes fall within the maximum and minimum minordiameters of the respective nut standards; Metric BS 3643; Unified BS1580; Whitworth BS 84; BA BS 93.
Nominal PitchTapping Clearance
Tap Size mmDrill Drill Sizemm mm
M1.0 0.25 0.75 1.05M1.1 0.25 0.85 1.15M1.2 0.25 0.95 1.25
M1.4 0.30 1.10 1.45M1.6 0.35 1.25 1.65M1.8 0.35 1.45 1.85
M2.0 0.40 1.60 2.05M2.2 0.45 1.75 2.25M2.5 0.45 2.05 2.60
M3.0 0.50 2.50 3.10M3.5 0.60 2.90 3.60M4.0 0.70 3.30 4.10
M4.5 0.75 3.70 4.60M5.0 0.80 4.20 5.10M6.0 1.00 5.00 6.10
M7.0 1.00 6.00 7.20M8.0 1.25 6.80 8.20M9.0 1.25 7.80 9.20
Tapping & clearance drills for ISO Metric Coarse Threads
Nominal PitchTapping Clearance
Tap Size mmDrill Drill Sizemm mm
M10.0 1.50 8.50 10.20M11.0 1.50 9.50 11.20M12.0 1.75 10.20 12.20
M14.0 2.00 12.00 14.25M16.0 2.00 14.00 16.25M18.0 2.50 15.50 18.25
M20.0 2.50 17.50 20.25M22.0 2.50 19.50 22.25M24.0 3.00 21.00 24.25
M27.0 3.00 24.00 27.25M30.0 3.50 26.50 30.50M33.0 3.50 29.50 33.50
M36.0 4.00 32.00 36.50M39.0 4.00 35.00 39.50M42.0 4.50 37.50 42.50
M45.0 4.50 40.50 45.50M48.0 5.00 43.00 48.50M56.0 5.50 50.50 57.00
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Fluted Taps
169
Taps T O O L I N G
*Conduit Thread Sizes
Nominal Pitch TappingClearance
Tap Size mm Drill SizeDrill Size
mm
M3.0 0.35 2.65 3.10M3.5 0.35 3.15 3.60M4.0 0.50 3.50 4.10
M4.5 0.50 4.00 4.60M5.0 0.50 4.50 5.10M6.0 0.75 5.20 6.10
M7.0 0.75 6.20 7.20M8.0 1.00 7.00 8.20
M10.0 1.25 8.80 10.20
M12.0 1.25 10.80 12.20M14.0 1.50 12.50 14.25M16.0* 1.50 14.50 16.25
M18.0 1.50 16.50 18.25M20.0* 1.50 18.50 20.25M22.0 1.50 20.50 22.25
M24.0 2.00 22.00 24.25M25.0* 1.50 23.50 25.25M27.0 2.00 25.00 27.25
M30.0 2.00 28.00 30.50M32.0* 1.50 30.50 32.25M40.0* 1.50 38.50 40.25
Tapping & Clearance Drills for “Number” Size ThreadsTapping Drill Size mm Clearance Drill Size mm
BA UNC UNF BA UNC/F
0 5.10 - 1.25 6.10 1.601 4.50 1.55 1.55 5.40 1.952 4.00 1.85 1.90 4.80 2.30
3 3.40 2.10 2.15 4.20 2.654 3.00 2.35 2.40 3.70 2.955 2.65 2.65 2.70 3.30 3.30
6 2.30 2.85 2.95 2.90 3.607 2.05 - - 2.60 -8 1.80 3.50 3.50 2.25 4.30
9 1.55 - - 1.95 -10 1.40 3.90 4.10 1.75 4.9011 1.20 - - 1.60 -
12 1.05 4.50 4.70 1.40 5.6013 0.98 - - 1.30 -14 0.80 - - 1.10 -
15 0.70 - - 0.98 -16 0.60 - - 0.88 -
NominalTap Size
Tapping & Clearance Drills for ISO Metric Fine Threads
170
T O O L I N G Taps
Tapping Drill Size mm
Tapping & Clearance Drills for “Fractional” Threads
Nominal Tapping Drill Sizes ClearanceTap DrillSize UNC UNF BSW BSF BS Brass BS Conduit Size1/16 1.15 - - -
3/32 1.90 - - -
1/8 2.55 - - - 3.30
5/32 3.10 - - - 4.00
3/16 3.70 4.00 - - 4.90
7/32 4.40 4.60 - - 5.70
1/4 5.10 5.50 5.10 5.30 5.30 - 6.50
5/16 6.60 6.90 6.50 6.80 6.90 - 8.10
3/8 8.00 8.50 7.90 8.30 8.40 - 9.70
7/16 9.40 9.90 9.30 9.70 10.00 - 11.30
1/2 10.80 11.50 10.50 11.10 11.70 11.10 13.00
9/16 12.20 12.90 12.10 12.70 13.30 - 14.50
5/8 13.50 14.50 13.50 14.00 15.00 14.25 16.25
11/16 - - 15.00 15.50 - - 17.75
3/4 16.50 17.50 16.25 16.75 18.00 17.50 19.25
7/8 19.50 20.40 19.25 19.75 21.25 - 22.50
1 22.25 23.25 22.00 22.75 24.50 23.50 25.75
1 1/8 25.00 26.50 24.75 25.50 - - 29.00
1 1/4 28.00 29.50 28.00 28.50 - 30.00 32.00
1 3/8 30.75 32.75 30.50 31.50 - - 35.50
1 1/2 34.00 36.00 33.50 34.50 - - 38.50
1 5/8 - - 36.00 38.00 - -
1 3/4 39.50 - 39.00 40.50 - - 45.00
1 7/8 - - 41.50 44.00 - -
2 45.00 - 44.50 47.00 - - 51.00
Tapping & clearance
drill sizes for
“number” UNC &
UNF are listed on
previous page
171
Taps T O O L I N G
*Conduit Thread Sizes
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Taper Pipe ThreadsTapping Drill Size mm
(BSP.Tr) Rc NPT NPTF
With Without With Without With WithoutReamer* Reamer Reamer* Reamer Reamer* Reamer
0 5.10 - 1.25 6.10 1.601/8 8.00 8.40 8.40 8.70 8.40 8.751/4 10.80 11.20 10.70 11.10 10.70 11.10
3/8 14.25 14.75 14.25 14.50 14.25 14.701/2 17.75 18.25 17.50 18.00 17.50 18.253/4 23.00 23.75 22.75 23.25 22.75 23.40
1 29.00 30.00 28.50 29.00 28.50 29.40
1 1/4 37.50 38.50 37.50 38.00 37.50 38.10
1 1/2 43.50 44.50 43.50 44.00 - -
2 55.00 56.00 55.00 56.00 - -
2 1/2 70.00 71.00 66.00 67.00 - -
3 - - - 82.50 - -
3 1/2 - - - 95.00 - -
4 - - - 108.00 - -
NominalTap Size
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Straight Pipe ThreadsTapping Drill Size mm
BSP.PL (Rp) BSP.F (G) NPS NPSF
1/16 6.60 6.80 6.80 6.801/8 8.60 8.80 9.00 9.101/4 11.50 11.80 11.50 11.90
3/8 15.00 15.25 15.00 15.251/2 18.75 19.00 18.50 19.005/8 - 21.00 - -
3/4 24.25 24.50 23.75 23.757/8 - 28.25 - -
1 30.40 30.75 30.00 30.50
1 1/4 39.00 39.50 39.00 39.50
1 1/2 45.00 45.00 45.00 -
1 3/4 - 51.00 - -
2 56.75 57.00 57.00 -
2 1/2 - - 68.00 -
NominalTap Size
*The use of a taper reamer (after the tapping drill) is strongly recommended.
172
T O O L I N G Taps
Calculating the theoretical drill size:
Metric: Tapping Drill Size= Tap Nominal - 0.0068 x Pitch x %
Imperial: Tapping Drill Size = Tap Nominal - 0.0068 x %TPI
% = percentage of thread depth required as a whole number i.e. the normal 65% = 65
Nominal Tapping Drill Size mm
Tap Diameter BA UNC/NC UNF/ NF
No. 0 5.60 1.35No. 2 4.40 1.95 2.00No. 3 3.80 2.25
No. 4 3.30 2.55 2.55No. 5 2.95 2.85No. 6 2.60 3.20 3.70
No. 8 2.00 3.80 3.80No. 10 1.55 4.30 4.50
Tapping Drill Sizes For Fractional Threads - FlutelessTapping Drill Size mm
UNC/NC UNF/NF BSW BSF BSPF
1/8 2.90 9.253/16 4.201/4 5.80 5.90 5.70 5.80 12.60
5/16 7.30 7.50 7.20 7.303/8 8.80 9.00 8.70 8.90 16.107/16 10.501/2 11.90 12.20
NominalTap Diameter
Tapping Drill Sizes For ISO Metric Coarse Threads - Fluteless
Nominal Pitch Tapping Drill Size Tap Diameter (mm) (mm)
M2 0.40 1.80M2.5 0.45 2.30M3 0.50 2.80
M3.5 0.60 3.20M4 0.70 3.70M5 0.80 4.60
M6 1.00 5.60M7 1.00 6.50M8 1.25 7.40
M10 1.50 9.30M12 1.75 11.20
Tapping Drill Sizes For Number Size Threads - Fluteless
Tapping Drill Sizes For Fluteless Taps
173
Taps T O O L I N G
Common Problems & Suggested Corrective Action.Shown below is a selection of the most common problems encountered withmachine taps, along with the most likely causes and suggested courses ofaction.
Breakage of the tap Incorrect tapping speed,Incorrect tap lead,Insufficient evacuation of swarf,Undersized hole,Tap dull or worn out,Misalignment of tap to workpiece,Insufficient Lubrication.
Tap wearing too quickly Hole has work hardened during drilling operation,Incorrect tap geometry for application,Unsuitable tap for component hardness,Incorrect lubricant,Insufficient lubrication.
Poor finish of thread Tap dull or worn out,Incorrect tap geometry for application,Insufficient lubrication.
Oversize hole & bell mouthing Incorrect drill used or drill cutting oversize,Incorrect clamping,Misalignment of tap toworkpiece,Excessive initial feed.
Cutting edge chipping Incorrect clamping,Bottoming of tap in hole,Incorrect tap geometry for application,Incorrect lubricant,Insufficient lubrication.
Problem Likely Cause
174
T O O L I N G Taps
In nearly all cases a screw thread form is based on a triangle. The threadangle is the angle enclosed by the flanks. This triangle is shortened at thecrest and root to either a radius or flat depending on the specification. Thisform is spaced along a cylinder, the nominal diameter of which is the majordiameter. The spacing or distance between two corresponding points onadjacent threads is the pitch. The reciprocal of this is the threads per inch.The effective diameter is the diameter of a theoretical co-axial cylinder whoseouter surface would pass through a plane where the width of groove or threadis half the pitch. The minor or core diameter is the diameter of a further co-axial cylinder, the outer surface of which would touch the smallest diameter.
BS 949 1976 Part 1 METRIC THREADSBS 948 1976 Part 1 - Taps for ISO Metric threads incorporate threadtolerances more aligned to the component tolerances than the supersededzonal tolerances, allowing more wear life of on taps of Classes 2 and 3.The following is extracted from BS 949 1976 Part 1.
Choice of Tap Tolerances ClassGenerally, taps of classes 1, 2 and 3 are used for the manufacture of threadsof the following classes:Class 1, for threads of classes 4H and 5HClass 2, for threads of classes 6H and also 4G and 5GClass 3, for threads of classes 7H and 8H and also 6G.
Root Rad.
Root Rad.
MajorDia.
Majo
r D
ia.
1/2 Pitch
Pitch
1/2 Pitch
MinorDia.
Min
or
Dia
.
CrestRad.
CrestRad.
BasicDepth ofThread
FlankAngle
Flank
Flank
ThreadAngle
TriangularAngles
EffectiveDia.
Eff
ective
Dia
.
Width of Flat Crest
Width of Flat Root
Nut (Female)Thread Notation
Bolt (Male)
W E L D I N G
WE
LD
IN
G
175
Drawing Symbols 176 - 182
Filter Shades 183
Glossary of Terms 184 - 186
Preparation & Techniques 187 - 190
Trouble Shooting 191 - 193
Section
9
176
W E L D I N G Drawing Symbols
Engineering Working DrawingsStandard ISO/BS working drawings represent views of workpieces in 3 ways:
Plan: The view as seen from above, looking vertically down.
Elevation: The side and/or end view.
Section: A plane cut through the object, horizontally or vertically.
Scale: Any object larger than the actual drawing is drawn to scale. Thescale line is shown on the drawing with full-size dimensions marked, thescale is also expressed as a ratio (1:25) a fraction (1/10 full-size), or arelationship (¼in. - lft.).
Dimensions: Drawings for engineering use include all dimensions andmaterials; usually non-critical dimensions are expressed in metres (orinches and fractions) and critical dimensions in millimetres (or decimalparts of an inch).
Welding Symbols: Welding drawings include specific symbols to indicatethe type of weld required (single or double butt, T joint, single or double Ujoints, etc.) and usually, the dimensions of gaps, grinding angles, etc. Alldrawing are designed to be meaningful to a welder working from suchdrawings.
Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication
Square butt weld.
Square butt weld with sealing run.
Single-V- butt weld with sealing run.
Plan
Plan
Plan
Plan
Single-U butt weld with sealing run.
Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication
177
Drawing Symbols W E L D I N G
Single-bevel butt weld with sealing run.
Plan
Plan
Elevation
Elevation
Single-J butt weld with sealing run.
Double-V butt weld.
Double-U butt weld.
Plan
Double-V asymmetrical butt weld.
Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication
178
W E L D I N G Drawing Symbols
Plan
Elevation
Double-J butt weld.
Plan
In all views the backing strip isindicated
Square butt weld with backing strip.
Plan
Note: that structural member mayalso be used as a backing strip.
The backing strip is indicated byfull or dotted lines as appropriateto the view.
Square butt weld with permanent backing strip held in place by fillet welds
ElevationDouble-bevel butt weld.
U-V asymmetrical butt weld.
The same method of indicatingbacking strips as for the square buttjoints.
The weld symbol is changed toindicate V-preparation.
Single-V butt weld with temporary or permanent backing.
Wider included angle used with thesmaller gap.
Backing strip or backing bar.
The vertical depth of thepenetration is added at the left-hand side of the symbol
Partial penetration single-bevel weld. arrow points at componentprepared.
The above applies also to partially penetrated single-V, single-U andsingle-J weld, except that the appropriate weld symbol is used.
The vertical depth of the penetrationis added to the left-hand side of thesymbol for each side.
Partial penetration double-V weld.
The above applies also to partially penetrated double-U, double-J anddouble bevel weld, except that the appropriate weld symbol is used.
Elevation
Plan
179
Drawing Symbols W E L D I N G
The backing is notindicated on thedrawing.
Square butt weldmade on a backing tool (bar)
Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication
Plan
Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication
180
W E L D I N G Drawing Symbols
The leg length of the fillet weldrequired is stated at the left-handside of the symbol.
Fillet welded T-joint.
Unless otherwiseindicated the leglength is the sameas the platethickness wherepalates are of equalthickness.
Outside corner joint.
Plan
Wider included angleused with the smallergap.
Fillet welded lap joint.
Plan
Elevation
T-joint with unequalleg length fillet weld.
Corner joint weldshould not berepresented withunequal leg lengthon drawing.
Weld represented on drawing.
Elevation
Fillet welded T-joint(intermittent fillet welds.)
Commencing each side with aweld 8mm fillet, 50 welds,10mm long, 100mm betweenweld elements.
Plan
Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication
181
Drawing Symbols W E L D I N G
Staggered intermittentfillet welds. 8mmfillet, 50 welds,100mm long, 100mmbetween weldelements.
Plan
Both weld symbols are used, thebutt-weld symbol being nearest to thereference line. Size of fillet weld notstated unless it differs from thatdictated by joint preperation.
T-joint with fillet weldsuperimposed on a single-bevelbutt weld.
For other types of compoundwelds the appropriate symbol isused together with the symbolfor the superimposed fillet weld.
Plan
Unequal leg length fillet weldsuperimposed on a partialpenetration single-J butt weld with fillet at root (other side).
Plan
Sealing run
Plan
Sealing run
Plan
182
W E L D I N G Drawing Symbols
Supplementary Instruction Drawing Indication
Symbol is to attract attention,added at end of reference linebearing appropriate weldsymbols.
Flush finish to butt weld
Convex finish(to butt weld)
Concave finish(to fillet weld)
Weld to beradiographed.
Placed at ‘elbow’ of arrow shaftwith the reference line.
Plan
Weld around a joint, eg. aflange to a pipe: astanchion to a base-plate.A peripheral weld.
To be welded on site.
Single straight line added tosymbol. This may be used withany type of butt weld withappropriate symbol and may beused to request flush finish onone or both sides of the weld.
183
Fi lter Shades W E L D I N G
Shade Numbers of Filters Recommended For Use DuringArc Welding
WeldingProcess or
RelatedTechnique
CoveredElectrodes
MIG OnHeavyMetals
MIG OnLight Alloys
Hg On AllMetals & Alloys
MAG
Air-ArcGouging
Plasma JetCutting
Micro Plasma Arc
Welding
Current, Amperes
0.5
1.0
2.5
5.0
10
15
20
30
40
60
80
10
0
12
5
15
0
17
5
20
0
22
5
25
0
27
5
30
0
35
0
40
0
45
0
50
0
9 10 11 12 13
10 11 12 13
10 11 12 13 14
14
14
14
15
14
14
9 10 11 12 13
10 11 12 13
10 11 12 13
11 12 13
987654
2.5
/3
10
15
15
1411 12 13 15
Notes
1. These shades are given as a general guide. Depending on the specificconditions of use, the next greater or the next lower shade number maybe more suitable.
2. The term “heavy metals” refers to steels, alloy steels, copper and Itsalloys etc.
3. Where no recommendation is given in the table, it is normally acceptedthat the process is not practiced at that level.
4. The welding processes referred to are in accordance with ISO 463:Covered Electrode refers to consumable electrode having a covering offlux or other material.MIG refers to metal arc weIding with an inert gas shield.TIG refers tungsten arc welding with an inert gas shield.MAG refers to metal arc weIding with an non-inert gas shield.Air-Arc cutting corresponds to the use of a carbon electrode and a jet ofcompressed air to remove the molten metal.
184
W E L D I N G Glossary of Terms
Glossary of Welding TermsActual Throat Thickness Distancebetween two lines parallel to a line joining the outertoes one being tangent at the weld face and theother being through the furthermost point of fusionpenetration.
Air-arc Cutting Thermal cutting using an arcfor melting the metal and a stream of air to removethe molten metal to enable a cut to be made.
All-Position A gas welding technique in whichthe flame is rightward welding.
All-weld Test Piece A block of metalconsisting of one or more beads or runs fusedtogether for test purposes. It may or may notinclude parent metal.
Arc Electrical discharge between electrode andworkpiece, formed and sustained by theestablishment of a gaseous conductive medium,called arc plasma.
Arc Welding (AW) Welding processes thatproduces coalescence of work pieces by heatingthem with an arc. Used with or without the use ofpressure and with or without filler metal.
Arc Blow A lengthening or deflection of a DCwelding arc caused by the interaction of magneticfields set up in the work and arc or cables.
Arc Fan The fan-shaped flame associated withthe atomic-hydrogen arc.
Arc Voltage The voltage between electrodes orbetween an electrode and the work.
Backfire Retrogression of the flame into theblowpipe neck or body with rapid self extinction.
Backing Bar A Temporary backing piece ofmaterial placed at a root when welding pipes ortubes.
Blowhole A cavity generally (>1.6 mm indiameter) formed by trapped gas duringsolidification of metal.
Blowpipe A device for mixing and burning gasesto produce a flame for welding, brazing, bronzewelding, cutting, heating etc.
Burn Back Fusing of electrode wire to currentcontact tube by sudden lengthening of the arc.
Burn Off Rate The linear rate of consumptionof a consumable electrode
Burn Through A localised collapse of themolten pool due to “Melt Through”.
CMTR (Certified Material TestReports) States the chemical and physicalproperties of a specific material as well as safetywarnings and handling information.
CO2 Flux Welding Metal-arc welding in whicha flux-coated or flux containing electrode isdeposited under a shield of carbon dioxide.
CO2 Welding Metal-arc welding in which a barewire electrode is used the arc and molten poolbeing shielded with carbon dioxide.
Carbon-arc Welding Arc welding using acarbon electrode or electrodes.
Chain Intermittent Weld An intermittentweld on each side of a joint (usually fillet welds in Tand lap joints) arranged so that the welds lieopposite to one another along the joint.
Concave Fillet Weld A fillet weld in whichthe weld face is concave (curved inwards).
Cone The more luminous part of a flame,adjacent to the nozzle orifice.
Convex Fillet Weld A fillet weld in which theweld face is convex (bulbous).
Coupon Plate A test piece made by addingplates to the end of a joint to give an extension ofthe weld for test purposes used in the shipbuildingindustry.
Crater Pipe Depression due to shrinkage at theend of a run where the heat source was removed.
Cruciform Test Piece A flat plate to whichtwo other flat plates or two bars are welded at rightangles and on the same axis.
Cutting Electrode Electrode with a coveringthat creates an arc that blows away molten metalto produce a groove or cut in the work.
Cutting Oxygen Oxygen used at a pressuresuitable for cutting.
De-seaming The removal of the surface defectsfrom ingots, blooms, billets and slabs by means ofa manual thermal cutting.
Dip Transfer A method of metal-arc welding inwhich fused particles of the electrode wire incontact with the molten pool are detached from theelectrode in rapid succession by the short circuitcurrent, which develops every time the wiretouches the molten pool.
Drag The projected distance between the twoends of a drag line.
Drag Lines Serrations left on the face of a cutmade by thermal cutting.
Duty Cycle The amount of time a machine canbe used at a particular output. Expressed as apercentage of a ten minute cycle, a 150 ampmachine with a 30% duty cycle will allow 3 minutesof use for every ten and a 60% duty cycle wouldallow 6 minutes of use for every ten. Duty cycleincreases as the power setting decreases so if the150 amp machine were to be used on a 30 ampsetting the duty cycle might be 100%.
Electrode A component of the circuit thatterminates the arc, molten conductive slag, orbase metal.
Excess Penetration Bead Excessive metalprotruding through the root of a fusion weld madefrom one side only.
Feather The zone, visible around the cone of aflame where there is excess carbonaceous gas.
Fillet Weld a fusion weld, other than a butt,edge or fusion spot weld, which is approximatelytriangular in transverse cross-section.
Flame Cutting Oxygen cutting in which theappropriate part of the material to be cut is raisedto ignition temperature by an oxy-fuel gas flame.
185
Glossary of Terms W E L D I N G
Glossary of Welding Terms(continued)Flame Snap-out Retrogression of the flamebeyond the blowpipe body into the hose, withpossible subsequent explosion.
Flame washing A method of surface shapingand dressing by flamecutting using a nozzledesigned to produce a suitably shaped cuttingoxygen stream.
Flashback Arrestor A safety device fitted inthe oxygen and fuel gas system to prevent anyflashback reaching the gas supplies.
Floating Head A blowpipe holder on a flamecutting machine which, through a suitable linkage,is designed to follow the contour of the surface ofthe plate, thereby enabling the correct nozzle-to-workpiece distance to be maintained.
Free Bend Test A test made without a former.
Fusion Penetration In fusion welding. Thedepth to which the parent metal has been fused.
Fusion Zone The part of the parent metalwhich is melted into the weld metal.
Gas Economiser An auxiliary device designedfor temporarily cutting off the supply of gas to thewelding equipment except the supply to a pilot jetwhere fitted.
Gas envelope The gas surrounding the innercone of an oxy-gas flame.
Gas Pore A cavity (<1.6 mm in diameter)formed by trapped gas during solidification ofmetal.
Gas Regulator A device for attachment to acylinder or pipeline for reducing and regulating thegas pressure to the working pressure required.
Guided Bend Test A test made by bendingthe specimen round a former.
Heat affected zone The part of the parentmetal which is metallurgically affected by the heatof welding or thermal cutting but not melted. (Alsoknown as the zone of thermal disturbance).
High Frequency TIG Start Produces a lowamperage arc between the electrode and the basemetal and serves as the path for the TIG Arc toignite without the electrode contacting base metal.
Hose Protector A non-return valve at the blow-pipe end of a hose to resist the force of flashback.
Inclusion Slag or foreign matter trapped duringwelding. The defect is usually more irregular inshape than a gas pore.
Inert gas Used to shield the electric arc fromcontaminants and gases which may react with theweld. An inert chemical is one with a full outer shellof electrons which do not normally react with othersubstances - e.g. argon and helium. Some non-inert gases are used for welding such as CO2.
Inverter A power source that increases thefrequency of the incoming primary power, thusproviding improved electrical characteristics forwelding, such as faster response time and morecontrol for pulse welding.
Kerf The void left after metal is thermally cut.
Leftward Welding A gas welding technique inwhich the flame is forward welding.
Leg The width of a fusion face in a fillet weld.
MIG Metal inert gas welding. (Also referred asgas metal arc welding). The “metal” refers to thewire which is used to start the arc. It is shielded byinert gas, the feeding wire also acts as the fillerrod.
Metal Transfer Transfer of metal across thearc from an electrode to the molten pool.
Metal-arc Cutting Thermal cutting by meltingusing the heat of an arc between a metal electrodeand the metal to be cut.
Metal-arc Welding Arc welding using aconsumable electrode.
Nick-Break Test A fracture test in which aspecimen is broken from a notch cut at apredetermined position where the interior of theweld is to be examined.
Open Arc Welding Welding where the arc isvisible.
Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) As the nameimplies, no current is flowing in the circuit becausethe circuit is open. The voltage is impressed uponthe circuit, however, so that when the circuit iscompleted, the current will flow immediately. i.e. amachine that is turned on but not being used forwelding at the moment will have an open-circuitvoltage applied to the cables attached to theoutput terminals of the welding machine.
Overlap An imperfection at a toe or a root of aweld caused by metal flowing on to the surface ofthe parent metal without fusing it.
Oxygen Lance A steel tube, consumed duringcutting, through which cutting oxygen passes, forthe cutting or boring of holes.
Oxygen-arc Cutting Thermal cutting in whichthe ignition temperature is produced by an electricarc, and cutting oxygen is conveyed through thecentre of an electrode, which is consumed in theprocess.
Packed Lance Oxygen lance with steelrods/wires.
Penetration Bead Weld metal protrudingthrough the root of a weld made from one side only.
Plasma Fourth state of matter after solid, liquid,and gas. Plasma is an ionised form of gas. Inplasma cutting, a gas (i.e. Nitrogen) is sent underpressure through the torch where it begins to swirland is forced out a small orifice at which point itpasses through an electric arc and the gas isionised. The electricity “excites” the electrons ofthe gas atoms.
Plug Weld A weld made by filling a hole in onecomponent of a workpiece so as to join it to thesurface of an overlapping component exposedthrough the hole.
Porosity A group of gas pores
Postflow Time Time interval from current shutoff to either shielding gas or cooling water shut off.
Postflow This feature prevents contamination ofboth the electrode and the weld puddle.
Powder Cutting oxygen cutting in whichpowder is injected into the cutting oxygen stream toassist the cutting action.
186
W E L D I N G Glossary of Terms
Glossary of Welding Terms(continued)Powder Lance An oxygen lance in whichpowder is mixed with the oxygen stream.
Preflow Time The time interval between startof shielding gas flow and arc starting.
Preheating Oxygen Oxygen used at asuitable pressure in conjunction with fuel gas forraising to ignition temperature the metal to be cut.
Pulse DC Welding By controlling the durationof current, metals sensitive to heat input, metals ofdissimilar thickness, and very thin metals can bejoined with good penetration and a minimum ofdistortion.
Residual Welding Stress Stress remainingin a metal part or structure as a result of welding.
Reverse Bend Test A bend test in which theother than that specified for a face bend test is intension.
Rightward Welding A gas welding techniquein which the flame is backward welding.
Root (of weld) The zone on the side of the firstrun farthest from the welder.
Root Face The portion of a fusion face at theroot which is not bevelled or grooved.
Run-off Plate A piece, or pieces, of metal soplaced as to enable the full section of of weld to beobtained at the end of the joint.
Run-on Plate A piece, or pieces, of metal soplaced as to enable the full section of weld metalto be obtained at the beginning of a joint.
Scarfing The removal of the surface defectsfrom ingots, blooms, billets and slabs by means ofa flame cutting machine.
Scratch TIG A third method of starting awelding arc when lift arc or high frequency is notavailable. To start the arc the tungsten electrodemust contact the base metal. This basic methodfor starting an arc contaminates and causesdamage to the tungsten electrode every time thearc is initiated this way.
Seal Weld A weld, not being a strength weld,used to make a (sealing weld).
Sealing Run The final run deposited on theroot side of a fusion (backing run).
Shielding Gas Protective gas used to preventatmospheric contamination of the weld pool.
Shrinkage Groove A groove caused bycontraction of the metal along each side of apenetration bead.
Side Bend Test A bend test in which the faceof a transverse section of the weld is in tension.
Single-Phase Circuit An electrical circuitproducing only one alternating cycle within a 360degree time span.
Skip Sequence A welding sequence in whichshort lengths of run are (skip welding).
Slag-trap A configuration in a joint or jointpreparation which may lead to slag entrapment.
Slot Lap Joint Joint between two overlappingcomponents made by depositing a fillet weld roundthe outside of a hole in one piece so as to join it tothe other piece through the hole.
Spatter Metal particles blown away from the arc.These do not become part of the completed weld.
Spray Transfer Metal transfer caused byglobules forming of diameter substantially largerthan that of the electrode from which they aretransferred.
Stack Cutting The thermal cutting of a stackof plates usually clamped together.
Staggered Intermittent Weld A weld oneach side of a joint (usually fillet welds in T and lapjoints) arranged so that the welds on one side lieopposite the spaces on the another side of thejoint.
Stick Welding (or Shielded Metal Arc) An arcwelding process that melts/joins metals by heatingwith an arc between an electrode and the work.Shielding gas comes from the electrode outercoating (flux). Filler metal comes from the electrodecore.
Striking Voltage The minimum voltage atwhich any specified arc may be initiated.
Submerged-arc Welding Metal-arc weldingin which a bare wire electrodes are used; the arc isenveloped in flux, some of which fuses to form aremovable covering of slag on the weld.
Surface-fusion Welding Gas welding inwhich a carburising flame melts the surface of theparent metal which unites with metal from a fillerrod.
Sustained Backfire Retrogression of theflame into the blowpipe neck or body the flameremaining alight. Note: This manifests itself eitheras "popping" or "squealing" with a small pointedflame issuing from the nozzle orifice or as a rapidseries of minor explosions inside.
TIG Tungsten inert gas welding. (Also called gastungsten arc welding). The arc is started with atungsten electrode shielded by inert gas. A filler rodis fed into the weld puddle separately. Slower thanMIG, but produces more precise welds. Can beused at lower amperages for thinner metal/exoticmetals.
Thermal Cutting The parting or shaping ofmaterials by the application of heat with or withouta stream of cutting oxygen.
Toe The boundary between a weld face and theparent metal or between weld faces.
Touch Welding Metal-arc welding using acovered electrode, the covering of which is kept incontact with the parent metal during welding
Tungsten Inclusion An inclusion of tungstenfrom the electrode in TIG-welding.
Weld Junction The boundary between thefusion zone and the heat affected zone.
Welding Wire A form of welding filler metal,normally packaged as coils or spools, that may ormay not conduct electrical current depending uponthe welding process with which it is used.
Worm-hole An elongated or tubular cavityformed by trapped gas during the solidification ofmolten metal.
187
Welding PreparationBefore any welding work is performed it is essential that theedges are correctly prepared and clean. All mill scale, grease,primer or rust must be thoroughly removed or welding will be
difficult and the
deposit
contaminated.
Weld integrity
depends on
preparation and
below are
recommended
edges.
When welding
brittle materials it
is recommended
that suitable
Preheat be
applied to prevent
rapid thermal
expansion and
subsequent
cracking. On
completion of
welding a Post-
heat treatment
may also be used
to allow the joint
and parent metal
to cool down
together again to
prevent cracking.
If fluxes have beenused then theresidue should bethoroughly removedas they exhibit postweld corrosivetendencies which
will damage theweld.
Preparat ion & Techn iques W E L D I N G
Thickness of
metal
Diameterof welding
rod
Edge preparation
Less than 3/64-1/16”
20 swg
20 swg 1/16-1/8”
-1/8”
1/8-3/16” 1/8-5/32”
3/16-5/16” 1/8-5/32”
5/16-6/8” 5/32-1/4”
5/8 and 1/4”
over
1/32i”-1/8”
1/8”-5/32”
1/16”-1/8”
1/8”-5/32”
1/8”-5/32”
600v
600v800v
Top
Bottom
800v
600v
Speedft
per hour
Thicknessof
metal
25-30 1/32”
20-25 1/16”
20-25 3/32”
18-20 1/8”
15-18 5/32”
12-15 3/16”
10-12 1/4”
7-8 5/16”
6-7 3/8”
41/2-5 1/2”
33/4-41/2 5/8”
3-31/4 3/4”
2-21/2 1”
Rig
htw
ard
weld
ing
Left
ward
weld
ing
800v
3.2mm (1/8”) Gap
Steel Non-ferrous 4.8mm (3/16”)4.8mm (3/16”)
3.2mm (1/8”) Gap
3.2mm (1/8”) Gap
3.2mm (1/8”) Gap1.6mm (1/16”)
3.2mm (1/8”)
Downhand Welding
Vertical Welding
Setting up for Gas WeldingCorrect welding practice requires a steady constant flame shapeand this can only be achieved by using Multi-Stage regulators.Good welds are the result of good ‘set up’ and time should betaken to learn the correct pressure settings for each nozzle size.The recommendations given on the following pages are a guide tocreating the best flame shape with optimum gas economy,coupled with reduced risk of backfire or flashback. Never force anozzle, use the right size. Most welding operations require theneutral flame to produce quality joints. This flame burns equalproportions of each gas. Other flames are needed for specialisedoperations as shown below.
Oxidising Flame(excess oxygen)
Neutral Flame (equalquantities of oxygenand acetylene
Carburising Flame(excess acetylene)
To ignite the weldingnozzle open the fuel-gas control valve andlight gas with a sparklighter. When doing soensure the sparklighteris held at right anglesto the nozzle. Adjust the valve until the flame just ceases tosmoke then gradually turn on the oxygen control valve until thewhite cone of the flame is sharply defined with the merest trace ofacetylene haze. In this condition the flame is neutral and isburning approximately equal volumes of oxygen
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Gas Pressure & Nozzle Size Recommendations - Welding
Mild Steel Nozzle Gas Welding Operating PressuresPlate Size Lightweight Nozzles Heavy Duty Nozzles
Thickness Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen Acetylene
mm inch SWG No. bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI0.9 0.035 20 1 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 21.2 0.050 18 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 22.0 0.080 5/64 14 3 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.15 2 0.15 22.6 0.100 12 5 0.30 4 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.20 33.2 0.125 1/8 10 7 0.35 5 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.20 34.0 0.160 3/32 8 10 0.35 5 0.30 4 0.30 4 0.30 45.0 0.200 3/16 6 13 0.50 7 0.35 5 0.30 4 0.30 46.5 0.250 1/4 3 18 0.55 8 0.40 6 0.35 5 0.35 58.2 0.312 5/16 0 25 0.65 10 0.55 8 0.50 7 0.40 610.0 0.375 3/8 4/0 35 - - - - 0.65 10 0.65 1013.0 0.500 1/2 7/0 45 - - - - 0.50 7 0.40 6>25.0 1.000 1 90 - - - - 0.60 9 0.60 9
Oxidising Flame
Neutral Flame
Carburising Flame
W E L D I N G Preparat ion & Techn iques
189
Gas WeldingTechniquesLeftward Welding
Used on steel forflanged edge welds,for unbevelled plates up to 5mm and for bevelled plates up to 8.Omm It is alsothe method usually adopted for cast iron and non-ferrous metals.Welding is started at the right-hand end of the joint and proceedstowards the left. The welding nozzle is given a forward motion witha slight sideways movement to, maintain melting of the edges ofboth plates at the desired rate a welding rod is movedprogressively along the weld seam. Sideways motion of thewelding nozzle should be kept to a minimum.
Rightward
Rightward welding isrecommended forsteel plate over5mm thick. Platesup to 8.Omm neednot be bevelled. Over 8.Omm the edges are bevelled to 30O togive an included angle of 60°° for the welding V. Suitable forhorizontal or vertical position. The weld is started at the left-handend and moves towards the right with the welding nozzle andflame preceding the filler rod in the direction of travel. The rod isgiven a circular forward motion and the welding nozzle is movedsteadily along the weld seam - this is faster than leftward weldingand consumes less gas; the V angle is smaller, less filler rod isused and there is less distortion.
All-Position Rightward Welding
A variation of the above suitable for mild steel plate and pipe inthe vertical and overhead position. The advantages are that itenables the welder to obtain a uniform penetration bead and aneven build-up, particularly in fixed position welding. The welder canwork with complete freedom of movement and has a clear view ofthe weld pool and the fusion zone of the joint.
Vertical Welding
Used on bevelled steel plate up to 3mm thickness and up to15mm when two welders are employed working on both sides of the joint.Weldingstarts atthe bottomandproceedsvertically.
30°° to 40°°
30°° to
40°°
30°°
40°° to
50°°
1.6mm: 30°°3.2mm: 60°°4.8mm: 80°°
60°° to
70°°
Nozzle
Rod
Nozzle
Rod
Nozzle
Rod
Preparat ion & Techn iques W E L D I N G
190
Mild Steel Nozzle Gas Cutting Operating PressuresPlate Size Acetylene Nozzles Propane Nozzles
Thickness Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen Propane
mm inch No. bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI< 3 < 1/8 ASNM 1.5 20 0.25 4 - - - -
3 - 6 1/8 - 1/4 1/32 1.5 20 0.15 2 1.5 20 0.20 36 - 12 1/4 - 1/2 3/64 2.0 30 0.15 2 2.0 30 0.20 3
12 - 25 1/2 - 1 1/16 2.5 35 0.15 2 2.5 35 0.30 425 - 50 1 - 2 1/16 3.0 45 0.15 2 3.0 45 0.30 450 - 75 2 - 3 1/16 3.5 50 0.15 2 3.5 50 0.30 475 - 100 3 - 4 5/64 3.0 45 0.15 2 3.0 45 0.30 4
100 - 150 4 - 6 3/32 3.0 45 0.20 3 3.0 45 0.40 6150 - 200 6 - 8 7/64 3.5 50 0.20 3 4.0 60 0.40 6200 - 250 8 - 10 1/8 4.5 65 0.20 3 4.5 65 0.50 7250 - 300 10 - 12 1/8 5.5 80 0.20 3 5.5 80 0.60 9
Cutting TechniqueOxy-fuel gas flame cutting is an exothermic chemical action wherethe steel is oxidised, not melted. The workpiece is pre-heated tored heat (Ignition point) high pressure oxygen is then directed atthe metal through. Iron is immediately oxidised to magnetic ironoxide (Fe304). Oxygen steam blows away the oxidised area leavinga clean cut.
ANM Acetylene Nozzles
One piece drawn copper al loyconstruction. Ensures the bestconditions for high velocity gas(acetylene) and enhances stabilityand cutting efficiency. The seats ofANM nozzles are diamond turnedto guarantee a good seal with theblowpipe head. Essential to avoidhead seat leaks, reducing backfire.
PNM Propane Cutting Nozzles
Two piece design. Brass inner nozzlewith splines and a hollow drawn copperouter. PNM’s differ from ANM’s in thatdifferent mixing criteria apply. Oxy-propane has a lower burning velocitythan oxy-acetylene. Good flameconditions depend firstly on turbulencebetween the inner and outer parts ofthe nozzle, ensuring adequate mixing ofthe propane and oxygen. Secondly, thevolume of mixed oxy-propane needs tobe more than double that of oxy-acetylene for the same usable heat.This is achieved by having large splinesto conduct greater gas volume.
Gas Pressure & Nozzle Size Recommendations - Cutting
Pre-Heat Cutting
HeatingSplines
Recessed for FlameStability
W E L D I N G Preparat ion & Techn iques
191
Trouble Shoot ing W E L D I N G
Welding Trouble Shooting. The following pages show the most commonproblems encountered with welded joints, along with the likely causes.
Unsatisfactory Weld ProfilesProblem Likely Cause
Uneven fillet leg length.
Fillet weld with insufficientthroat thickness.
Fillet weld with excessivethroat thickness.
Excessive concavity in buttweld profile.
Excessive convexity in buttweld profile.
Undesirable weld profile(lap fillet - excess meltingof plate edge, givinginsufficient throatthickness.
Notch effect with overlap atside of fillet weld.
Notch effect with overlap atside of butt weld.
Excessive penetration.Excess fusion of rootedges.
Burn through.
Incorrect angle of filler rodand blowpipe.
Speed of travel too fast,leading to insufficientdeposited weld metal.
Speed of travel too slowcausing heavy deposit. Fillerrod too large.
Excess heat build-up withtoo fast a speed of travel,or filler rod too small.
Insufficient heat — too slowa speed of travel — nozzlesize too small — filler rodtoo large.
Incorrect tilt angle ofblowpipe fusing top edge ofplate, which flows down toproduce unequal leg lengthfillet with undesirableprofile.
Incorrect manipulationtogether with incorrectangle of blowpipe and fillerrod.
Incorrect manipulationtogether with incorrectangle of blowpipe and fillerrod.
Angle of slope of nozzle toolarge. Insufficient forwardheat. Flame size and/orvelocity too high. Filler rodtoo large or too small.Speed of travel too slow.
Excessive penetration hasproduced local collapse ofweld pool resulting in a holein the root run.
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W E L D I N G Troub le Shoot ing
Undercut Notching EffectProblem Likely Cause
Under-cut along verticalmember of fillet welded teejoint.
Root run too large withundercut in butt joint.
Under-cut both sides ofweld face in butt joint.
Blowpipe used at incorrectangle.
Use of too large a nozzleand/or excessive lateralblowpipe manipulation withtoo slow a speed of travel.
Incorrect use of blowpipe.Wrong distance from platesurface. Excessive lateralmovement. Use of too largea nozzle in the root run.
Oxidised and Overheated WeldsProblem Likely Cause
Oxidised weld face.Porous dirty appearanceof surface. Cracked scaleadhering on weld facewith dull appearance.
Overheated weld.
Use of oxidising flamesetting. Insufficient cleaningof plate surfaces. Incorrectmanipulation of blowpipepermitting cone to contactthe molten pool.Atmospheric contamination.
Use of too large a nozzle.Speed of travel too slow.Excess blowpipemanipulation extending theweld pool.
Incomplete Root PenetrationProblem Likely Cause
Incomplete root penetrationin butt joints (single vee ordouble vee).
Incomplete root penetrationin close square tee joint.
Welds incorrectlypositioned.
Notch, instead of rootunderbead.
Lack of root penetration.
Incorrect set-up and jointpreparation. Use ofunsuitable procedureand/or welding technique.
Incorrect set-up and jointpreparation. Use ofunsuitable procedureand/or welding technique.
Welds have been depositedout of alignment with thecentre line of the joint.
Lack of root penetration.Angle of nozzle too smalLSpeed of travel too fast.
Insufficient heat applied.
Incorrect joint penetrationand set up. Gap too smalLVee preparation too narrow.Root edges touching