electronic structure and the periodic table - pp - hon unit 6 notes...radiation that is perceivable...
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Electronic Structureand the Periodic Table
Unit 6 Honors Chemistry
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Wave Theory of LightJames Clerk Maxwell
� Electromagnetic waves – a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space
� Visible light – a form of electromagnetic radiation that is perceivable to human beings and is seen in the colors of the rainbow� ROY G. BIV
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Wave Diagram
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Wave Vocab:
� Crest – the top of a wave� Trough – the bottom of a wave
� Wavelength (OÆ “lambda”) the distance from crest to crest or trough to trough in a wave� Units: m, nm (1 m = 109 nm)
� Frequency (QÆ “nu”) the number of wavelengths that pass a given point in a set amount of time (generally in 1 second)� Units: Hertz (Hz), 1/s, or s-1
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Wave Vocab:� Amplitude – the distance from the origin to
the crest or the trough of a wave� Height (or intensity/brightness) of wave
� Speed of light (c) – the rate at which all forms of electromagnetic radiation travel through a vacuum = 3.00 x108 m/s
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Wave Theory of Light
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Comparing Waves
� As Wavelength increases, frequency _______________.
� As Wavelength decreases, frequency _______________.
Wavelength & frequency are inversely proportional
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Wave Equation
�One equation relates speed, frequency and wavelength:
c = O Q
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Example The wavelength of the radiation which produced the yellow color of sodium vapor light is 589.0 nm. What is the frequency of this radiation?
c = O Q
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The electromagnetic spectrum� Complete range of wavelengths and frequencies� Mostly invisible
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What is color?
TED Ed Video: What is color?
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The Visible Spectrum
� Continuous spectrum: components of white light split into its colors, ROY G. BIV� From 390 nm (violet) to 760 nm (red)� Can be split by a prism
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How do we see color?
TED Ed Video: How we see color
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Max Planck –Particle Theory of Light� Light is generated as a stream of light
particles called PHOTONS
�Equation:
E = hQ
h =Plank’s constant= 6.626 x 10-34 J·s)
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Example #1
(a) If the frequency is 5.09 x 1014 Hz, calculate the energy, in joules, of a photon emitted by an excited sodium atom. (b) Calculate the energy, in kilojoules, of a mole of excited sodium atoms.
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Example #2
What is the energy of a photon from the green portion of the rainbow if it has a wavelength of 4.90 x 10-7 m?
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Bohr Model of the Atom
When an electron absorbs a photon of energy, the electron jumps from the ground state to an excited state
� Ground state – lowest energy level an electron occupies
� Excited state – temporary state when an electron is at a higher energy level
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Line Spectra
�Pattern of lines produced by light emitted by excited atoms of an element�Unique for every element�Used to identify unknown elements
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Explanation of Line Spectra
Niels Bohr� Energy of an electron is
quantized: can only have specific values.
� Energy is proportional to energy level.
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Explanation of Line Spectra
Electron will drop from excited state to ground state and will emit energy as a photon during the
fall.
Video: Atomic Emission Animation
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Photoelectric Effect – Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 to Einstein
Occurs when light strikes the surface of a metal and electrons are ejected.
Practical uses:Automaticdoor openers
Ted Ed Video: Is Light Actually a Wave or Particle?
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Conclusion…
Light not only has wave properties but also has particle properties. These massless particles, called photons, are packets of energy.
Light has a dual nature!
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Quantum Mechanics
�Quantum mechanics: atomic structure based on wave-like properties of the electron
�Schrödinger: wave equation that describes hydrogen atom
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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle� The exact location and speed of an electron
cannot be determined simultaneously (if we try to observe it, we interfere with the particle)
� You can know either the location or the velocity but not both
� Electrons exist in electron clouds and not on specific rings or orbits like in the Bohr model of the atom
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Quantum Numbers �Quantum numbers – a system of four
numbers used to represent the most probable location of an electron in an atom� They range from the most general locator to
the most specific
� Analogy...state = energy level, n
city = sublevel, laddress = orbital, ml
house number = spin, ms
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1. Energy LevelPrincipal Quantum Number: n� Always a positive integer (1, 2, 3,…7)
� Indicates size of orbital, or how far electron is from nucleus� Larger n value = larger orbital or farther
distance from nucleus
� Similar to Bohr’s energy levels or shells
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n = 1
n = 2n = 3n = 4n = 5n = 6n = 7
n = row number on periodic table for a given element
n in relation to the Periodic Table
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� Indicates shape of orbital� Letters s, p, d, and f� Energy level 1 has only sublevel s� Energy level 2 has s and p� Energy level 3 has s, p, and d� Energy level 4-7 have s, p, d, and f
2. SublevelAngular Momentum Quantum Number: l
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3. Orbital� The most specific piece of information is about the
number and location of the electrons within the sublevel� The s sublevel has 1 orbital� The p sublevel has 3 orbitals� The d sublevel has 5 orbitals� The f sublevel has 7 orbitals
� Orbital - region within a sublevel where an e- can be found (homes for e-)� Every orbital can hold 2 electrons!
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Orbitals�Orbital = electron containing area (houses for
electrons)�No more than 2 e- assigned to an orbital�Orbitals grouped in s, p, d (and f) subshells
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Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
s = spherical
p = peanut
d = dumbbell (clover)
f = flower
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Capacities of levels, sublevels, and orbitals
PrincipalEnergy level (n)
SublevelsPresent
(s, p, d, or f)
Number of Orbitals Present
s p d f
Total Number
of Orbitals
MaximumNumber of
Electrons in Energy Level
1
2
3
4
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Rules for how the electrons fill into the electron cloud:�Aufbau Principle: electrons fill from the lowest energy level to the highest (they don’t skip around)
�Pauli Exclusion Principle: each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons at a time (and they must have opposite spins)
�Hund’s Rule: orbitals of equal energy in a sublevel must all have 1 electron before the electrons start pairing up
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Why are these incorrect?
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Why are these incorrect?
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Why are these incorrect?
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In order of increasing energy the sublevels generally go:
s < p < d < fHOWEVER, there
is some overlapping of
sublevels at higher energy levels
Ex.) 4s vs. 3d
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Electron ConfigurationDefinition: describes the distribution of electrons among the various orbitals in the atom
Represents the most probable location of
the electron!
EOS
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Electron Configurations
� The system of numbers and letters that designates the location of the electrons
� 3 major methods:� Full electron configurations� Abbreviated/Noble Gas configurations� Orbital diagram configurations
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Full Electron Configuration
Example Notation:� 1s2 2s1 (Pronounced “one-s-two, two-s-one”)
A. What does the coefficient mean?Principle energy level
B. What does the letter mean?Type of sublevel – s, p, d, or f
C. What does the exponent mean?# of electrons in that sublevel
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Steps to Writing Full Electron Configurations
1. Determine the total number of electrons the atom has (for neutral atoms it is equal to the atomic number for the element).
Example: F atomic # = # of p+ = # of e- =
2. Fill orbitals in order of increasing energy (see Aufbau Chart).
3. Make sure the total number of electrons in the electron configuration equals the atomic number.
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Aufbau Chart (Order of Energy Levels)
When writing electron configurations:
� d sublevels are n – 1 from the row they appear in
� f sublevels are n – 2 from the row they appear in
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Writing Electron Configurations
Nitrogen:
Helium:
Phosphorous:
Rhodium:
Bromine:
Cerium:
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Abbreviated/Noble Gas Configuration
i. Where are the noble gases on the periodic table?
ii. Why are the noble gases special?
iii. How can we use noble gases to shorten regular electron configurations?
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Abbreviated/Noble Gas Configuration
Example: Arsenic
1.Look at the periodic table and find the noble gas in the row above where the element is.
2.Start the configuration with the symbol for that noble gas in brackets, followed by the rest of the electron configuration.
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Abbreviated/Noble Gas Configuration
Practice! Write Noble Gas Configurations for the following elements:
Sufur:
Rubidium:
Bismuth:
Zirconium:
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Orbital Diagrams
Another way of writing
configurations is called an orbital
diagram.(also called orbital
notation)
Arrowsdepictelectronspin
ORBITAL BOX NOTATIONfor He, atomic number = 2
1s
21 s
One electron has n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½
Other electron has n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = - ½
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Orbital Diagrams
Orbital diagrams use boxes (sometimes circles) to represent energy levels and orbitals. Arrows
are used to represent the electrons.
= orbital
sublevels
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Orbital Diagrams
Don’t forget - orbitals have a capacity of two electrons!! Two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spin
so draw the arrows pointing in opposite directions.
Example: oxygen 1s22s22p4
1s
2s
2p
Incr
easi
ng E
nerg
y Æ
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Drawing Orbital Diagrams1. First, determine the electron configuration for the element. 2. Next draw boxes for each of the orbitals present in the electron
configuration.� Boxes should be drawn in order of increasing energy (see
the Aufbau chart).3. Arrows are drawn in the boxes starting from the lowest energy
sublevel and working up. This is known as the Aufbau principle. � Add electrons one at a time to each orbital in a sublevel
before pairing them up (Hund’s rule)� The first arrow in an orbital should point up; the second
arrow should point down (Pauli exclusion principle)4. Double check your work to make sure the number of arrows in
your diagram is equal to the total number of electrons in the atom. � # of electrons = atomic number for an atom
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Orbital Configurations for Nitrogen
Full Electron Configuration:
Orbital Diagram:
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Orbital Configurations for Nickel
Full Electron Configuration:
Orbital Diagram:
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Exceptions to the Filling Order Rule (Cr, Cu)—these will not be on test!
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Valence Electrons
Definition: Electrons in the outermost energy levels� They determine the chemical properties of an
element!
***Write the noble gas configuration...the valence electrons are the ones beyond the core
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Valence Electrons and Core Configuration (Shorthand)What is the shorthand notation for S?
EOS
Sulfur has six valence electrons
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Configurations of Ions
Cations: Formed when metals lose e– in highest principal energy level.
Example:(Z = 11) Na
EOS
(Z = 11) Na+
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Configurations of Ions
Anions: Formed when non-metals gain e– to complete the p sublevel
EOS
-
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Transition Metals
Transition metals (and p block metals) lose e–from the highest principal energy level (n)
FIRST, then lose their d electrons!
EOS
Zr = [Kr] 5s24d2
Zr+2 = [Kr] 4d2
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Periodic Trends!
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Periodic Properties & Trends
• Electronegativity– Ability of an atom to pull e- towards itself– Linus Pauling: developed scale to demonstrate
different electronegativity strengths
– Increases going up and to the right• Across a period Î more protons in nucleus =
more positive charge to pull electrons closer• Down a group Î more electrons to hold onto =
element can’t pull e- as closely
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• Electronegativity– Ability of an atom to pull e- towards itself– Across a period Î more protons in nucleus =
more positive charge to pull electrons closer– Down a groupÎ more electrons to hold onto =
protons in nucleus can’t pull e- as closely
Periodic Properties & Trends
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Periodic Properties & Trends• Atomic Radius
– Distance between the nucleus and the furthest electron in the valence shell
– Increases going down and to the left• Down a group Î more energy shells = larger
radius• Across a period Î elements on the right can pull
e- closer to the nucleus (more electronegative) = smaller radius
• *Remember*– LLLL Æ Lower, Left, Large, Loose
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Periodic Properties & Trends• Atomic Radius
– Increases going down and to the left
• *Remember*LLLL ÆLower, Left, Large, Loose
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Memory Device
LLLL: Lower Left, Larger Atoms
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Periodic Properties & Trends• Ionic Radius
– Radius of an atom when e- are lost or gainedÆ different from atomic radius
– Ionic Radius of Cations• Decreases when e- are removed
– Ionic Radius of Anions• Increases when e- are added
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Sizes of Ions
• CATIONS are SMALLER than the atoms from which they are formed.
• Size decreases due to increasing he electron/proton attraction.
Li,152 pm3e and 3p
Li +, 78 pm2e and 3 p
+
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Sizes of Ions
• ANIONS are LARGER than the atoms from which they are formed.
• Size increases due to more electrons in shell.
F, 71 pm9e and 9p
F- , 133 pm10 e and 9 p
-
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Trends in Ion Sizes
Active Figure 8.15
Trends in ion sizes are the same as atom sizes.
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Periodic Properties & Trends
• Ionization Energy– Energy required to remove an e- from the
ground state
– 1st I.E. = removing 1 e-, easiest– 2nd I.E. = removing 2 e-, more difficult– 3rd I.E. = removing 3 e-, even more difficult
• Ex.) B --> B+ + e- I.E. = 801 kJ/mol• Ex.) B+ --> B+2 + e- I.E.2 = 2427 kJ/mol• Ex.) B+2 --> B+3 + e- I.E.3 = 3660 kJ/mol
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Periodic Properties & Trends
Ionization Energy• Increases going up and to the right
– Down a group Î more e- for the nucleus to keep track of = easier to rip an e- off
– Across a period Î elements on the right can hold electrons closer (more electronegative) = harder to rip an e- off
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Memory Device
LLLL: Lower Left, Larger Atoms;Looser electrons
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Periodic Properties & Trends• Metallic Character
– How “metal-like” an element is• Metals lose e-
– Most Metallic: Cs, Fr–Least: F, O
– Increases going down and to the left
Think about where the metals & nonmetals are located on the periodic table to help you remember!
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Electron Affinity• Some elements GAIN electrons to form
anions.
• Electron affinity is the energy involved when an atom gains an electron to form an anion.
A(g) + e- ---> A-(g) E.A. = ∆E
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Trends in Electron Affinity
Trend in a group:Affinity for e-
decreases going down a group
Trend in a series or period:
Affinity for e-
increases going across a period
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Electron Affinity
Note that the trend for E.A. is the SAME as for I.E.!
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A Summary of Periodic Trends
Remember LLLL!!