CONTENTS

Symbols, Prefixes and Abbreviations (Inside front cover and facing inside front cover)

Constants and Conversions (Facing inside back cover)

Gradient Divergence and Curl in Rectangular, Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates(lnside back cover)

Preface, xv

Chapter 1 Introduction 11-1 Introduction I

A Short History of Antennas1-2 Dimensions and Units 31-3 Fundamental and Secondary Units 31-4 How to Read the Symbols and Notation 41-5 Equation and Problem Numbering 61-6 Dimensional Analysis 61-7 The Electromagnetic Spectrurn; Radio-Frequency Bands 9References 10

Chapter 2 Antenna Basics 112-1 Introduction II2-2 Basic Antenna Parameters 122-3 Patterns 142-4 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle) nA 192-5 Radiation Intensity 222-6 Beam Efficiency 222-7 Directivity D and Gain G 232-8 Directivity and Resolution 262-9 Antenna Apertures 272-10 Effective Height 302-11 The Radio Communication Link 362-12 Fields from Oscillating Dipole 372-13 Antenna Field Zones 392-14 Shape-Irnpedance Considerations 402-15 Linear, Elliptical and Circular Polarization 442-16 Poynting Vector for Elliptically and Circularly Polarized Waves 472-17 The Polarization Ellipse and the Poincaré Sphere 47References 52Problems 52

iii

iv

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 5

Contents

The Antenna Family 573-1 Introduction 573-2 Loops, Dipoles and Slots 573-3 Opened-Out Coaxial-Line Antennas 603-4 Opened-Out 2-Conductor (Twin-Line) Antennas 613-5 Opened-Out Waveguide Antennas (Aperture Types) 623-6 Flat-Sheer Reflector Antennas 633-7 Parabolic Dish and Dielectric Lens Antennas 643-8 End-Fire Antennas 663-9 Broad Bandwidth Antennas: The Conical Spiral and the Log-Periodic 673-10 The Patch Antenna, Patch Array, and the Grid Array 67References 70Problems 70

Point Sources 724-1 Introduction. Point Source Defined 724-2 Power Pattems 734-3 A Power Theorem and Its Application to an lsotropic Source 754-4 Radiation Intensity 754-5 Examples of Power Patterns 764-6 Field Patterns 814-7 Phase Patterns 86Problems 88

Arrays of Point Sources, Part I 905-1 lntroduction 905-2 Arrays of Two Isotropic Point Sources 905-3 Nonisotropic but Similar Point Sources and the PrincipIe of Pattern MultipIication 985-4 Example of Pattern Synthesis by Pattern MuItiplication 1025-5 Nonisotropic and Dissimilar Point Sources 1065-6 Linear Arrays of n Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and Spacing 1095-7 Null Directions for Arrays of n Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude

and Spacing 116Problems 120

Arrays of Point Sources, Part II 1265-8 Linear Broadside Arrays with Nonuniform Amplitude Distributions. General

Considerations 1265-9 Linear Arrays with Nonuniform Amplitude Distributions. The Dolph-Tchebyscheff

Optimum Distribution 129

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Contents v

5-105-115-125-135-14

Example of Dolph-Tchebyscheff (D-T) Distribution for an Array of Eight Sources 137Comparison of Amplitude Distributions for Eight-Source Arrays 139Continuous Arrays 140Huygens' Principie 144Huygens' Principie Applied to the Diffraction of a Plane Wave Incident on a Flat Sheet.PhysicalOptics 147Rectangular-Area Broadside Arrays 150Arrays with Missing Sources and Random Arrays 152Broadside versus End-Fire Arrays. Turns versus Dipoles and Three-DimensionalArrays 154

5-18 Directions of Maxima for Arrays of n Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitudeand Spacing 159

References 162Problems 162

5-155-165-17

The Electric Dipole and Thin Linear Antennas 1656-1 The Short Electric Dipole 1656-2 The Fields of a Short Dipole 1666-3 Radiation Resistance of Short Electric Dipole 1756-4 The Thin Linear Antenna 1776-5 Radiation Resistance of À/2 Antenna 1816-6 Radiation Resistance at a Point Which is not a Current

Maximum 1826-7 Two Half-Wave Dipoles: Broadside and End-Fire

(The W8JK Array) 1836-8 Fields of a Thin Linear Antenna with a Uniforrn Traveling Wave 187References 193Problems 193

The Loop Antenna 1977-1 The Small Loop 1977-2 Comparison of Far Fields af Small Loop and Short Dipole 1997-3 The Loop Antenna. General Case 2007-4 Far-Field Patterns of Circular Loop Antennas with Uniform Current 2027-5 The Small Loop as a Special Case 2057-6 Radiation Resistance of Loops 2067-7 Directivity of Circular Loop Antennas with Uniform Current 209.7-8 Table of Loop Formulas 2127-9 Square Loops 2127-10 Radiation Efficiency, Q, Bandwidth and Signal-to-Noise Ratio 214References 220Problems 220

r vi

Chapter 8

Chapter 8

Contents

End-Fire Antennas: The Helical Beam Antenna andthe Yagi-Uda Array, Part I 2228-1 The Helical Beam Antenna Story by John Kraus 2228-2 Helical Geometry 2278-3 Practical Design Considerations for the Monofilar Axial-Mode

Helical Antenna 2318-4 Helical Beam Antenna with Loops Replacing the Ground Plane 2428-5 Dipole Arrays with Parasitic Elements 2428-6 The Yagi-Uda Array Story 246Problems 249

The Helical Antenna: Axial and Other Modes, Part 11 2508-78-8

Introduction 250Axial-Mode Pattems and the Phase Velocity of Wave Propagation on MonofilarHelices (Kraus-4) 251Monofilar Axial-Mode Single-Turn Pattems of Square Helix 258Complete Axial-Mode Pattems of Monofilar Helices 261Axial Ratio and Conditions for Circular Polarization of Monofilar Axial-Mode HelicalAntennas 263

8-12 Wideband Characteristics of Monofilar Helical Antennas Radiating in theAxial Mode 268

8-13 Table of Pattern, Bearnwidth, Gain, Impedance and Axial Ratio Formulas 2708-14 Radiation from Linear Periodic Structures with Traveling Waves with Particular Reference

to the Helix as a Periodic Structure Antenna 2718-15 Arrays of Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas 2808-16 The Monofilar Axial-Mode Helix as a Parasitic Element and Polarizer

(see Fig. 8-57) 2848-17 The Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antenna as a Phase and

Frequency Shifter 2858-18 Linear Polarization with Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas 2868-19 Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas as Feeds 2878-20 Tapered and Other Forms of Axial-Mode Helical Antennas 2898-21 Multifilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas 2918-22 Monofilar and Multifilar Normal-Mode Helical Antennas 2928-23 Axial-Mode Helix Terminations 2978-24 Antenna Rotation Experiments 2978-25 Bifilar and Quadrifilar Axial-Mode Helices 2998-26 Genetic AIgorithm Five-Segment Helix versus Circular Helix 299References 300Additional References on Helical Antennas 303Problems 303

8-98-108-11

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Contents vii

Slot, Patch and Hom Antennas 3049-1 Slot Antennas 3049-2 Patterns of Slot Antennas in Flat Sheets. Edge Diffraction 3079-3 Babinet's PrincipIe and Complementary Antennas 3119-4 The Impedance of Complementary Screens 3149-5 The Impedance of Slot Antennas 3179-6 Slotted Cylinder Antennas 3219-7 Patch or Microstrip Antennas 3229-8 Horn Antennas 3309-9 The Rectangular Horn Antenna 3339-10 Beamwidth Comparison 3389-11 Conical Horn Antennas 3399-12 Ridge Horns 3399-13 Septum Horns 3409-14 Corrugated Horns 3419-15 Aperture-Matched Horn 343References 344Problems 345

Flat Sheet, Comer and Parabolic Reflector Antennas 34710-1 lntroduction 34710-2 Flat Sheet Reflectors 34910-3 Corner Reflectors 35210-4 Passive (Retro) Corner Reflector 36410-5 The Parabola. General Properties 36510-6 A Comparison between Parabolic and Corner Reflectors 36710-7 The Paraboloidal Reflector 36810-8 Patterns of Large Circular Apertures with Uniform Illumination 372References 375Problems 375

Broadband and Frequency-Independent Antennas 37811-1 Broadband Basics 37811-2 lnfinite and Finite Biconical Antennas 38011-3 Directional Biconicals, Conicals, Disk Cones and Bow Ties 38211-4 The Frequency-Independent Concept: Rumsey's Principie 38611-5a The Illinois Story 38711-5b The Frequency-Independent Planar Log-Spiral Antenna 38711-6 The Frequency-Independent Conical-Spiral Antenna 39111-7 The Log-Periodic Antenna 39211-8 The Composite Yagi-Uda-Corner-Log-Periodic (YUCOLP) Array 399

viii

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Contents

References 399Problems 400

Antenna Temperature, Remote Sensing and Radar Cross Section 401

12-1 Antenna Temperature 40112-2 System Temperature 40912-3 SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) 41112-4 Passive Remote Sensing 41412-5 Radar and Radar Cross Section 417References 427Problems 427

Self and Mutual Impedances 43813-1 Introduction 43813-2 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas 43913-3 The 73-Q Radiation Resistance of a À/2 Antenna 44113-4 Radiation Resistance at a Point Which is Not a Current Maximum 44413-5 Self-Impedance of a Thin Linear Antenna 44613--6 Mutual Impedance of Two Parallel Linear Antennas 44813-7 MutualImpedance of Parallel Antennas Side-by-Side 45013-8 Mutual Impedance of Parallel Collinear Antennas 45413-9 Mutual lmpedance of Parallel Antennas in Echelon 45413-10 Mutual Tmpedance of Other Configurations 45513-11 Mutual Tmpedance in Terms of Directivity and Radiation Resistance 457References 459Problems 459

The Cylindrical Antenna and the Moment Method (MM) 46114-114-214-314-414-514-614-714-814-914-1014-1114-12

Introduction 461Outline of the Integral-Equation Method 462Current Distributions 463Input Impedance 465Patterns of Cylindrical Antennas 470The Thin Cylindrical Antenna 471Cylindrical Antennas with Conical Input Sections 472Antennas of Other Shapes. The Spheroidal Antenna 472Current Distributions on Long Cylindrical Antennas 473Integral Equations and the Moment Method (MM) in Electrostatics 477The Moment Method (MM) and Its Application to a Wire Antenna 482Self-Impedance, Radar Cross Section and Mutual Impedance of Short Dipolesby the Method of Moments by Edward H. Newman 490

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

Contents ix

References 499Problems 500

The Fourier Transform Relation between Aperture Distributionand Far-Field Pattem 50115-1 Continuous Aperture Distribution 50115-2 Fourier Transform Relations between the Far-Field Pattern and the Aperture

Distribution 50315-3 Spatial Frequency Response and Pattern Smoothing 50615-4 The Simple (Adding) Interferometer 50915-5 Aperture Synthesis and Multiaperture Arrays 51815-6 Grating Lobes 52015-7 Two-Dimensional Aperture Synthesis 52115-8 Phase Closure or Self-Calibration for "Clean" Maps 523References 526Problems 526

Arrays of Dipoles and of Apertures 52916-116-216-316-4

Introduction 529Array of Two Driven À/2 Elements. Broadside Case 530Array of2 Driven À/2 Elements. End-Fire Case 539Array of 2 Driven À/2 Elements. General Case with Equal Currents of Any PhaseRelation 544

16-5 Closely Spaced Elements, Radiating Efficiency and Q. The W8JK Array 54816-6 Array of n Driven Elements 55316-7 Horizontal Antennas above a Plane Ground 55516-8 Vertical Antennas above a Plane Ground 56616-9 Yagi-Uda Modifications 57016-10 Phased Arrays 57216-11 Frequency-Scanning Arrays 57616-12 Retroarrays. The Van Atta Array 58116-13 Adaptive Arrays and Smart Antennas 58216-14 Microstrip Arrays 58416-15 Low-Side-Lobe Arrays 58516-16 Long-Wire Antennas 58516-17 Curtain Arrays 59116-18 Location and Method of Feeding Antennas 59216-19 Folded Dipole Antennas 59316-20 Modifications of Folded Dipoles 59616-21 Argus Type AIl-Sky Surveillance Antennas 597References 599Additional References on Adaptive Arrays 601Problems 602

x

Chapter 17

Chapter 18

Chapter 19

Contents

Lens Antennas 60717-1 Introduction 60717-2 Nonmetallic Dielectric Lens Antennas. Ferrnat's Principie

(Equality of Path Length) 60917-3 Artificial Dielectric Lens Antennas 61617-4 E-Plane Metal-P1ate Lens Antennas 61917-5 Tolerances on Lens Antennas 62517-6 H-Plane Metal-Plate Lens Antennas 62717-7 Reftector-Lens Antenna 62817-8 Polyrods 62917-9 Multiple-Helix Lenses 63117-10 Luneburg and Einstein Lenses 632References 634Problems 635

Frequency-Selective Surfaces and Periodic StructuresBy Ben A. Munk 63618-1 Introduction. Definition of FSS 63618-2 The Halfwave Dielectric Radome 63818-3 Slotted Metal Radome 63918-4 The Simple Hybrid Radome 64118-5 The Ideal Stealth Radome 64218-6 Transmission and Reftection Properties of Simple Periodic Surfaces of Wires 64218-7 Complementary Surfaces and Babinet's PrincipIe 64618-8 Oblique Angle of Incidence 64618-9 On the Shape and Development of Elements 64718-10 Controlling Bandwidth with Angle of Incidence and Polarization 65118-11 Other Applications 654References 658Problems 659

Practical Design Considerations of Large Aperture Antennas 66019-1 Aperture Distributions and Efficiencies 66019-2 Surface Irregularities and Gain Loss 67319-3 Off-Axis Operation of Parabolic Reftectors 67819-4 Cassegrain Feed, Shaped Reftectors, Spherical Reftectors and Offset Feed 68019-5 Low-Side-Lobe Considerations 684References 687Additional References for Further Reading 688Problems 689

Chapter 20

Chapter 21

Contents xi

Some Examples ofLarge or Uni que Antennas 691Bonn 691Arecibo 691BeJl Telephone Laboratories 694Nobeyama 695Ohio 696Gorki 698Five CoJlege Observatory 699Nancay 701RATAN-600 701Parkes 702Manchester 702VLA 702Nauen 703Green Bank 705References 707

Antennas for Special Applications 70821-121-221-321-421-521-621-721-821-921-1021-1121-1221-1321-1421-1521-1621-1721-1821-1921-2021-2121-2221-2321-2421-25

lntroduction 708Electrically SmaJl Antennas 709Physically Small Antennas 712Antenna Siting and the Effect of Typical (lmperfect) Ground 713Ground-Plane Antennas 719Sleeve Antennas 721Turnstile Antenna 722Superturnstile Antenna 724Other Omnidirectional Antennas 726Circularly Polarized Antennas 727The High-Gain Omni 729Submerged Antennas 729Surface-Wave and Leaky-Wave Antennas 734Antenna Design Considerations for Satellite Communication 742Receiving versus Transmitting Considerations 746Bandwidth Considerations 748Architecturally Acceptable Antennas 748ILS (lnstrument Landing System) Antennas 750The "Sugar Scoop Antenna" and the 3K Cosmic Sky Background Story 755LEO SateJlite Link Antennas 760Asteroid Detection Antenna 769Leaky Transmission Lines as Antennas 771Artistic Antennas (Fractals) 772Cell-Tower trees 772Antennas for Terrestrial Mobile Communications Systems by Pertti Vainikainen 775

xii

Chapter 22

Chapter 23

Chapter 24

Contents

21-26 Antennas for Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Pulse Bandwidth 78121-27 Embedded Antennas 78421-28 Ultra- Wide-Band (UWB) Antennas for Digital Applications 78521-29 The Plasma Antenna 788References 789Problems 792

Terahertz Antennas 79622-1 lntroduction 79622-2a Pyramidal Hom Cavity with Dipole 79722-2b Comer Reflector Array 79822-2c Bow- Tie Dipole 79822-3 A 600-THz Antenna? 79822-4 Planar Antenna Structures on Dielectric Lenses 79922-5 THz Waveguide Structures 800References 802

Baluns, etc. By Ben A. Munk 80323-1 lntroduction 80323-2 Balun Types I, II and III and Choke Baluns 80323-3 Bandwidth 80623-4a Sleeve-Dipole Baluns 80823-4b Modifications 80823-5 Mast Balun 81023--6 Printed Baluns 81023-7 The }"/2 Bypass Balun 81323-8 BaJanced Transformer 81523-9 Cutaway Baluns 81823-10 Natural Baluns 82123-11 Folded Dipole to J-Match 82223-12 Matching Stubs 82323-13 Traps 82323-14 Conclusion 824References 825AdditionaJ References 825Problems 825

Antenna Measurements. By Arto Lehto and Pertti Vainikainen 82724-1 lntroduction 82724-2 Basic Concepts 82824-3 Typical Sources of Error in Antenna Measurements 835

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Appendix E

Appendix F

Contents xiii

24-4 Measurement Ranges 83824-5 Measurement of Different Antenna Parameters 85424-6 Miscellaneous Topics 873References 883Problems 885

TabIes for References 888A-I Table of Antena and Antenna System Relations 888A-2 Formulas for Input Impedance of Terminated Transmission Lines 890A-3 Reftection and Transmission Coefficients and VSWR 891A-4 Characteristic Impedance of Coaxial, 2-Wire and MicroStrip Transmission Lines 891A-5 Characteristic Impedance of Transmission Lines in Terms of Distributed Parameters 892A-6 Material Constants (Permittivity, Conductivity and Dielectric Strength) 893A-7 Permittivity Relations 894A-8 Maxwell's Equations 894

Books, Tapes and Artic1es 896B-I Books 896B-2 Video Tapes 899B-3 Selected Articles for Further Reading 900

Computer Programs (Codes) 904C-I Introduction 904C-2 Software Modeling Philosophy 905C-3 Codes Illustrating Results in Antennas 906C-4 Expert MININEC for Students 907C-5 Other Useful Codes 907References 907References for Further Reading on Antenna Computer Simulation 908

Absorbing Materials 909References 913

Measurement Error 914

Answers to Starred Problems 915

lndex 921