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Third Exam Thursday 3 December 2015Chapters 11-15, 17-18 plus 8 readings

Final Exam9 December 2-5 PM

Microbiome, antibiotics, Germs R us, appendix =“bomb shelter”

Challenges facing Parasites, hosts as islands, how to infect new ones?

Host specificity, high fecundities, exploitation of vectors (mosquitoes)

Intermediate and final hosts, host altered behavior (rabies, etc.)

Assassin bugs (Triatoma), contact, blood sucking, Chagas’s Disease

Malaria (Plasmodium), fever

Tapeworms (Cestodes), Nematodes (roundworms)

Cholera (Shigella) transmission via dysentery, water borne

Toilet seats, elevator buttons, door knobs, shopping carts...etc.

Getting into and out of a public restroom safely

Molecular mimicry: “eclipsed antigens” resemble host antigens

hence do not elicit formation of host antibodies

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC), identity of self, immune response

Trypanosoma shed coats, change antigens

Filariasis Elephantiasis (lymph nodes blocked by nematodes carried by mosquitoes)

Botflies

Dracunculus medinensis, caduceus symbol of medicine

Evolution of Virulence (benign parasites allow hosts to live)

Host altered behavior

Rabies virus — rabid animals bite, passes on virus to new host

Lancet fluke Trematode Dicrocoelium dentriticum

Cercaria —> Metacercariae encyst on ant’s brain

Sheep ingest an ant and get infected

Starlings, Pill bugs, and Acanthocephalans

Ducks, Amphipods, and Acanthocephalans

STDs ——> increased sexual activity?

Ectoparasites (fleas, ticks, lice), endoparasites

Social parasites (thievery, brood parasitism)

Parasitoids: Ichneumonid wasps ————>

Microparasites —> macroparasites —> parasitoids —> predator spectrum

and many correlates thereof, such as relative sizes, rates of increase,

number of parasites per host, virulence, stability, and ability to

regulate lower trophic level

Coevolution

Joint evolution of two (or more) taxa that have close ecological relationships but do not exchange genes, and in which reciprocal selective pressures operate to make the evolution of either taxon partially dependent on the evolution of the other

EnterobiusPinworms(Parasiteson Primates)

Parallel phylogeniesBrooks and Glen 1982

Primate hosts

Enterobius species

Drosophila pachea and senita cactus.

Danaid butterflies use polyuridine alkaloids as chemical precursors for synthesis of pheromones used in attracting mates.

An arginine mimic, l-canavavine, present in many legumes,ruins protein structure in most insects.However, a bruchid beetle has evolved metabolic machinerythat enable it to use plants containing canavanine.

Wild ginger, Asarum caudatum, in western Washington arepolymorphic for growth rate, seed production, and palatabililty toa native slug, Ariolimax columbianus (Cates 1975). Where slugs are uncommon, plants allocate more energy togrowth and seed production and less to production of antiherbivorechemicals. In habitats with lots of slugs, less palatable plants have a fitness advantage — even though they grow more slowly, theylose less photosynthetic tissue to slug herbivory.

Some of the Suggested Correlates of Plant Apparency _____________________________________________________________________________ Apparent Plants Unapparent Plants _____________________________________________________________________________ Common or conspicuous Rare or ephemeralWoody perennials Herbaceous annualsLong leaf life span Short-lived leavesSlow growing, competitive species Faster growing, often fugitive speciesLate stages of succession, climax Early stages of succession, second growth

Bound to be found by herbivores Protected from herbivores by escape in (cannot escape in time and space) time and space (but still encountered by

wide-ranging generalized herbivores)

Produce more expensive quantitative Produce inexpensive qualitative chemical(broad-based) antiherbivore defenses defenses (poisons or toxins) to discourage(tough leaves, thorns, tannins) generalized herbivores

Quantitative defenses constitute Qualitative defenses may be broken downeffective ecological barriers to her- over evolutionary time by coevolution ofbivores, although perhaps only a weak appropriate detoxification mechanisms inevolutionary barrier unless supple- herbivores (host plant-specific herbivoremented with qualitative defenses species result)_____________________________________________________________________________

Paul Feeny

Daniel Janzen

Pine squirrels (Tamiasciurus) andconiferous food trees (Smith 1970)

Squirrels are very effective seed predators, stockpile conesTrees reduce squirrel effectiveness in many different ways:1. Cones difficult for squirrels to reach, open, or carry2. Putting fewer seeds in each cone (fake cones without any seeds)3. Increasing thickness of seed coats (seeds harder to harvest)4. Putting less energy into each seed (smaller seeds)5. Shedding seeds from cones early, before young squirrels forage6. Periodic cone crop failures decimate squirrel populations

Individual trees out of synchrony would set fewer seeds and thusbe selected against.

Community and Ecosystem Ecology

Macrodescriptors = Aggregate Variables

Trophic structure, food webs, connectance, rates of energy fixation and flow, ecological

efficiency, species diversity, stability, relative importance curves,

guild structure, successional stages

Communities are not designed by natural selection

for smooth and efficient function, but arecomposed of many antagonists (we need toattempt to understand them in terms of

interactionsbetween individual organisms)

Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

Gross Productivity = rate at which plants capture

solar energy

Gross annual production (GAP)

Net productivity = gross productivity minus

respiration losses

Net annual production (NAP)

Respiration in tropical rainforest 75-80% of GAP

Respiration in temperate forests 50-75% of GAP

In most other communities, it is 25-50 % of GAP

Only about 5-10% of plant food is harvested by

animals

Remainder of NAP is consumed by decomposers

Biogeochemical cycles

Hydrologic Cycle

Biogeochemical Cycle for Calcium

CompartmentationTrophic Levels

Autotrophs = producers Heterotrophs = consumers &

decomposersPrimary carnivores = secondary

consumersSecondary carnivores = tertiary

consumersTrophic continuumHorizontal versus vertical

interactionsWithin and between trophic

levels

Guild StructureFoliage gleaning insectivorous

birds

Food WebsSubwebs, sink vs. source food

websConnectance [n (n-1)] / 2

Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

At equilibrium (di/dt = 0 for all i), energy

flow in the system portrayed in the figure may

thus be represented by a set of simple

equations (with inputs on the left and rate of

outflow to the right of the equal signs):

10 = 01 + 02 + 03 + 04

10 = 21 + 01 + 41

21 = 32 + 02 + 42

32 = 03 + 43

41 + 42 + 43 = 04

Systems Ecology

Food Web

Paine (1966)

Food Web

Bottom Line

Kirk Winemiller

Ecological Pyramids (numbers, biomass, and energy)

Pyramid of energy

Measures of standing crop versus rates of flow

Secondary Succession

Institute Woods in Princeton

Transition Matrix for Institute Woods in Princeton

_________________________________________________________________________Canopy Sapling Species (%)Species BTA GB SF BG SG WO OK HI TU RM BE Total __________________________________________________________________________

BT Aspen 3 5 9 6 6 - 2 4 2 60 3 104Gray birch - - 47 12 8 2 8 0 3 17 3 837Sassafras 3 1 10 3 6 3 10 12 - 37 15 68Blackgum 1 1 3 20 9 1 7 6 10 25 17 80Sweetgum - - 16 0 31 0 7 7 5 27 7 662White Oak - - 6 7 4 10 7 3 14 32 17 71Red Oak - - 2 11 7 6 8 8 8 33 17 266Hickory - - 1 3 1 3 13 4 9 49 17 223Tuliptree - - 2 4 4 - 11 7 9 29 34 81Red Maple - - 13 10 9 2 8 19 3 13 23 489Beech - - - 2 1 1 1 1 8 6 80 405__________________________________________________________________________BTA in next generation = 0.03 BTA + 0.03 SF + 0.01 BG . Grand Total = 3286

Henry Horn

Distributions of Trees Observed in 4 Forests and Predicted Climax__________________________________________________________________ __________________ Age (years) BTA GB SF BG SG WO OK HI TU RM BE __________________________________________________________________ __________________

25 0 49 2 7 18 0 3 0 0 20 1 65 26 6 0 45 0

0 12 1 4 6 0 150 - - 0 1 5

0 22 0 0 70 2 350 - - - 6 - 3 - 0 14 1 76

Predicted climax 0 0 2 3 4 2 4 6 6 10 63__________________________________________________________________ __________________

Data from theInstitute Woods in Princeton (Horn 1975)

Henry Horn

Diversity and Community Stability

Saturation with Individuals and with Species

Species Diversity = Biodiversity

Species Density or Species Richness

Relative Importance

Equitability

Janzen’s Seedling Ring HypothesisTamiasciurus squirrel seed predation

Community and Ecosystem EcologyMacrodescriptors = Aggregate Variables

Compartment models, trophic structure, food webs, connectance, rates of energy fixation and flow,

biogeochemical cycles, ecological energetics, ecological efficiency, trophic continuum, guild structure,

ecological pyramids, successional stages, transition matrix,

species diversity, stability, relative importance curves.

Diversity and Community Stability

Saturation with Individuals and with Species

Species Diversity = Biodiversity

Species Density or Species Richness

Relative Abundance/Importance

Equitability

Species Diversity, Relative Abundance

Species Site A Site B A 10 91 B 10 1 C 10 1 D 10 1 E 10 1 F 10 1 G 10 1 H 10 1 I 10

1 J 10

1

Relative Abundance / Importance

Ways two systems can differ in diversity

All 10 Sites: Total Number of lizards: 20,990

Total numbers of lizards of 67 species collected on 10 desert study sites from1966-2008 plotted against their ranks inrelative abundance. The 12 most common species (blue) are named, along with 7 of the 54 less common to rare species (red). Samples exceed 30 for 48 of the 67 species.

Discriminant function analysis showing clear separation of rare species based on 10 ecological variables including body size, clutch size, niche breadths and overlaps for diet, microhabitat, and habitat.