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ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (Subject Code - 2110004)

L- Lectures; P- Practical; C- Credit; ESE- End Semester Examination; PA- Progressive Assessment

Passing marks for ESE (E) will be 23 out of 70.Passing marks for PA (M) will be 12 out of 30.Passing marks for ESE Practical (V) will be 15 out of 30.Passing marks for PA (I) will be 10 out of 20.

Teaching Scheme Credits Examination Marks Total

L P C Theory Marks Practical Marks Marks

ESE PA ESE PA

(E) (M) Viva (V) (I)

4 2 6 70 30* 30# 20** 150

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Branches of Civil Engineering1. Surveying

2. Construction Engineering

3. Transportation Engineering

4. Fluid Mechanics

5. Irrigation Engineering

6. Structural Engineering

7. Geotechnical Engineer

8. Foundation Engineering

9. Environmental Engineering

10. Quantity Surveying

11. Earthquake Engineering, etc.,

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Definition of SurveyingSurveying is one of the basic area in civil

engineering which includes linear and angular measurement of the relative positions of the points on the surface of the earth.

Or

Surveying is the art and science of determining the relative positions of various points or stations on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances, angles and taking the details of these points and by preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale.

Thus, in surveying, the measurements are taken in the horizontal and vertical planes.

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Fundamental principles of surveying

1. To work from whole to part

2. To fix or to locate a new point or station by at least two independent measurements or processes

whole to part part to whole

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Second Principle of Surveying• To fix or to locate a new point or station by at

least two independent measurements or processes

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Aims of Surveying Or Purposes of Surveying Or Objects of Surveying

• To prepare a map or plan to show the relative positions of the objects on the surface of the earth.

• To fix the boundaries of districts, states and countries.

• To Determine areas and volumes.• To layout or to mark the positions of the

proposed structures on the ground. e.g. Building, Canal, Roads, Dams, Railway, Airports, etc.,

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Applications of surveying Or Uses of Surveying

• To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages, towns etc.,

• To Prepare a Cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and other properties.

• To prepare contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the best possible site for dam, canals, buildings, roads, railways, bridges etc.,

• Military survey is used for determining points of strategic importance, etc.,

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Plan and Map

1.The graphical representation is called a plan if the scale is large.

2.A plan is drawn on a large scale.

3.Scale 1 cm = 10 m or < 10 m4.On a plan, generally horizontal

distances and directions are shown.

5.A plan is drawn for small area.e.g. – plan of house

– plan of bridge

Plan Map1.The graphical representation is

called a map if the scale is small.

2.A map is drawn on a small scale.

3. Scale 1 cm = 100 m or > 100 m4.On a topographic map, vertical

distances (Elevations) are also shown by contour lines.

5.A map is drawn for large area. e.g. – map of Gujarat – map of India

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Primary Divisions of Surveying

• 1. Plane Surveying• 2. Geodetic Surveying

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Differentiate between Plane surveying and Geodetic Surveying

1.The earth surface is considered as a plane surface,

i.e. curvature of the earth is ignored.

2.This survey is done for smaller area less than 250 Km2 (< 250 Km2 )

3.Comparetively low accuracy required.

4.The line joining any two stations is considered to be straight.

5.The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a plane.

6.This Survey is not carried out by the survey of India department.

Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying1.The earth surface is considered as

a curved surface, i.e. curvature of the earth is

considered.2.This survey is done for large area

greater than 250 Km2 (>250 Km2)3.High accuracy required.

4.The line joining any two stations is considered as a curved line.

5.The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a spherical.

6.This Survey is carried out by the survey of India department.

Classification of Surveying

Based on…………• Based on instruments• Based on Purpose (Object)• Based on method• Based on Nature of field• Based on Primary Divisions

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Classification of Surveying Based on instruments

1. Chain Survey2. Compass Survey3. Chain and Compass Survey4. Plane Table Survey5. Theodolite Survey6. Tacheometry Survey7. Levelling Survey8. Photographic and aerial Survey9. EDM Survey10.Remote Sensing 12

Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose (Object)

1. Geological Survey2. Mine Survey3. Archaeological Survey4. Military Survey5. Control Survey6. Topographical Survey7. Cadastral Survey8. Route Survey9. Engineering Survey10.Construction Survey 13

Classification of Surveying Based on method1. Triangulation Surveying – The entire area is divided into a network

of triangles2. Traversing – A traverse is a circuit of survey lines. It

may be opened or closed. When the linear measurements are done with a chain & a tape and the directions or horizontal angles are measured with a compass or a theodolite respectively is called traversing. 14

Classification of Surveying Based on Nature of field

1. Land Survey2. Hydrographic Survey3. Astronomic Survey4. Arial Survey

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Classification of Surveying Based on Primary Divisions

• 1. Plane Surveying• 2. Geodetic Surveying

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R.F. (Representative Fraction)

R.F. =

Example : Scale is 1 cm = 5 m find R.F. ?

R.F. (Representative Fraction) =

.˙. R.F. = 1 : 500

= =

Distance on Plan or Map Corresponding Distance on Ground

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Examples

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An area of 58 cm2 of a map represents an area of 4698 m2 what is R.F. ?

Solution: 58 cm2 = 4698 m2

R.F. (Representative Fraction) =

.˙. R.F. = 1 : 900

=

=

.˙. 1 cm2 = 4698 / 58 m2

.˙. 1 cm = 81 m.˙. 1 cm = 9 m

1 cm 9 m

1 cm900 cm

1 900

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1 hectares = ____________ m210,000

1 acre = ____________ m24046.94

1 mile = ____________ km1.6093

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A plan represents an area of 7.5 Hectares and measures 3 cm x 5 cm, Find the scale of the map and R.F. Solution: 7.5 Hectares = (3 x 5) cm2

R.F. (Representative Fraction) =

.˙. R.F. = 1 : 7071=

=

.˙. 7.5 x 10000 m2 = 15 cm2

.˙. 1 cm = 5000 m2

.˙. 15 cm2 = 75000 m2

1 cm 70.71 m

1 cm7071 cm 1

7071

Now, 1 hectares = ____________ m210,000

.˙. 1 cm2 = ____________ m2 5000

.˙. Scale 1 cm = ____________ m 70.71

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Scale :• Scale is the basic requirement for the

preparation of Plans or Maps.• Scale is used to represent large distance on

paper.• If the scale of the Map is 1 cm = 10 m it means

that 1 cm on paper represents 10 m on the ground.

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Types of Scale :

1. Plain Scale2. Diagonal Scale3. Chord Scale4. Vernier Scale

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Example : 1 • Construct a Plain Scale of R.F. 1/500 to

measure up to a meter and represent 37 m on the scale.

R.F. = 1500

.˙. 1 cm = 500 cm.˙. 1 cm = 5 m

.˙. 5 m 1 cm 10 m ? = 2 cm

.˙. Draw 2 cm = 10 mThen, 2 cm Divide in 10 Divisions .˙. 2 mm = 1 m Then, Draw figure….

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Example : 2 • Construct a Plain Scale 1 cm = 2 m and show

on it 12 m.Solution :

2 m 1 cm 10 m ? = 5 cm

.˙. Draw 5 cm = 10 mThen, 5 cm Divide in 10 Divisions .˙. 5 mm = 1 mThen, Draw figure………

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Example : 3 • Construct a Diagonal Scale 1 cm = 5 m and

show on it 45.3 m.Solution :

5 m 1 cm 10 m ? = 2 cm

.˙. Draw 2 cm = 10 mThen, 2 cm Divide in 10 Divisions .˙. 2 mm = 1 mThen, Draw figure………

Plain Scale:• A Plain scale is one on which it is possible to

measure two dimensions only. • For Example,

Meters and Decimeters,

(1 m and 0.1 m)

Hundreds and Tenths,

(100 and 10)

Units and Tenths, etc.,

(1 and 10)

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Diagonal Scale:• A Diagonal scale is one on which it is

possible to measure three dimensions.• For Example,

Meters, Decimeters and Centimeters

(1 m, 0.1 m and 0.01 m)

Units, Tenths and Hundreds

(1, 10 and 100)

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Classification of Scale:

• Large Scale :

1 cm = 10 m or Less than 10 m (< 10 m)

• Medium Scale :

1 cm = 10 m to 100 m

• Small Scale :

1 cm = 100 m or more than 100 m (> 100 m)29

Linear measurements• Linear Measurements are carried out for

finding out measurements in horizontal plane.

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Methods :1. Direct methods

2. Optical methods

3. E.D.M. methods

(E.D.M = Electromagnetic Distance Measuring instrument )

Or (Method Based on Electronics)

In Methods of Direct Measurements

• Chaining

– Chaining is used to measure horizontal distance either by a chain or a tape.

Instruments Used in Chaining 1. Chain or Tape

2. Arrows

3. Pegs

4. Ranging Rods

5. Plumb Bob31

32Fig. Arrow

Types of Tapes :1. Cloth Tape

2. Fiber Glass Tape

3. Metallic Tape

4. Steel Tape

5. Invar Tape Invar Tape :

– 36 % Nickel & 64 % Steel.

– It is not affected by change of Temperature.

– It is Very Accurate. 33

Operations in Chain Surveying

1.Chaining

2.Ranging

3.Offsetting

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1. Chaining

A. Chaining on Level Ground

B. Chaining on Sloping Ground

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A. Chaining on Level Ground1. Fixing the Stations

2. Unfolding the Chain

3. Ranging

4. Measuring the distance (Survey Lines)

5. Folding the Chain

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B. Chaining on Sloping Ground1. Direct Method

2. Indirect Method – 1) Method – I

2) Method – II, etc.,

• The Process of locating or establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two survey stations or between the two fixed points in the field is known as Ranging.

Or• The Process of establishing intermediate points

on a straight line between two survey stations in the field is known as Ranging.

Or

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2. Ranging :

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Or• If the distance to be measured between two

survey stations is less than one chain then the distance can be measured directly, but if the length of the survey line is greater than one chain length, intermediate points are to be located, in order that the chain is pulled along a straight line.

The Method of locating or establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two survey stations or between the two fixed points in the field is known as Ranging.

2. Ranging

A. Direct Ranging

B. Indirect Ranging

Or

Reciprocal Ranging

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A. Direct Ranging

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B. Indirect Ranging Or Reciprocal Ranging

Fig…..

i. Ranging by eye

ii. Ranging by line Ranger

Fig……

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43Ranging by eye

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Line Ranger

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Indirect Ranging Or Reciprocal Ranging

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A. Perpendicular OffsetsB. Oblique OffsetsC. Long OffsetsD. Short OffsetsE. Swing Offsets

3. Offsetting or Offset :• Distances are measured from the survey

lines to the object right or left of the survey line are called as offsets.

– Offset taken by Swinging tape is called swing offset. It is one kind of Perpendicular Offset.

≥ 15 m < 15 m

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Fig. Perpendicular - Offset-by-Swinging

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1. Optical Square

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2. Prism Square3. Cross Staff

i. Round Optical Square

ii. Indian Optical Square

Instruments used for laying offsets :

i. Open Cross Staff

ii. French Cross Staff

iii. Simple Cross Staff (Wooden)

iv. Adjustable Cross Staff

52Round Optical Square Or Optical-Square-Circular

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Indian Optical Square

54• Fig. Prism Square

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Open Cross Staff

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Open Cross Staff

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Open Cross Staff with Rod

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French Cross Staff

45° and 90°

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Simple Cross Staff (Wooden)

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Simple Cross Staff (Wooden)

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Simple Cross Staff (Wooden) with Stand

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Adjustable Cross Staff

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Main Line, Base Line Check Line & Tie Line

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Selection of Survey StationsThe Following points should be considered while selecting survey stations.

1. The station should be intervisible.

2. Survey lines should be minimum as far as possible.

3. Station should form well conditioned triangles.

– (Interior angles not less than 30° and not more than 120°)

4. Station point should be located that tie lines, check lines, base line, etc. can be formed.

5. Station points should be selected within the boundary of the area to be surveyed.

6. The survey lines should be taken through fairly level ground as far as practicable.

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