embryology 1 : the genetics of anterior-posterior axis determination
DESCRIPTION
Embryology 1 : The Genetics of Anterior-Posterior Axis Determination. Major Axes in Body Plan Development. Embryos develop three axes: the anterior-posterior axis (from head to tail), the dorsal-ventral axis (from back to belly) and the right-left axis - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Embryology 1 :The Genetics of Anterior-
Posterior Axis Determination
Embryos develop three axes: the anterior-Embryos develop three axes: the anterior-posterior axis (from head to tail), the posterior axis (from head to tail), the dorsal-ventral axis (from back to belly) dorsal-ventral axis (from back to belly) and the right-left axisand the right-left axis
Structures show a specific localization Structures show a specific localization (neural tube is a dorsal structure in the (neural tube is a dorsal structure in the embryo and the heart is on the left side of embryo and the heart is on the left side of an adult body)an adult body)
The specification of axes occurs The specification of axes occurs early early during embryonic developmentduring embryonic development
Major Axes in Body Plan Development
The specification of early embryonic cells is The specification of early embryonic cells is due to cytoplasmic determinants stored in due to cytoplasmic determinants stored in the oocytethe oocyte
The cell membranes that form during The cell membranes that form during cleavage establish the region of cytoplasmic cleavage establish the region of cytoplasmic determinants that direct different gene determinants that direct different gene expression in every blastomereexpression in every blastomere
Major Axes in Body Plan Development
DrosophilaDrosophila is easy to breed, cheap to rear is easy to breed, cheap to rear in the labin the lab
It is hardy and prolific (genetic studies are It is hardy and prolific (genetic studies are possible)possible)
A genome-wide approach has identified A genome-wide approach has identified the molecules for body plan developmentthe molecules for body plan development
Drosophila as a Model for Molecular Embryology
A/P Polarity in the Adult
■ The body comprises three thoracic and eight abdominal segments
■ Every segment is specific and has different appendages: T1 has only legs, T2 legs and wings, T3 legs and halteres
■ The body is organized accordingly to a “plan”
Drosophila Early Embryonic Development
■ The zygotic nucleus divides several times without formation of cell membranes■ The specification of the A/P and D/V axes is accomplished by interaction of molecules in the same single multinucleated cell
How do we get from an homogenous egg to a body that is a collection
of different segments?
The Question
The determination of the A/P axis is due The determination of the A/P axis is due to a cascade of interacting genesto a cascade of interacting genes
These genes act sequentially to first These genes act sequentially to first divide the embryo in several segmentsdivide the embryo in several segments
Segments acquire then their specific Segments acquire then their specific identityidentity
General Principles
Cascade of Genes Determining A/P AxisMaternal genes
Hunchback
Gap genes
Pair-rule
Segment polarity Homeotic genes
Bicoid and Hunchback at the Anterior TipOvary
Nurse Cells
Oocyte
Bicoid mRNA
Bicoid Protein
Embryo
A P
In the mother ovary the bicoid mRNA produced by accessory cells, the nurse cells, is deposited in the oocyte and it is tethered to the anterior tip by microtubules
The bicoid mRNA is translated into the corresponding protein which forms a gradient with the highest concentration at the anterior tip
The same gradient is also created for hunchback, another anterior determinant
Nanos and Caudal at the Posterior End
A P
Nanos protein
Similarly, nanos mRNA is given to the egg by the mother and it is bound to the posterior region of the unfertilized egg by interaction with the cytoskeletonA gradient for the corresponding protein is created as reported in the picture, with the highest concentration at the posterior endA similar gradient is also created for Caudal
Early A/P Determinants
Four gradients are present: an A/P gradient for Bicoid and Hunchback and a P/A gradient for Nanos a Caudal
All these proteins function as transcription factors that can activate the expression of the following genes in the cascade, the gap genes
Positional information has been Positional information has been generated: the presence of Bicoid and generated: the presence of Bicoid and Hunchback “label” the anterior end, Hunchback “label” the anterior end, Nanos and Caudal the posterior oneNanos and Caudal the posterior one
Embryos defective (mutant) for Bicoid Embryos defective (mutant) for Bicoid lack the anterior structures while lack the anterior structures while embryos mutant for Nanos lack the embryos mutant for Nanos lack the posterior partposterior part
Summary
THE GAP GENES
■The Gap Genes are expressed into broad regions of the embryo
■ Mutations in the gap genes produce embryos lacking a series of contiguous segments corresponding to the segments where the gap gene is expressed
giant
Kruppel
Knirps
How do we get from an embryo with smooth gradient of proteins to an embryo characterized
by proteins expressed in broad stripes?
The Question
Regulation of Gap Gene Expression
Stripe I requires high level of Hb protein
Stripe II requires high level of Caudal
Kr requires low levels of Hb
Stripe II requires low levels of Caudal
II
I II
The Pair-Rule Genes
The pair rule genes are expressed in a zebra-like pattern dividing the embryo in 15 sub-regions where a vertical band of nuclei express the gene and the next one does not
The stripe 2 of eve is repressed by both high levels of giant and Kruppel
Stripe 2
Even-skipped
The expression of eve stripe II is limited to the “valley” region between high levels of giant and Kruppel proteins since both are repressors
Bicoid and Hunchback activates the expression of eve in the same stripe
Regulation of eve stripe 2
We are half-the way done!
Drosophila Early Embryonic Development
■ The zygotic nucleus divides several times without formation of cell membranes■ The specification of the A/P and D/V axes is accomplished by interaction of molecules in the same single multinucleated cell
The Segment Polarity Genes
■ The segment polarity genes reinforce and maintain the periodicity generated by the pair-rule genes
■ They are expressed in 14 stripes along the A/P axis ■ Their expression is regulated by the pair-rule genes
Regulation of Segm-Polarity by Eve, Ftz
Fushi-tarazu (Ftz) and even-skipped (eve) are expressed in close, non overlapping regionsHigh levels of Ftz and Eve induce the expression of engrailed (en), a Segment-polarity gene expressed in 14 stripesConversely Eve and Ftz inhibit wingless (wg). The expression of wg will be confined in stripes running between the expression of Ftz and Eve where there is no Ftz or Eve
Maintenance of en and wg Expression by Reciprocal Interaction
Wg is a secreted protein. It binds to wg receptor on the adjacent en cells and it activates en.
En is a transcription factor and it activates the expression of hedgehog (Hh).
Hh is a secreted protein that binds to its own receptor on wg expressing cells and it activates the expression of wg.
En and wg establish a polarity in every segment
Homeotic genes
Colinearity between the position of the gene on the chromosome and the sequence of the segment they specify: Scr specifies T1 and precedes on the chromosome Antp that specifies T2Every homeotic gene represses the expression of the previous gene in the segment they specify. Ubx identifies T3 and represses Antp in T3
When Something Goes Wrong…
In Ubx mutants T3 becomes T2Ectopic expression of Antp in the head induces the formation of legs attached to the head
Normal fly head
Extra legs
Mammals and Drosophila
Every homeotic gene in Drosophila has its homolog in mammals (Scr corresponds to a5, b5 and c5 but the three genes in mammals have the same function as Scr in Drosophila)
Colinearity is also seen in mammals (panel B)
When Something Goes Wrong…
Lumbar vertebra
Thoracic vertebra
Extra rib
The function of Homeotic genes in mammals is the same as in flies: the KO of Hoxc8 in mouse causes an homeotic transformation: the first lumbar vertebra becomes a rib. A rib is associated with the thoracic vertebra anterior to it
RA can become a teratogen if present in large RA can become a teratogen if present in large amounts or at particular times during amounts or at particular times during developmentdevelopment
It is a secreted molecule involved in A/P axis It is a secreted molecule involved in A/P axis formation in mammals and in forming the jawsformation in mammals and in forming the jaws
It affects Hox gene expression in A/P axis It affects Hox gene expression in A/P axis determination and it inhibits neural crest cell determination and it inhibits neural crest cell migration from the cranial region of the neural migration from the cranial region of the neural tubetube
Retinoic acid as a teratogen
The role of cell-adhesion molecules in creating boundaries
between tissues
Cells do not sort randomly
Cells from the neural plate and from the epidermis were dissociated in alkaline solution. When cells were mixed together, they re-aggregated and they became spatially segregated: the neural cells are inside while the epidermal cells stay at the periphery
Boundaries between tissues can be created Boundaries between tissues can be created by different cell types having both different by different cell types having both different types and different amounts of cell-adhesion types and different amounts of cell-adhesion moleculesmolecules
The most common cell-adhesion molecules The most common cell-adhesion molecules are cadherinsare cadherins
Cadherins establish and maintain Cadherins establish and maintain intercellular connections and they are crucial intercellular connections and they are crucial in the spatial segregation of cell typesin the spatial segregation of cell types
How boundaries between tissues are established
Cadherins
Cadherins are Ca-dependent adhesion molecules
They are anchored to the cell by a complex of proteins called catenins
Catenins interact with actin cytoskeletonThey have an adhesive recognition site to bind to similar cadherins
Cadherins join cells together by binding to the same type of cadherins on another cell (homophilic interaction)
Cadherins
Cells with E-cadherins (Epidermal cells) stick together and they will sort out from cells containing N-cadherins (Neural Cells) in their membranes
Cadherins during gastrulation
During gastrulation the presumptive neural tube expresses N-cadherins while the presumptive epidermis expresses E-cadherins
These tissues separate: the cells expressing N-cadherins invaginate to form the neural tube while the cells expressing E-cadherins will form the epidermis
If the epidermis is experimentally manipulated to inactivate the E-cadherins the cells will not hold together. If the N-cadherins are inactivated in the cells of the presumptive neural tube, the neural tube will not form
EM consists of macromolecules secreted EM consists of macromolecules secreted by cells into their immediate environmentby cells into their immediate environment
Cell adhesion and cell migration is Cell adhesion and cell migration is mediated by the EMmediated by the EM
EM is made up of proteoglycans, collagen EM is made up of proteoglycans, collagen and specialized glycoproteins such as and specialized glycoproteins such as fibronectin and laminin fibronectin and laminin
The Extracellular Matrix as a Source of Developmental Signals
FN functions as an adhesion molecule linking FN functions as an adhesion molecule linking cells to one another or to other molecules cells to one another or to other molecules (collagen and proteoglycans)(collagen and proteoglycans)
FN has an important role in cell migrationFN has an important role in cell migration The roads over which migrating cells travel are The roads over which migrating cells travel are
paved with FNpaved with FN FN leads germs cells to the gonads and heart FN leads germs cells to the gonads and heart
cells to the midline of the embryocells to the midline of the embryo Cells expressing integrins can bind adhesion Cells expressing integrins can bind adhesion
moleculesmolecules
Fibronectin
INTEGRINSOn the extracellular side integrins bind to the sequence Arg-Gly-Asp found in adhesion molecules including fibronectins
On the intracellular side they bind Vinculin and a-Actinin, these proteins bind to Actin filaments
This dual binding allow cells to move by contracting Actin filaments against the EM