Elements of Good Writing

1. Communicate clearly and effectivelya. Having something to say and clear thinking to have a logical flow

2. Elegant and Stylisha. Takes time, comes through revision and requires a good editor

Characteristics of a Good Writer

1. Having something to say.2. Logical and clear thinking.3. A few simple, learnable rules of style

Good writing can be learned and improved through practicing

How to Improve

1. Read, pay attention and imitatea. Observe how professional writers write, their techniques, styles and etcb. Write in a journal to practice writing skills.c. Talk about what you want to write before you write it.d. Try to engage your readers – try not to bore them.

2. Stop Waiting for Inspirationa. Just start writing, stop procrastinatingb. Accept that writing is hard for everyonec. Revise! Nobody gets it perfect on the first tryd. Learn how to cut ruthlessly. Never become attached to your words.

3. Find a good editor!

4. Take risks and be creative

e. Find your own voice in your writing, be funny or provocative.f. Things such as hyphens and using I or We can make writing more appealing

Examples of What to Avoid

Ask Yourself

Is this sentence easy to understand? Is this sentence enjoyable and interesting to read?Is this sentence readable?Is it written to inform or to obscure?

Academic Writing

Verbs become jargons and clunky nouns.

Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) immunotherapy is based on the ex vivo selection of tumor-relative lymphocytes, and their activation and numerical expression before reinfusion to the autologous tumor-bearing host.

Verbs drive sentences along and Nouns slow them down

These finding imply that the rates of ascorbate radical production and its recycling via dehydroascorbate reductatse to replenish the ascorbate pool are equivalent at the lower irradiance, but not equivalent at higher irradiance with the rate of ascorbate radical production exceeding its recycling back to ascorbate.

Removing extra words, reorganizing using logic, and replacing nouns with verbs:

These findings imply that, at low irradiation, ascorbate radicals are produced and recycled at the same rate, but at high irradiation, they are produced faster than they can be recycled back to ascorbate.

Complex ideas don’t require complex languageWriting should be easy and even enjoyable

Principles of Effective Writing

Dysregulation of physiologic microRNA (miR) activity has been shown to play an important role in tumor initiation and progression, including gliomagenesis. Therefore, molecular species that can regulate miR activity on their target RNAs without affecting the expression of relevant mature miRs may play equally relevant roles in cancer.

The use of nouns instead of verbsThe use of vague words, have no purpose and or meaningThe use of jargon and acronyms

Bad Traits of the Passage

1. Micro RNA (RNA is already an acronym)

Though convenient, many acronyms are invented by authors but prove difficult to understand for readers. Acronyms should only be used if they are well known and already used in the field, basically, if they are standard.

2. The passage also uses a passive voice

(has been shown)

English Language NormSubject – Verb – Object

She throws the ball

Passive Voice (Awkward)Object – Verb – Subject

The ball was thrown by her

3. Distancing between the subject and the main verb

“Therefore, molecular species that can regulate miR activity on their target RNAs without affecting the expression of relevant mature miRs may play equally relevant roles in cancer.”

The changes are applied and the passage is transformed

Dysregulation of physiologic microRNA (miR) activity has been shown to play an important role in tumor initiation and progression, including gliomagenesis. Therefore, molecular species that can regulate miR activity on their target RNAs without affecting the expression of relevant mature miRs may play equally relevant roles in cancer.

Changes in microRNA expression play a role in cancer, including glioma. Therefore, events that disrupt microRNAs from binding to their target RNAs may also promote cancer.

Overview:1. Cutting unnecessary words and phrases2. Using an active voice3. Writing with verbs: use strong verbs; avoid turning verbs into nouns and distancing.

“The secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest components. Every word that serves no function, every long word that could be a short word, every adverb that carries the same meaning that’s already in the verb, every passive construction that leaves the reader unsure of who is doing what-these are the thousand and one adulterants that weaken the strength of a sentence. And they usually occur in proportion to the education and rank.”

-William Zinsser in On Writing Well, 1976

Example Sentence 1

This paper provides a review of the basic tenets of cancer biology study design, using as examples studies that illustrate the methodological challenges or that demonstrate successful solutions to the difficulties inherent in biological research.

Only important words should be kept

This paper reviews cancer biology study design, using examples that illustrate the challenges and solutions.

Example Sentence 2As it is well known, increased athletic activity has been related to a profile of lower

cardiovascular risk, lower blood pressure levels, and improved muscular and cardio-respiratory performance.

Cutting out the unnecessary introductions and avoiding passive voice

Increased athletic activity is associated with lower cardiovascular, lower blood pressure and improved fitness.

Example 3

The experimental demonstration is the first of its kind and is a proof of principle for the concept of laser driven particle acceleration in a structure loaded vacuum.

Avoiding repetition and passive voice

The experiment provides the first proof of principle of laser-driven of laser driven particle acceleration in a structure-loaded vacuum.

Cut Unnecessary Words

Be vigilant and ruthless

After investing much effort to put words on a page, we often become reluctant in removing them. Yet, we must fight their seductive pull. Try the sentence without the extra words and compare them. The new sentence should convey the same idea with more power.

Thanks to the modern day undo, if you don’t like the new sentence you can always ctrl z.

Example Sentence 1

Brain injury incidence shows two peak periods in almost all reports: rates are the highest in young people and the elderly.

The sentence is transformed and becomes and more powerful

Brain injury incidence peaks in the young and the elderly.

Common Clutter:

1. Dead weight words and phrases 2. Empty words and phrasesa. As it is well known a. Basics tenets of b. As it has been shown b. Methodologicalc. It can be regarded that c. Importantd. It should be emphasized that

3. Long words or phrases that could be shortMuscular an cardiovascular performance = fitness

4. Unnecessary jargon and acronymse. Avoid acronyms unless they are standard and well known.

5. Repetitive words or phrasesf. Studies/example c. challenges/difficultiesg. Illustrate/demonstrate d. successful solutions

6. Adverbsh. Very, really quite, basically, generally, etc.i. Avoid useless adverbs, they have no purpose.

Long words and phrases that could be short

Wordy version Crisp version

A majority of mostA number of manyAre of the same opinion agreeLess frequently occurring rareAll three of the the threeGive rise to causeDue to the fact that becauseHave an effect on affect

Practice Sentence

The expected prevalence of mental retardation, based on the assumption that intelligence is normally distributed is about 2.5%.

The expected prevalence of mental retardation, if intelligence is normally distributed, is 2.5%.

Repetitive words or clauses

Example

A robust cell-mediated immune response is necessary, and deficiency in this response predisposes an individual towards active TB.

Deficiency in T –cell-mediated immune response predisposes an individual to active TB.

“I have only made this letter rather long because I have not had the time to make it shorter.”Je n’ai fait celle-ci plus longue que parceque je n’ai pas eu le losisir de la faire plus courte. --Lettres Provinciales, 16, Dec.14, 1656

Other TipsEliminate negativesEliminate superfluous uses of “there are/there is”Omit needless prepositions

Eliminate Negatives

She was not often right. They did not believe the drug was harmful.

She was usually wrong. They believed the drug was safe.

She did not want to perform the experiment incorrectly.She wanted to perform the experiment correctly.

Common examples of negatives:

Not honest Not harmful Not important Does not haveDishonest Safe Unimportant Lacks

Did not remember Did not pay attention to Did not succeedForgot Ignored Failed

Eliminate there are/there is

There are many ways in which we can arrange the pulleys.We can arrange the pulleys in many ways.

There was a long line of bacteria on the plate. There are many physicists who like to write.Bacteria lined the plate. Many physicists like to write.

The data confirms that there is an association between vegetables and cancer.The data confirms an association between vegetables and cancer.

Omit needless prepositions

When you’re over the word count removing words such as “that” and “on” which are often superfluous can help.

The meeting happened on Monday.The meeting happened Monday.

They agreed that it was true.They agreed it was true.

Using the Active Voice

The active voice (normal English format) The passive voice formatSubject – Verb – Object* Object* – Verb – Subject

She threw the ball Mistakes were made (no responsibility)

*may not always have an object

The passive voice can be recognized through the passive verb, which consists of two parts: a form of the verb to be, and the past participle of the main verb. The main verb must always be a transitive verb.

She throws the ball (Verb takes the object)

To be verbs

Is could be has beenAre shall be must be Was should beWere will beBe would beBeen may beAm might be

Examples

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me. What was remembered – the visit (hence the object of the verb remember)I will always remember my first visit to Boston.

She is loved.There is no subject. The verb to be (is) and the past participle of the transitive verb (loved)(She) is the object

Cigarette ads were designed to appeal especially to children. The passive voice takes away the subject, abdicates responsibility.

To find the passive voiceAsk: Who does what to whom?

Passive Voice

Examples:

By applying a high resolution, 90 degree bending magnet downstream of the laser electron interaction region, the spectrum of the electron beams could be observed.

(Identify subject)We could observe the spectrum of the electron beams by applying a high resolution, 90 degree bending magnet downstream of the laser electron interaction region.

General dysfunction of the immune system has been suggested at the leukocyte level in both animal and human studies.

(Active voice forces more detail)Both animal and human studies suggest that diabetics have general immune system dysfunction at the leukocyte level.

Increased promoter occupancy and transcriptional activation of p21 and other target genes were observed.

(You can use of personal pronouns)We observed increased promoter occupancy and transcriptional activation of p21 and other target genes.

The activation of Ca++ channels is induced by the depletion of endoplasmic reticulum of Ca++ stores.

(Rearrange the sentence)Depleting Ca++ from the endoplasmic reticulum activates Ca++ channels.

Additionally, it was found that pre-treatment with antibiotics increased the number of super-shudders, while immunosuppression did not.

(Verbs should not become nouns)Pre-treating the mice with antibiotics increased the number of super-shedders while immunosuppression did not.

Using We or I

1. The active voice is livelier and easier to readTo use the active voice, personal pronouns are required.

2. The myth that avoiding first-person pronouns lends objectivity to the paper. You (or your team) ran the experiment and interpreted data.The experiments and analysis did not just materialize out of thin air. (“the data were interpreted to show”)

3. By agreeing to be an author on the paper, you are taking responsibility for its content. Thus, you should also claim responsibility for the assertions in the text by using “we” or “I”

4. The style guidelines for many journals explicitly instruct authors to write in the active voice. However, you can use the passive voice in the methods section. As, what was done is more important than who did it.

Readers tend to skim the methods section for key words rather than reading it as prose.

Writing with verbs

- Using strong verbs

- Avoiding turning verbs into nouns

- Don’t bury the main verbs

Verbs are the most important element of sentences. Picking the right verbs is crucial

Example:

The WHO reports that approximately two-thirds of the world’s diabetics are found in developing countries, and estimates that the number of diabetics in these countries will double in the next 25 years.

(try to avoid use of adverbs)

Report approximately – estimates…Estimating in the future – projects…Use the Thesaurus.

The WHO estimates two-thirds of the world’s diabetics are found in developing countries, and projects that the number of diabetics in these countries will double in the next 25 years.

Try to avoid adverbs by finding better verbs.

Use “to be” verbs purposefully and sparingly. Don’t kill verbs by turning them into nouns!

Don’t bury the verbs in the sentence

Subject should immediately be followed by verb, near the beginning of the sentence.

Grammar Tips Affect vs Effect (Verb vs Noun)

Compared to vs Compared Compare to = to point out similarities between different thingsCompare with = to pint out differences between similar things

That vs Which“That” is the restrictive (defining pronoun)“Which” is the nonrestrictive (non-defining pronoun)

Is your clause essential or non-essential?That: the essential clause cannot be eliminated without changing the meaning of the sentenceWhich: the non-essential clause can be eliminated without altering the basic meaning of the sentence (and must be set off by commas)

They vs TheirDo not use they or their when the subject is singular. To avoid gender choice, turn to a plural.

Each student worries about their grade (incorrect as each student is singular)All students worry about their grade

Punctuation

Dash, colon, semicolon, and parenthesis… You can use punctuation to vary your sentence structure.

Comma (shortest pause)Colon (bigger pause)Dash (abrupt pause)Parentheses (really big pause)Semicolon (connecting two sentences)Period (biggest pause)

Dash (less formal)Parentheses (less formal)The OthersUse less formal punctuation more sparingly.

The Semicolon connects two independent clauses.

Example:

Kennedy knew something about the world; he also cared about it. It was the best of times; it was the worst of times

The semicolon joins two ideas!

Semicolons are also used to separate items in lists that contain internal punctuation.

Example:

They dramatically reduced the number of series in production: in 1935, fourteen series circulating; in 1940, nine; by 1980, when the syndicate was in its final years, only four.

Parentheses (parenthetical expression)Use parentheses to insert an afterthought or explanation (a word, phrase, or sentence) into a passage that is grammatically complete without it.

- The main point of the sentence should not change without the parentheses.

- Parentheses allow readers to skip over the material

Colon:

Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list, quote, explanation, conclusion or amplification. Sometimes a colon is used to join two independent clauses if the second amplifies or extends the first.

Examples:

Washington has a simple solution to most governments it doesn’t like: isolate them, slap sanctions on them, and wait for their downfall.

The woman suffers from a lack of experience and a chronic Democratic disease: compound sentences.

The rule of threes (when you have a choice or there is ambiguity)Provide 3 examples or items in a list; three is an ideal number and acts like a rule of thumb.

DashUse the dash to add emphasis or to insert an abrupt definition or description almost anywhere in the sentence. Just don’t overuse it, or it loses its impact. Also remember that the dash is slightly less formal.

The drugs did more than prevent new fat accumulation. They also triggered overweight mice to shed significant amounts of fat – up to half of their body weight. (Dash has emphasis effect)

To establish that the marrow cells – also called adult stem cells or endothelial precursor cells – can colonize the eye, Friedlander and his colleagues first transplanted stem cells from an adult mouse into the eyes of newborn mice. (A parentheses or comma could not be used)

(Stunk and White’s classic The Elements of Style)

Paragraphs

1 paragraph = 1 idea

Keep paragraphs between 3 and 5 sentences, avoid lengthy paragraphs, shorter paragraphs allows for more white space on the page and results in a more pleasant reading experience.

Give away the punch line early. The idea should be given off early in the paragraph.Paragraph flow is helped by:

- Logical flow of ideas

- Parallel sentence structure

- If necessary, transition words

The reader remembers the first and last sentence the best. Make them memorable and use emphasis at the end. Avoid using too many transition words, rely more on the logical flow.

Logical Flow of IdeasSequential in time (avoid the Memento approach)Going from the first to the last, a time line approach is natural.

General to specific (take-home message first!)From broad idea to specific examples.

Logical Arguments (if a then b; a; therefore b)

Pre Writing StepsGet organized!Don’t try to write and gather information simultaneously.Gather and organize information before writing the first draft.

Organizing your thoughtsDo you have an organizational system?Have all your facts and ideas ready and organized according to category or etc…Spend more time organizing and you will spend less time writing.

Develop a road-mapArrange key facts and citations from the literature into a crude road map/outline before writing the first draft.

Brainstorming away from the computer may be more efficientCompositional Organization

Like ideas and or paragraphs should be grouped together.Don’t “Bait and Switch” your reader too many times.When discussing a controversy, follow:

- Arguments (all)

- Counter-arguments (all)

- Rebuttals (all)