electrolytic capacitor - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

7/27/2019 Electrolytic Capacitor - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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8/11/13 Electrolytic capacitor - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor 1/8

Cardboard enclosed axial lead

electrolytic capacitors in a 1930s tube

radio

Axial lead (top) and radial lead

(bottom) electrolytic capacitors

A disassembled 100F electrolytic

capacitor

Electrolytic capacitorFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an electrolyte (an

ionic conducting liquid) as one of its plates to achieve a larger

capacitance per unit volume than other types, but with performance

disadvantages. All capacitors conduct alternating current (AC) and

block direct current (DC) and can be used, amongst other

applications, to couple circuit blocks allowing AC signals to be

transferred while blocking DC power, to store energy, and to filter

signals according to their frequency. Most electrolytic capacitors are

polarized; hence, they can only be operated with a lower voltage on

the terminal marked "-" without damaging the capacitor. This generally

limits electrolytic capacitors to supply-decoupling and bias-

decoupling, since signal coupling usually involves both positive and

negative voltages across the capacitor. The large capacitance of

electrolytic capacitors makes them particularly suitable for passing orbypassing low-frequency signals and storing large amounts of energy.

They are widely used in power supplies and for decoupling unwanted

AC components from DC power connections.

Supercapacitors provide the highest capacitance of any practically

available capacitor,[1] up to thousands of farads, with working

voltages of a few volts. Electrolytic capacitors range downwards from

tens (exceptionally hundreds) of thousands of microfarads to about

100 nanofaradssmaller sizes are possible but have no advantage

over other types. Othertypes of capacitor are available in sizestypically up to about ten microfarads, but the larger sizes are much

larger and more expensive than electrolytics (film capacitors of up to

thousands of microfarads are available, but at very high prices[2]).

Electrolytic capacitors are available with working voltages up to about

500V, although the highest capacitance values are not available at

high voltage. Working temperature is commonly 85C for standard

use and 105 for high-temperature use; higher temperature units are

available, but uncommon.

Unlike other types of capacitor, most electrolytic capacitors requirethat the voltage applied to one terminal (the anode) never become

negative relative to the other (they are said to be "polarized"), so

cannot be used with AC signals without a DC polarizing bias (non-

polarized electrolytic capacitors are available for special purposes).

Leakage current, capacitance tolerance and stability, equivalent series resistance (ESR) and dissipation factor

are significantly inferior to other types of capacitors, and working life is shorter. Capacitors can lose capacitance

as they age and lose electrolyte, particularly at high temperatures. A common failure mode which causes

difficult-to-find circuit malfunction is progressively increasing ESR without change of capacitance, again

particularly at high temperature. Large ripple currents flowing through the ESR generate harmful heat.

Two types of electrolytic capacitor are in common use: aluminum and tantalum. Tantalum capacitors have

generally better performance, higher price, and are available only in a more restricted range of parameters. Solid

polymer dielectric aluminum electrolytic capacitors have better characteristics than wet-electrolyte typesin
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Early small electrolytic capacitor from

1914, used as a decoupling condenser

in crystal radios. It had a capacitance

of around 2 microfarads.

particular lower and more stable ESR and longer lifeat higher prices and more restricted values.

Contents

1 History

2 Construction

3 Polarity

4 Electrolyte

5 Capacitance

6 Types

7 Reliability and length of life

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

History

The principle of the electrolytic capacitor was discovered in 1886 by Charles Pollak, as part of his research into

anodizing of aluminum and other metals. Pollack discovered that due to the thinness of the aluminum oxide layer

produced, there was a very high capacitance between the aluminum and the electrolyte solution. A major

problem was that most electrolytes tended to dissolve the oxide layer again when the power is removed, but he

eventually found that sodium borate (borax) would allow the layer to be formed and not attack it afterwards. He

was granted a patent for the borax-solution aluminum electrolytic capacitor in 1897.

The first application of the technology was in making starting capacitors for single-phase alternating current (AC)

motors. Although most electrolytic capacitors are polarized, that is, they can only be operated with direct

current (DC), by separately anodizing aluminum plates and then interleaving them in a borax bath, it is possible

to make a capacitor that can be used in AC systems.

Nineteenth and early twentieth century electrolytic capacitors bore

little resemblance to modern types, their construction being more

along the lines of a car battery. The borax electrolyte solution had to

be periodically topped up with distilled water, again reminiscent of a

lead acid battery.

The first major application of DC versions of this type of capacitor

was in large telephone exchanges, to reduce relay hash (noise) on the

48 volt DC power supply. The development of AC-operated

domestic radio receivers in the late 1920s created a demand for

large-capacitance (for the time) high-voltage capacitors, typically at

least 4 microfarads and rated at around 500 volts DC. Waxed paper and oiled silk capacitors were available,

but devices with that order of capacitance and voltage rating were bulky and prohibitively expensive.

The ancestor of the modern electrolytic capacitor was patented by Julius Lilienfeld in 1926. Lilienfeld's designresembled that of a silver mica capacitor, but with electrolyte-soaked paper sheets in place of the mica

dielectric. However, it proved impractical to adequately seal the devices, and in the hot conditions inside typical

mains-operated radio receivers the capacitors quickly dried out and failed.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_mica_capacitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lilienfeldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_capacitor#Types_of_dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_acid_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distilled_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boraxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boraxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodizinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Pollakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Reliability_and_length_of_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Polarityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Early_electrolytic_capacitor.jpg


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Ralph D. Mershon is credited with developing the first commercially available "radio" electrolytic capacitor that

was used in any quantity (although other researchers produced broadly similar devices). The "Mershon

Condenser" as it was known (condenser was the earlier term for capacitor) was constructed like a conventional

paper capacitor, with two long strips of aluminum foil interwound with strips of insulating paper, but with the

paper saturated with electrolyte solution instead of wax. Rather than trying to hermetically seal the devices,

Mershon's solution was to simply fit the capacitor into an oversize aluminum or copper can, half-filled with extra

electrolyte. These units are referred to as "wet electrolytics," and those with liquid still inside are prized by

vintage radio collectors.

"Mershons" were an immediate success and the name "Mershon Condenser" was, for a short time, synonymous

with quality radio receivers in the late 1920s. However, due to a number of manufacturing difficulties, their

service life turned out to be quite short and Mershon's company went bankrupt in the early 1930s.

It was not until World War II, when sufficient resources were finally applied to finding the causes of electrolytic

capacitor unreliability, that they started to become as reliable as they are today. A major advance was the

process of etching and pre-anodizing the foil prior to assembly, which allowed the use of much less corrosive

electrolyte solutions, which in turn meant the devices could be left unenergized for long periods without

deterioration. Modern electrolytic capacitors can remain usable after lying idle for decades, whereas the originalMershons could not tolerate more than a few months without a polarizing voltage. Elaborate "re-forming"

procedures were necessary to avoid damage to receivers that had not been used for some time.

Construction

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are constructed from two conducting aluminium foils, one of which is coated

with an insulating oxide layer, and a paper spacer soaked in electrolyte. The foil insulated by the oxide layer is

the anode while the liquid electrolyte and the second foil acts as the cathode. This stack is then rolled up, fitted

with pin connectors and placed in a cylindrical aluminum casing. The two most popular geometries are axial

leads coming from the center of each circular face of the cylinder, or two radial leads or lugs on one of the

circular faces. Both of these are shown in the picture.

Polarity

In aluminum electrolytic capacitors, the layer of insulating aluminum oxide on the surface of the aluminum plate

acts as the dielectric, and it is the thinness of this layer that allows for a relatively high capacitance in a small

volume. This oxide has a dielectric constant of 10, which is several times higher than most common polymer

insulators. It can withstand an electric field strength of the order of 25 megavolts per meter which is an

acceptable fraction of that of common polymers.[3] This combination of high capacitance and reasonably highvoltage result in high energy density.

Most electrolytic capacitors are polarized and require one of the electrodes to be positive relative to the other;

they may catastrophically fail if voltage is reversed. This is because a reverse-bias voltage above 1 to 1.5

V[4][5][6] will destroy the center layer of dielectric material via electrochemical reduction (see redox reactions).

Following the loss of the dielectric material, the capacitor will short circuit, and with sufficient short circuit

current, the electrolyte will rapidly heat up and either leak or cause the capacitor to burst, often in a

spectacularly dramatic fashion.

To minimize the likelihood of a polarized electrolytic being incorrectly inserted into a circuit, polarity is veryclearly indicated on the case. A bar across the side of the capacitor is usually used to indicate the negative

terminal. Also, the negative terminal lead of a radial electrolytic is shorter than the positive lead and may be
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Electrolytic capacitor safety valve

ruptured.

note: capacitors in a metal can have

the color mark at the minus side.

otherwise distinguishable. On a printed circuit board it is customary to indicate the correct orientation by using a

square through-hole pad for the positive lead and a round pad for the negative.

Special bipolar capacitors designed for AC operation are available, usually referred to as "non-polarized" or

"NP" types. In these, full-thickness oxide layers are formed on both the aluminum foil strips prior to assembly.

On the alternate halves of the AC cycles, one of the foil strips acts as a blocking diode, preventing reverse

current from damaging the electrolyte of the other one.

Modern capacitors have a safety valve which is typically either a scored section of the can or a specially

designed end seal to vent the hot gas/liquid, but ruptures can still be dramatic. An electrolytic can withstand a

reverse bias for a short period, but will conduct significant current and not act as a very good capacitor. Most

will survive with no reverse DC bias or with only AC voltage, but circuits should be designed so that there is not

a constant reverse bias for any significant amount of time.

CapacitorPolarized

Capacitor

Variable

Capacitor

The above are the most common schematic symbols for electrolytic capacitors. Some schematic diagrams do

not print the "+" adjacent to the symbol. Older circuit diagrams show electrolytic capacitors as a small positive

plate surrounded below and on the sides by a larger dish-shaped negative electrode, usually without "+"

marking.

Electrolyte

The electrolyte is usually boric acid or sodium borate in aqueoussolution, together with various sugars or ethylene glycol which are

added to retard evaporation. Getting a suitable balance between

chemical stability and low internal electrical resistance is not a simple

matter; in fact, the exact compositions of high-performance

electrolytes are closely guarded trade secrets. It took many years of research before reliable devices were

developed. The electrolytic solvent has to have high dielectric constant, high dielectric strength, and low

resistivity; a solute of ionic conductivity facilitators is mixed within.[7]

Electrolytes may be toxic or corrosive. Working with the electrolyte requires safe working practice and

appropriate protective equipment such as gloves and safety glasses. Some very old tantalum electrolytics, often

called "Wet-slug", contain corrosive sulfuric acid; however, most of these are no longer in service due to

corrosion.
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Electrolytic capacitance values are not as tightly-specified as with bulk dielectric capacitors. Especially with

aluminum electrolytics, it is quite common to see an electrolytic capacitor specified as having a "guaranteed

minimum value" and no upper bound on its value. For most purposes (such as power supply filtering and signal

coupling), this type of specification is acceptable.

As with bulk dielectric capacitors, electrolytic capacitors come in several varieties:

Aluminum electrolytic capacitor: compact but lossy, these are available in the range of


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Aluminum, and to a lesser extent tantalum, electrolytics have worse noise, leakage, drift with temperature and

aging, dielectric absorption, and inductance than other types of capacitor. Additionally, low temperature is a

problem for most aluminum capacitors: for most types, capacitance falls off rapidly below room temperature

while dissipation factor can be ten times higher at 25 C than at 25 C. Most limitations can be traced to the

electrolyte. At high temperature, the water can be lost to evaporation, and the capacitor (especially the small

sizes) may leak outright. At low temperatures, the conductance of the salts declines, raising the ESR, and the

increase in the electrolyte's surface tension can cause reduced contact with the dielectric. The conductance of

electrolytes generally has a very high temperature coefficient, +2%/C is typical, depending on size. Theelectrolyte, particularly if degraded, is implicated in various reliability issues as well.

High-quality aluminum electrolytics (computer-grade) have better performance and life than consumer-grade

parts. High temperatures and ripple currents shorten life. Typical basic electrolytics are rated to work at

temperatures up to 85 C, and are rated for a worst-case life of about 2000 hours [17] (a year is about 9000

hours); commonly available higher-temperature units are available for temperatures of 105 C. One of the

effects of aging is an increase in ESR; some circuits can malfunction due to a capacitor with correct capacitance

but elevated ESR, although a capacitance meter will not find any fault (an ESR meter will). Runaway failure is

possible if increased ESR increases heat dissipation and temperature.

Since the electrolytes evaporate, design life is most often rated in hours at a set temperature, for example, 2000

hours at 105 C, which is the highest commonly used working temperature. Standard inexpensive consumer-

grade electrolytic capacitors are rated for 85 C maximum working temperature. Life in the operational

environment is dictated by the Law of Arrhenius, which dictates that the capacitor life is a function of

temperature and DC voltage. As a rule of thumb, the life doubles for each 10 C lower operating

temperature.[17][18] In our example, it reaches 15 years at 45 C (for caps rated at 105 C). The operating

temperature however is not just the ambient temperature. Ripple currents can increase it significantly. The actual

operating temperature is a complex function of ambient temperature, air speed, ripple current frequency and

amplitude,[18] and also affected by material thermal resistance and the surface area of the can case.[17] In

general, high amplitude ripple currents shorten the life expectancy, whereas low frequency ripple is moredetrimental than high frequency. The EIA IS-749 is a standard for testing electrolytic capacitor life.[18]

See also

Capacitor plague

Supercapacitor

Types of capacitor

References

1. ^ Gigacom: how ultracapitors work (http://gigaom.com/cleantech/how-ultracapacitors-work-and-why-they-

fall-short/)

2. ^ Supplier's information on 3,000 microfarad film capacitor, price around 1,000. This website, like many

others, lists details of components available for professional purposes, indicating the ranges of parameters

available (http://uk.farnell.com/avx/ffli6b3007k/capacitor-pp-film-pp-3000uf-800v/dp/1867537)

3. ^ Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3 (http://accuratus.com/alumox.html)

4. ^ http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/misc/c04-appguide.pdf

5. ^ Electrolytic capacitors (Barry L. Ornitz) (http://yarchive.net/electr/electrolytic_caps.html)

6. ^ Product Information: Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors FAQ/Capacitor, Power Supply Units RUBYCON

CORPORATION (http://www.rubycon.co.jp/en/products/alumi/faq.html)

7. ^ Electrochemistry Encyclopedia - Electrolytic Capacitors (http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-c04-electr-

cap.htm)

8. ^ TTI Europe - Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors Failing Again
http://www.ttieurope.com/me_passivesArchiveArticle.aspx?articleID=174&category=passiveshttp://www.ttieurope.com/me_passivesArchiveArticle.aspx?articleID=174&category=passiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-8http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-c04-electr-cap.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-7http://www.rubycon.co.jp/en/products/alumi/faq.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-6http://yarchive.net/electr/electrolytic_caps.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-5http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/misc/c04-appguide.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-4http://accuratus.com/alumox.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-3http://uk.farnell.com/avx/ffli6b3007k/capacitor-pp-film-pp-3000uf-800v/dp/1867537http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-2http://gigaom.com/cleantech/how-ultracapacitors-work-and-why-they-fall-short/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_capacitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor_plaguehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_note-mult-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_note-edn-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_note-mult-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_note-mult-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_note-edn-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESR_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#cite_note-edn-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worst-casehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension


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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic capacitor 8/8

(http://www.ttieurope.com/me_passivesArchiveArticle.aspx?articleID=174&category=passives)

9. ^ FaradNet: "Electrolytic Capacitors", chapter 10 (http://www.faradnet.com/deeley/chapt_10.htm)

10. ^ Typical datasheet illustrating asymmetric tolerance, -10+50%) (http://www.newark.com/vishay-bc-

components/2222-031-37101/aluminum-electrolytic-capacitor/dp/97C0299)

11. ^ Reforming Electrolytic Capacitors (http://www.vcomp.co.uk/tech_tips/reform_caps/reform_caps.htm).

12. ^ F. F. Mazda, Discrete electronic components, Cambridge University Press,1981 ISBN 0-521-23470-0, page

71

13. ^ The effect of non-ideal capacitors (http://www.murata.com/emc/knowhow/pdfs/te04ea-1/12to16e.pdf).

Murata technical document.14. ^ NIC components Corp. FAQ (http://www.niccomp.com/faq.html-ssi)

15. ^ construction and characteristics of OS-CON capacitors, Vishay

http://www.vishay.com/docs/90015/conscha.pdf

16. ^ OS-CON outline, by SANYO http://edc.sanyo.com/english/products/capacitor/oscon/outline.html

17. ^ abc Application Guide, Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors, Cornell Dubilier

(http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/misc/c04-appguide.pdf)

18. ^ abc Deriving Life Multipliers for Electrolytic Capacitors

(http://mexico.newark.com/pdfs/techarticles/cornell/multipliers.pdf)

Glenn Zorpette (January 2005). "Super Charged: A Tiny South Korean Company is Out to MakeCapacitors Powerful enough to Propel the Next Generation of Hybrid-Electric Cars"

(http://spectrum.ieee.org/jan05/inthisissue).IEEE Spectrum42 (1).

Electrochemistry Encyclopedia: Electrochemical Capacitors; Their Nature, Function, and Applications

(http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-c04-electr-cap.htm)

External links

Article at CWRU (http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-c04-electr-cap.htm)

Problems with soft dielectric in electrolytic caps (http://keith-snook.info/capacitor-soakage.html)How Electrolytic Capacitors Work (http://www.elna-america.com/tech_al_principles.php)

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Categories: Capacitors

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