Eleatic No-Changers: "Unnatural Eleatic No-Changers: "Unnatural Philosophers"Philosophers"

The Milesians and Heraclitus interpreted experience as The Milesians and Heraclitus interpreted experience as phenomena of the senses, characterized by constant phenomena of the senses, characterized by constant change.change. Our knowledge of the world can come only from Our knowledge of the world can come only from seeking patterns in the flux. seeking patterns in the flux. The philosophers of Elea The philosophers of Elea disputed this interpretationdisputed this interpretation in what seems a bizarre way, so in what seems a bizarre way, so that Aristotle called them the "unnatural philosophers." that Aristotle called them the "unnatural philosophers." They were Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno.They were Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno.

Xenophanes the RhapsodistXenophanes the RhapsodistXenophanes (570-475) was a colorful character, a Xenophanes (570-475) was a colorful character, a

wandering rhapso dist who eventually became a poet wandering rhapso dist who eventually became a poet himself. Unlike most philosophers, he did not come from a himself. Unlike most philosophers, he did not come from a wealthy family. He left Colophon in Ionia after the Persian wealthy family. He left Colophon in Ionia after the Persian invasion; he was twenty-five when he left and invasion; he was twenty-five when he left and he wandered he wandered for sixty-seven years.for sixty-seven years. He attacked the official view of the He attacked the official view of the gods, as represented anthropomorphically in his day. gods, as represented anthropomorphically in his day.

He settled in Elea, a Greek colony in southern ItalyHe settled in Elea, a Greek colony in southern Italy

Xenophanes believed that the Deity was everywhere Xenophanes believed that the Deity was everywhere and and everythingeverything..

In fact, Xenophanes thought it demeaning for a god In fact, Xenophanes thought it demeaning for a god to "be somewhere else" and "to come when called.“to "be somewhere else" and "to come when called.“ He He wrote that, "It (being) always abides in the same place, not wrote that, "It (being) always abides in the same place, not moved at all, nor is it fitting that it should move from one moved at all, nor is it fitting that it should move from one place to another."place to another."

God is everything, the All-One, God is everything, the All-One, and it does not move.and it does not move.

From this point of view, reality, the All-One, is not From this point of view, reality, the All-One, is not knowable through sense experience and, in fact, sense knowable through sense experience and, in fact, sense experience is wholly illusion. In particular, all movement experience is wholly illusion. In particular, all movement and change of other kinds are illusions.and change of other kinds are illusions.

If god, which is all reality, does not move from place If god, which is all reality, does not move from place to place, then movement is just apparent.to place, then movement is just apparent. Here is a Here is a rationalism that is not based on dualism and the afterlife, rationalism that is not based on dualism and the afterlife, as was the case with the Pythagoreans. as was the case with the Pythagoreans. Xenophanes was a Xenophanes was a monist like the Milesians,monist like the Milesians, but he was by no means a but he was by no means a naturalist and he was not an empiricist. naturalist and he was not an empiricist.

ParmenidesParmenides (540-470) came from a noble and (540-470) came from a noble and rich family in Elea and wrote an excellent rich family in Elea and wrote an excellent constitution for that city. What he wrote in constitution for that city. What he wrote in The Way The Way of Truthof Truth, is not straightforward: , is not straightforward:

It must be that that, which may It must be that that, which may be spoken of and thought of, is be spoken of and thought of, is what is; for it is possible for it towhat is; for it is possible for it tobe, but it is impossible for nothing be, but it is impossible for nothing to be. This I bid you think on.to be. This I bid you think on.(Nahm, 1964, p. 93)(Nahm, 1964, p. 93)

““Nothing” – empty space - does not exist! Nothing” – empty space - does not exist! Neither do time and motion.Neither do time and motion. It is/being is the only It is/being is the only reality and anything else is nonexistent.reality and anything else is nonexistent.

Reality is a homogeneous, motionless, timeless Reality is a homogeneous, motionless, timeless sphere devoid of perceptual characteristics? sphere devoid of perceptual characteristics?

Bizarre as that seems, it is at least partly Bizarre as that seems, it is at least partly reasonable concerning the illusory nature of time. reasonable concerning the illusory nature of time.

According to Parmenides, anything that can be According to Parmenides, anything that can be thought - exists - and anything that ever existed thought - exists - and anything that ever existed still exists. still exists.

All this follows from the assumption that time is All this follows from the assumption that time is an illusion and we will see the same argument an illusion and we will see the same argument proposed by Saint Augustine centuries later. proposed by Saint Augustine centuries later.

Parmenides was attacked for the Parmenides was attacked for the seeming absurdity of his views - seeming absurdity of his views - rationalism is in many ways absurd rationalism is in many ways absurd (since it is nonsense)(since it is nonsense) and it is only and it is only through reason, not experience, that through reason, not experience, that Parmenides' conclusions can be Parmenides' conclusions can be entertained at all. entertained at all.

Zeno: What was the Purpose of Zeno: What was the Purpose of His Famous Paradoxes?His Famous Paradoxes?

Zeno of Elea was a favorite disciple of Zeno of Elea was a favorite disciple of Parmenides and a handsome man who Parmenides and a handsome man who flourished in the mid fifth century B.C. He flourished in the mid fifth century B.C. He lectured in Athens when 40 and later was lectured in Athens when 40 and later was accused of plotting against the tyrant accused of plotting against the tyrant Nearchus of Elea. He was tortured to Nearchus of Elea. He was tortured to death without implicating his accomplices death without implicating his accomplices and, like the Pythagorean woman Timycha and, like the Pythagorean woman Timycha a century later, is said to have bitten off a century later, is said to have bitten off his tongue and spat it at his persecutor.his tongue and spat it at his persecutor.

His purpose was to defend Parmenides' His purpose was to defend Parmenides' rationalist philosophyrationalist philosophy against detractors and he against detractors and he did so in such a way that Aristotle called him the did so in such a way that Aristotle called him the inventor of dialectic (Zeller, 1883/1964). inventor of dialectic (Zeller, 1883/1964).

The targets of his 40+ deductions, in which he The targets of his 40+ deductions, in which he began with opponents' postulates and showed began with opponents' postulates and showed them to result in contradictions, were the them to result in contradictions, were the Pythagoreans. Pythagoreans.

He criticized their atomism, their belief in He criticized their atomism, their belief in empty space, and their belief (shared by the empty space, and their belief (shared by the Milesians) that motion and other change are basic Milesians) that motion and other change are basic aspects of reality. aspects of reality.

Empiricism and common experience Empiricism and common experience tell us that the world is a multitude of tell us that the world is a multitude of things and that they are always changing.things and that they are always changing.

Is that illusion? Does the rational Is that illusion? Does the rational method of the Eleatics show that matters method of the Eleatics show that matters are different? Zeno asked whether the are different? Zeno asked whether the "many" is finite or infinite. "many" is finite or infinite.

If there are many things, are they infinitely small If there are many things, are they infinitely small (like the atomon),(like the atomon), which is invisible with no which is invisible with no mass, extension, or bulk? mass, extension, or bulk?

How do many such "nothings" add to produce a How do many such "nothings" add to produce a "something?" One grain of millet falling makes "something?" One grain of millet falling makes no sound. no sound.

How can a million grains make a sound? How How can a million grains make a sound? How can a million "nothings" make a "something?"can a million "nothings" make a "something?"

How do you answer him?How do you answer him?

Yet, if the unit has some magnitude, then it Yet, if the unit has some magnitude, then it is divisible. The divisions must also be divisible is divisible. The divisions must also be divisible and so on to infinity. Thus the unit must be and so on to infinity. Thus the unit must be infinitely large, since it is infinitely divisible. infinitely large, since it is infinitely divisible. Hence, there cannot be many things, since they Hence, there cannot be many things, since they would have to be, but could not be, infinitely would have to be, but could not be, infinitely small or infinitely large.small or infinitely large.

So reality is So reality is oneone thing and time and thing and time and movement are illusions?movement are illusions?

Consider the problem of the moving arrow. Consider the problem of the moving arrow. The arrow must either be moving at a place The arrow must either be moving at a place where it is or where it is notwhere it is or where it is not. It cannot be moving . It cannot be moving in a place where it is or it would not be there. It in a place where it is or it would not be there. It cannot be moving in a place where it is not since cannot be moving in a place where it is not since it is not there. Hence, it cannot be moving.it is not there. Hence, it cannot be moving.

The Eleatics show us, interestingly, that it is The Eleatics show us, interestingly, that it is possible to be a material monist and yet believe possible to be a material monist and yet believe in a reality beyond sensation. But they were in a reality beyond sensation. But they were indeed "unnatural," since they deprecated the indeed "unnatural," since they deprecated the information gained through the senses and information gained through the senses and emphasized the importance of reason.emphasized the importance of reason.

Reason leads to odd conclusions, for the Reason leads to odd conclusions, for the Eleatics and for many subsequent thinkersEleatics and for many subsequent thinkers..

Parmenides' questioning the reality of timeParmenides' questioning the reality of time and thus suggesting that everything that and thus suggesting that everything that ever existed exists now has obvious ever existed exists now has obvious implications for immortality and was implications for immortality and was adopted by Saint Augustine. adopted by Saint Augustine.

Zeno's arguments show that logic can Zeno's arguments show that logic can make the world provided by the senses make the world provided by the senses seem a strange placeseem a strange place, perhaps no stranger , perhaps no stranger than the "reality" of Parmenides.than the "reality" of Parmenides.

Democritus vs ProtagorasDemocritus vs Protagoras

In the 4th and 5th Centuries BC, two main In the 4th and 5th Centuries BC, two main interpretations of the relation of mind and body interpretations of the relation of mind and body were clearly formulated and they have remained were clearly formulated and they have remained in pretty much their original form through the in pretty much their original form through the millenniamillennia. .

Their first clear renditions appeared in the Their first clear renditions appeared in the teachings of Democritus and Protagoras. The teachings of Democritus and Protagoras. The issue was the nature of epistemology, or the issue was the nature of epistemology, or the question of the origin and nature of knowledge.question of the origin and nature of knowledge.

One influential attempt to deal with this One influential attempt to deal with this problem is associated with problem is associated with Democritus, probably Democritus, probably born in 460 B.C., credited with inventing atomism born in 460 B.C., credited with inventing atomism and the copy theory of perception. and the copy theory of perception.

• Anaxagoras, who proposed an infinity of Anaxagoras, who proposed an infinity of "seeds", held that they vary infinitely in "seeds", held that they vary infinitely in quality, or the nature of their being. quality, or the nature of their being.

• Democritus saw atoms as all qualitatively Democritus saw atoms as all qualitatively identical. They differed in size, shape, and identical. They differed in size, shape, and density, but not in the material comprising density, but not in the material comprising them. them.

•Unique among the ancients, he also Unique among the ancients, he also postulated the existence of the void; postulated the existence of the void; atoms circulate in empty space, atoms circulate in empty space, nonbeing. nonbeing.

•The notion of emptiness is still The notion of emptiness is still difficult to accept and it is only difficult to accept and it is only recently that the existence of an recently that the existence of an "ether" to fill space and propagate "ether" to fill space and propagate light waves and other radiation has light waves and other radiation has been abandonedbeen abandoned. .

For Democritus, things come into existence and For Democritus, things come into existence and cease to exist as atoms comprising them cease to exist as atoms comprising them coagulate and disperse. coagulate and disperse.

The soul is likewise composed of atomsThe soul is likewise composed of atoms,, but these but these

are more swiftly moving than are body atoms. If are more swiftly moving than are body atoms. If the soul atoms escape and disperse, we die and the soul atoms escape and disperse, we die and this is a constant danger. this is a constant danger.

Luckily, the air around us is filled with these Luckily, the air around us is filled with these

rapidly moving atoms and if we keep inhaling we rapidly moving atoms and if we keep inhaling we can replenish any soul atoms that may have can replenish any soul atoms that may have escaped When we die, "the pressure of the escaped When we die, "the pressure of the atmosphere dominates…”atmosphere dominates…”

The Epistemology of AtomismThe Epistemology of Atomism

For the atomists, knowledge arises because objects For the atomists, knowledge arises because objects are constantly giving off copies of themselvesare constantly giving off copies of themselves (eidolae, simulcra). (eidolae, simulcra).

Objects vibrate, as the atoms of which they are Objects vibrate, as the atoms of which they are

constituted constantly move, sending delicate constituted constantly move, sending delicate hollow frames of different shape and organization hollow frames of different shape and organization that remain coherent because "birds of a feather that remain coherent because "birds of a feather flock together” (Nahm, 1962, p. 189). flock together” (Nahm, 1962, p. 189).

They are real particles, not just reflected light, They are real particles, not just reflected light,

and they may mold the air that travels to our and they may mold the air that travels to our eyes. eyes.

These copies or representatives literally pass These copies or representatives literally pass through us and, on the way, they are detected by through us and, on the way, they are detected by our special psychic (soul) atomsour special psychic (soul) atoms. Since the soul . Since the soul atoms are finer and more closely packed than are atoms are finer and more closely packed than are body atoms, they act as a sieve, "straining" the body atoms, they act as a sieve, "straining" the copy atoms and detecting their pattern. copy atoms and detecting their pattern.

For the atomists, we see, hear, smell, and touch For the atomists, we see, hear, smell, and touch

because we take part of the substance of the because we take part of the substance of the things we sense into our bodies. things we sense into our bodies. In many versions In many versions of this theory, we respond to representations in a of this theory, we respond to representations in a "like knows like" manner."like knows like" manner.

While there is no color in natureWhile there is no color in nature, the shape of , the shape of

atoms and their arrangements give us color, so atoms and their arrangements give us color, so that white is smooth and black is rough. that white is smooth and black is rough.

Trueborne knowledge corresponds to Trueborne knowledge corresponds to actual experience.actual experience.

Repetition leads to self-generated Repetition leads to self-generated responding, as proposed by Hebb (1949) responding, as proposed by Hebb (1949) reverberation circuits (cell assemblies and reverberation circuits (cell assemblies and phase sequences).phase sequences).

This may produce error – “bastard This may produce error – “bastard knowledge.”knowledge.”

It is through confirmation - "agreement It is through confirmation - "agreement and disagreement" of past and and disagreement" of past and subsequent experiences - that we subsequent experiences - that we distinguish truth and error, at least, insofar distinguish truth and error, at least, insofar as that can be done.as that can be done.

The representational theory was crude The representational theory was crude and, needless to say, we no longer accept and, needless to say, we no longer accept it. Or do we? How do we deal with the it. Or do we? How do we deal with the same problem today? For example, how same problem today? For example, how do we see?do we see?

Light stimulates our receptors on the retina, after it passes Light stimulates our receptors on the retina, after it passes through the optic nerve ganglion cells, the amacrine cells, through the optic nerve ganglion cells, the amacrine cells, bipolar cells, and horizontal cells. The optic nerve’s million bipolar cells, and horizontal cells. The optic nerve’s million fibers carry the message to the lateral geniculate nucleus fibers carry the message to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and then to visual cortex area V1. There of the thalamus and then to visual cortex area V1. There are at least 27 maps of the retina on the occipital cortex are at least 27 maps of the retina on the occipital cortex and information from LGN layers 1 and 2 go to the dorsal and information from LGN layers 1 and 2 go to the dorsal extrastriate path to the parietal and medial temporal extrastriate path to the parietal and medial temporal cortex. Fibers from LGN layers 3-6 form the ventral path cortex. Fibers from LGN layers 3-6 form the ventral path and end in the fusiform area of the temporal lobes.and end in the fusiform area of the temporal lobes.

In this series of copies, who sees?In this series of copies, who sees?

Philosophers call this view Philosophers call this view epistemological dualism;epistemological dualism; there there are subjects (such as ourselves) who know objects (the are subjects (such as ourselves) who know objects (the things that we sense) and the subject and object are two things that we sense) and the subject and object are two different things. How could it be otherwise? different things. How could it be otherwise?

ProtagorasProtagoras and an Alternative to and an Alternative to RationalismRationalism

The fact is that the static view that relies on the The fact is that the static view that relies on the subject/object distinction and that cannot explain subject/object distinction and that cannot explain seeing and hearing is not the only way of looking at seeing and hearing is not the only way of looking at things.things.

That alternative stresses dynamics (processes) rather That alternative stresses dynamics (processes) rather than statics (thingsthan statics (things) and it was first proposed by the ) and it was first proposed by the Sophist philosopher Protagoras. His proposal seems Sophist philosopher Protagoras. His proposal seems strange, since it is unlike the familiar story that we strange, since it is unlike the familiar story that we have been taught since early childhood. have been taught since early childhood.

Yet it is worth considering in view of the fact that the Yet it is worth considering in view of the fact that the representational theory leaves out everything that is representational theory leaves out everything that is really important. really important.

Who were Sophists and what did they teach? Who were Sophists and what did they teach? (rhetoric, dialectic, politic, eristic)(rhetoric, dialectic, politic, eristic)

Man is the measure of all things, of that which Man is the measure of all things, of that which is, that it is, and of that which is not, that it is is, that it is, and of that which is not, that it is not. Truth is relative!not. Truth is relative!

As William James wrote much later, when we As William James wrote much later, when we go the "world" goes with us. The earth opens, go the "world" goes with us. The earth opens, the sky falls, the mountains crumble and all the sky falls, the mountains crumble and all things end their existence. Because what is things end their existence. Because what is "real" is the product of our personal "real" is the product of our personal experience! experience!

Protagoras did not accept the view that a "real Protagoras did not accept the view that a "real world" sends off copies in the form of atoms that world" sends off copies in the form of atoms that affect some mysterious "psychic atoms" within affect some mysterious "psychic atoms" within us.us.

He realized that this really begged the question; He realized that this really begged the question;

instead of the copy theory, Protagoras stressed instead of the copy theory, Protagoras stressed activity as the basis of realityactivity as the basis of reality

Perception for Protagoras was an interchange. Perception for Protagoras was an interchange. For example, when we see an object, such as an For example, when we see an object, such as an orange, we do not receive copies of it, as the orange, we do not receive copies of it, as the representational theory holds. representational theory holds.

Things exist only while someone is perceiving Things exist only while someone is perceiving themthem (Freeman, 1953, p. 349) (Freeman, 1953, p. 349)

In the nineteenth century an American philosophy In the nineteenth century an American philosophy developed that assumed that truth exists in developed that assumed that truth exists in degrees.degrees. Thus, Newton's physics is true, but Thus, Newton's physics is true, but quantum theory is truer. The relative truth of a quantum theory is truer. The relative truth of a statement depends on its pragmatic (or practical) statement depends on its pragmatic (or practical) utility. Protagoras appears to have held a similar utility. Protagoras appears to have held a similar view, unsurprising, since the view, unsurprising, since the Sophists were Sophists were nothing if not pragmatic.nothing if not pragmatic.

Protagoras taught that opinions are all true, but Protagoras taught that opinions are all true, but some are "healthier," "more desirable," and some are "healthier," "more desirable," and "better" than others. "better" than others. One of the founders of One of the founders of pragmatism, F. C. S. Schiller, habitually called pragmatism, F. C. S. Schiller, habitually called himself a disciple of Protagorashimself a disciple of Protagoras (Russell, 1945, p. (Russell, 1945, p. 78).78).

SocratesSocrates The amazing story of his student, AlcibiadesThe amazing story of his student, Alcibiades

The story of the Delphi Oracle and Plato’s The story of the Delphi Oracle and Plato’s ConfessionsConfessions

Plato and the Easter BunnyPlato and the Easter Bunny What’s wrong with Plato?What’s wrong with Plato?

AlcibiadesAlcibiades 420 BC420 BC Alcibiades is a generalAlcibiades is a general 415 BC415 BC Co-commander of expedition against SyracuseCo-commander of expedition against Syracuse Accused of mutilation of busts of HermesAccused of mutilation of busts of Hermes In Sicily – recalled for trialIn Sicily – recalled for trial Goes to Sparta – betrays AthensGoes to Sparta – betrays Athens Seduces Spartan’s king’s wifeSeduces Spartan’s king’s wife 412 – stirs revolt in Athens’s allies412 – stirs revolt in Athens’s allies 411 - What?? Returns to Athenian fleet411 - What?? Returns to Athenian fleet 410 – destroys Spartan navy, Persian army410 – destroys Spartan navy, Persian army 407 – placed in charge of Athen’s military407 – placed in charge of Athen’s military 409 – led in Athens’s capture of Byzantium409 – led in Athens’s capture of Byzantium Deposed and fled to ThraceDeposed and fled to Thrace Spartans destroyed Athens’s fleetSpartans destroyed Athens’s fleet 30 tyrants rule Athens30 tyrants rule Athens Alcibiades murdered in Asia Minor.Alcibiades murdered in Asia Minor. Democrats resume power in Athens in 403BCDemocrats resume power in Athens in 403BC

Socrates had been his teacher and was thus charged Socrates had been his teacher and was thus charged with corrupting the youth of Athens.with corrupting the youth of Athens.

What did he teach?What did he teach?

For Socrates, knowledge and virtue were inseparable - For Socrates, knowledge and virtue were inseparable - happiness lies only in doing that which is good and to happiness lies only in doing that which is good and to do good requires that we know what is good. No one do good requires that we know what is good. No one willingly does evil and the fact that evil deeds are willingly does evil and the fact that evil deeds are done shows only that people are ignorant. done shows only that people are ignorant.

Is this true?Is this true?

The most highly educated population that has existed on The most highly educated population that has existed on earth was in Germany in the early 1930s.earth was in Germany in the early 1930s.

Socrates’ second crime was his argument against the Socrates’ second crime was his argument against the extreme democracy of Athens.extreme democracy of Athens.

The Death of SocratesThe Death of SocratesHe was tried and sentenced to death by the democratic He was tried and sentenced to death by the democratic

government that replaced the thirty tyrants who Sparta had government that replaced the thirty tyrants who Sparta had installed after their victory over Athens. According to Plato, he installed after their victory over Athens. According to Plato, he would not have been convicted, if only 30 of the 501 judges had would not have been convicted, if only 30 of the 501 judges had voted differently. Juries always had an odd number of members, voted differently. Juries always had an odd number of members, to avoid tied votes, and the balloting for Socrates came out sur to avoid tied votes, and the balloting for Socrates came out sur prisingly favorably - 221 for acquittal and 280 against. Why was prisingly favorably - 221 for acquittal and 280 against. Why was he killed? he killed?

In cases where the accused was condemned, the In cases where the accused was condemned, the prosecution and defense each proposed a penalty prosecution and defense each proposed a penalty and the jury had to choose between them. In this and the jury had to choose between them. In this case the prosecution proposed death and Socrates case the prosecution proposed death and Socrates was expected to propose a fine or exile. was expected to propose a fine or exile.

But he proposed that he be given free meals in But he proposed that he be given free meals in the Prytaneum, where the Council of the Assembly the Prytaneum, where the Council of the Assembly met, a privilege granted to heroes of the olympic met, a privilege granted to heroes of the olympic games and public benefactors. Finally he offered games and public benefactors. Finally he offered to pay a fine, but the vote for death was 360 to to pay a fine, but the vote for death was 360 to 141. After an unusual delay and a chance to 141. After an unusual delay and a chance to escape, he drank the poison and died. escape, he drank the poison and died.

The Contribution of SocratesThe Contribution of Socrates

The dialectic method used by Socrates and by The dialectic method used by Socrates and by Plato was borrowed from Zeno and Protagoras and Plato was borrowed from Zeno and Protagoras and guaranteed that topics in empirical science would not guaranteed that topics in empirical science would not arise.arise. Such a method, which begins with a question Such a method, which begins with a question like, "What is good (or truth, or justice, or friendship)?" like, "What is good (or truth, or justice, or friendship)?" and proceeds through an interchange of questions and and proceeds through an interchange of questions and answers is only useful to clarify the ways in which we answers is only useful to clarify the ways in which we use words.use words.

PlatoPlato

……that every soul pursues as the end of all her that every soul pursues as the end of all her actions, dimly divining its existence, but actions, dimly divining its existence, but

perplexed and unable to grasp its nature with the perplexed and unable to grasp its nature with the same clearness and assurance as in dealing with same clearness and assurance as in dealing with

other things, and so missing whatever value other things, and so missing whatever value those other things might have. (Cornford, 1945, those other things might have. (Cornford, 1945,

p. 216)p. 216)

[See [See Plato and the Easter BunnyPlato and the Easter Bunny, , on website, on website, http://www.geocities.com/malonejc2007http://www.geocities.com/malonejc2007

]]

““Plato” namePlato” name Socrates’ deathSocrates’ death ““imaginary conversations”imaginary conversations” slave market – Academyslave market – Academy Doxa versus knowledgeDoxa versus knowledge Sir David Ross on formsSir David Ross on forms three reasons for forms:three reasons for forms: ontological, logical, ontological, logical,

teleologicalteleological reminiscence/anamnesisreminiscence/anamnesis

The way to happinessThe way to happiness

……is to know what is good and what is good is the truth. is to know what is good and what is good is the truth. Hence, the goal of life is the pursuit of truth and that Hence, the goal of life is the pursuit of truth and that

means knowing the Forms. Piercing the veil of means knowing the Forms. Piercing the veil of appearances is difficult and is possible only for "highly appearances is difficult and is possible only for "highly

gifted natures, after a long course of intellectual gifted natures, after a long course of intellectual discipline and practical experience” (Cornford, 1945, discipline and practical experience” (Cornford, 1945, xxix). The "knowing" itself is a sort of remem bering - xxix). The "knowing" itself is a sort of remem bering - recalling knowledge that one had before birth but that recalling knowledge that one had before birth but that

became clouded by subsequent sensory experience and became clouded by subsequent sensory experience and the opinion (inferior knowledge) that sensation brings. the opinion (inferior knowledge) that sensation brings.

How does that happen?How does that happen?

Plato described the amnesia that occurs in Hades Plato described the amnesia that occurs in Hades that obliterates memories of past lives.that obliterates memories of past lives. After a somewhat constrained choice of a new After a somewhat constrained choice of a new identity - varieties of men, women, and animal - identity - varieties of men, women, and animal - the souls were bound by the threads of necessity, the souls were bound by the threads of necessity, making their choice of new identity irreversible. making their choice of new identity irreversible. Their memories of past life fade after crossing the Their memories of past life fade after crossing the "plain of Forgetfulness," leading to the river of "plain of Forgetfulness," leading to the river of "Unmindfulness," from which they must drink. "Unmindfulness," from which they must drink. Then, in the midst of thunderstorm and Then, in the midst of thunderstorm and earthquake during the night, they are "driven earthquake during the night, they are "driven upwards in all manner of ways to their birth, like upwards in all manner of ways to their birth, like stars shooting (Jowett, p. 397). Small wonder that stars shooting (Jowett, p. 397). Small wonder that all memory is lostall memory is lost!!

Actually, reminiscence is only one part of what Plato Actually, reminiscence is only one part of what Plato calls reason. The other two parts are memory and calls reason. The other two parts are memory and dialectic.dialectic.

"Dialectic," as Plato used the term, referred to a simple "Dialectic," as Plato used the term, referred to a simple question and answer series, continued until it was question and answer series, continued until it was possible to get a grasp on the logos of the Form possible to get a grasp on the logos of the Form involved.involved. Logos here means only "account," not the Logos here means only "account," not the lawfulness of the universe.lawfulness of the universe.

The clearest argument for this rationalist The clearest argument for this rationalist view appears in the dialogue, view appears in the dialogue, TheaetusTheaetus, , though it is evident throughout Plato's though it is evident throughout Plato's writings. writings.

The question revolves around the issue of The question revolves around the issue of whether the senses provide true whether the senses provide true knowledge. knowledge. Is knowledge all derived from Is knowledge all derived from perception or must one go beyond the perception or must one go beyond the "veil of appearances?""veil of appearances?"

What is wrong with the argument What is wrong with the argument in the Theaetetus?in the Theaetetus?

The belief that "real" reality is hiddenThe belief that "real" reality is hidden and and that it is not what our senses present to us that it is not what our senses present to us has been a persisting theme for thousands has been a persisting theme for thousands of years, in both religions and of years, in both religions and philosophies. philosophies.

Plato's version of "truth beyond the veil of Plato's version of "truth beyond the veil of appearances" is derived from the popular appearances" is derived from the popular theory of Pythagoras, presented in Plato's theory of Pythagoras, presented in Plato's Timaeus. Timaeus.

But how can we know reality, if not But how can we know reality, if not through sensory experience?through sensory experience? For For Plato, as for most Greeks before him, Plato, as for most Greeks before him, knowing this reality is equivalent to knowing this reality is equivalent to knowing what is the "good," and is knowing what is the "good," and is thus the basis for ethics and thus the thus the basis for ethics and thus the key to happiness. key to happiness.

The Allegory of the CaveThe Allegory of the CaveAncient authors attributed the allegory of the cave to Empedocles, Ancient authors attributed the allegory of the cave to Empedocles, but it could as well have been proposed by Parmenides, Zeno, but it could as well have been proposed by Parmenides, Zeno, Pythagoras, or any other rationalist. As Plato presented it, the Pythagoras, or any other rationalist. As Plato presented it, the world of sense experience is as unreliable a sign of truth as would world of sense experience is as unreliable a sign of truth as would be shadows thrown on the wall of a cave. be shadows thrown on the wall of a cave.

This is meant as analogous to the human condition, in which the This is meant as analogous to the human condition, in which the ever-changing world of sights and sounds is mistaken for the real ever-changing world of sights and sounds is mistaken for the real world of Forms. How can we escape the chains that keep us in the world of Forms. How can we escape the chains that keep us in the cave and emerge into the sunlight to experience reality as it cave and emerge into the sunlight to experience reality as it actually is? Book VII of The Republic reveals how this escape is actually is? Book VII of The Republic reveals how this escape is possible.possible.

One must study and understand those subjects One must study and understand those subjects that involve abstractions.that involve abstractions.

These include arithmetic, plane and solid These include arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, astronomy and harmonics. geometry, astronomy and harmonics. Astronomy is important only as it concerns the Astronomy is important only as it concerns the movement of solid bodies and harmonics is the movement of solid bodies and harmonics is the study of harmony. While these subjects have study of harmony. While these subjects have practical applications, their real worth is in practical applications, their real worth is in leading the soul out of the ephemeral world of the leading the soul out of the ephemeral world of the senses and into the unchanging world of the senses and into the unchanging world of the mind. mind.

Thus we pass from darkness into light and come Thus we pass from darkness into light and come to understand the idea of the Goodto understand the idea of the Good. .

The Three Parts of Soul and The Three Parts of Soul and SocietySociety

(Sounds like Freud?)(Sounds like Freud?)

Three parts of the psycheThree parts of the psyche Education in Education in The RepublicThe Republic HarmoniaHarmonia

… … the wild beast in our nature, gorged with meat the wild beast in our nature, gorged with meat and drink, starts up and walks about naked...and and drink, starts up and walks about naked...and there is no conceiva ble folly or crime, however there is no conceiva ble folly or crime, however shameless or unnatural - not excepting incest or shameless or unnatural - not excepting incest or parricide - of which such a nature may not be parricide - of which such a nature may not be guilty...(Jowett, p. 330)guilty...(Jowett, p. 330)

Two millennia later, Freud shared that view, "The Two millennia later, Freud shared that view, "The good are those who content themselves with good are those who content themselves with

dreaming what the wicked actually do." (1913, p. dreaming what the wicked actually do." (1913, p. 493)493)

[See History Chapter 3 on [See History Chapter 3 on www.geocities.com/malonejc2007www.geocities.com/malonejc2007

for Plato/Freud relation]for Plato/Freud relation]

The cycle of governmentsThe cycle of governments

AristocracyAristocracyTimocracyTimocracyOligarchyOligarchy

DemocracyDemocracy

Alexander of MacedoniaAlexander of Macedonia

In 334 B.C. Alexander invaded Persian territories with 30,000 In 334 B.C. Alexander invaded Persian territories with 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, including 5,000 Greek merce naries. infantry and 5,000 cavalry, including 5,000 Greek merce naries.

In ten years he conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Babylonia, In ten years he conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, and other lands as far to the east as the Punjab in India. Persia, and other lands as far to the east as the Punjab in India.

He destroyed the Persian Empire, the greatest that the world had He destroyed the Persian Empire, the greatest that the world had known (in Russell’s opinion, 1945, p. 218), in three battles. known (in Russell’s opinion, 1945, p. 218), in three battles.

His men persuad ed him to stop their eastward march into India His men persuad ed him to stop their eastward march into India and they returned to Babylon in 800 ships in 327 B.C., where and they returned to Babylon in 800 ships in 327 B.C., where Alexander died four years later at age 32.Alexander died four years later at age 32.

AristotleAristotle

A further problem respecting the attributes of the soul is A further problem respecting the attributes of the soul is whether they all belong to body and soul together or whether they all belong to body and soul together or

whether any of them are peculiar to the soul alone – a whether any of them are peculiar to the soul alone – a difficult question but unavoid able. difficult question but unavoid able.

(Wheelwright, p. 67)(Wheelwright, p. 67)

““(some believe) in minds without brains and souls without (some believe) in minds without brains and souls without

bodies…”bodies…”[Eliot Valenstein, ABAI, Chicago, IL, May 26, 2008][Eliot Valenstein, ABAI, Chicago, IL, May 26, 2008]

Where is the Magic?Where is the Magic? The Pythagoreans and Plato conceived the world as a The Pythagoreans and Plato conceived the world as a

machine composed of atoms and the body as a lifeless machine composed of atoms and the body as a lifeless vessel necessary to house and to empower the immortal vessel necessary to house and to empower the immortal soul.soul.

The soul was the very definition of magic, capable of The soul was the very definition of magic, capable of knowing the truth inherent in it because of its past knowing the truth inherent in it because of its past existences and intermissions in the world of Forms. existences and intermissions in the world of Forms.

This magical entity was similar in its chief features to the This magical entity was similar in its chief features to the "ghosts" in all of the machines that have been proposed "ghosts" in all of the machines that have been proposed by mind/body dualists from ancient times through by mind/body dualists from ancient times through Descartes and through the mechanical and Descartes and through the mechanical and computational models of the centuries since. computational models of the centuries since. The The essentially lifeless machinery of the body is a mere essentially lifeless machinery of the body is a mere housing for a magical mind - at least, according to this housing for a magical mind - at least, according to this extremely popular theory.extremely popular theory.

Can we do without this magic?Can we do without this magic?

No, we cannot. The fact is that the universe No, we cannot. The fact is that the universe isis partly magical and we can only choose where to partly magical and we can only choose where to draw the line separating the magic and the inert draw the line separating the magic and the inert machinery. machinery.

Pythagoras, Plato, and the information processors Pythagoras, Plato, and the information processors chose to concentrate the magic in a "soul," or chose to concentrate the magic in a "soul," or "mind," - or ghost. That is a method that worked "mind," - or ghost. That is a method that worked in the physical sciences from Galileo on. in the physical sciences from Galileo on.

But another division of magic and "natural" had But another division of magic and "natural" had great appeal for many centuries and it still does. great appeal for many centuries and it still does. If we are unconcerned with the development of If we are unconcerned with the development of modern science, we may even prefer it to the modern science, we may even prefer it to the method of concentrated magic.method of concentrated magic.

Like the monists of Miletus and Elea, Like the monists of Miletus and Elea, Aristotle preferred to distribute the Aristotle preferred to distribute the

"magic" through nature."magic" through nature.

Different substances were different Different substances were different because of specific "essences," or because of specific "essences," or "natures" that gave them their properties "natures" that gave them their properties and and living things were different because living things were different because they were organic, a name that Aristotle they were organic, a name that Aristotle coinedcoined. Plants, animals, and humans . Plants, animals, and humans have lower or higher "souls" as the have lower or higher "souls" as the defining aspect of their being. This is defining aspect of their being. This is best understood by considering Aristotle's best understood by considering Aristotle's treatment of causality. treatment of causality.

Aristotle's "doctrine of the four causes" Aristotle's "doctrine of the four causes" Applications to natureApplications to nature Applications to organic lifeApplications to organic life Why does smoke rise? Why are people different Why does smoke rise? Why are people different

in temperament and ability? Why do stones fly in temperament and ability? Why do stones fly through the air when we throw them? Why do through the air when we throw them? Why do objects accelerate as they fall? Why do they fall objects accelerate as they fall? Why do they fall in the first place? in the first place?

These are the sorts of things that Aristotle These are the sorts of things that Aristotle considered in his discussion of causality.considered in his discussion of causality.

What is the efficient cause when there is no What is the efficient cause when there is no sculptor? What is the final cause when purposes sculptor? What is the final cause when purposes less trivial than interior decoration are involved? less trivial than interior decoration are involved? Why does smoke rise? What is the efficient cause Why does smoke rise? What is the efficient cause in that case? in that case?

Aristotle often conceived the Aristotle often conceived the efficient cause of a efficient cause of a phenomenon as an indwelling agentphenomenon as an indwelling agent - an essence - an essence in the material that directs it toward its appointed in the material that directs it toward its appointed end, telos, or final cause. end, telos, or final cause.

This "essential nature," or "purpose within," was This "essential nature," or "purpose within," was called its called its entelechyentelechy. Stones fall for a similar . Stones fall for a similar reason; they belong at the center of the earth and reason; they belong at the center of the earth and it is their entelechy to fall. it is their entelechy to fall.

The universe is unwinding toward an appointed The universe is unwinding toward an appointed end and everything is constantly becoming more end and everything is constantly becoming more of what it is supposed to be. of what it is supposed to be. Everything, living Everything, living and nonliving, is thus actualizing, as Goldstein, and nonliving, is thus actualizing, as Goldstein, Maslow, and Rogers suggested in the twentieth Maslow, and Rogers suggested in the twentieth century and as German philosophers of the century and as German philosophers of the nineteenth century believed. nineteenth century believed.

The prototype for this teleological view is The prototype for this teleological view is Aristotle's doctrine of the four causes. Matter has Aristotle's doctrine of the four causes. Matter has essences, "natures," and things happen essences, "natures," and things happen "naturally." We will see that "naturally." We will see that this vitalist doctrine this vitalist doctrine posed problems for many centuries, since it is posed problems for many centuries, since it is incompatible with what became western science, incompatible with what became western science, yet it provides good accounts for many events yet it provides good accounts for many events that we observe daily. that we observe daily.

However, for practical purposes, Aristotle's However, for practical purposes, Aristotle's essences and natures were treated as the essences and natures were treated as the "metals" were treated in Plato's republic. This "metals" were treated in Plato's republic. This implied that one's station in life was determined implied that one's station in life was determined by one's essence or nature and that depended by one's essence or nature and that depended largely on one's parents - Aristotle did not share largely on one's parents - Aristotle did not share Plato's egalitarian views. Plato's egalitarian views.

Hence, if your father was a cobbler Hence, if your father was a cobbler and your mother a grocer, it was apparent and your mother a grocer, it was apparent that your nature was that of a that your nature was that of a tradesperson. The child of a famous tradesperson. The child of a famous general or a society woman would have a general or a society woman would have a different nature. different nature. Any attempt to evaluate people so as to Any attempt to evaluate people so as to change their position in society was, for change their position in society was, for Aristotle, meddling with the "natural" Aristotle, meddling with the "natural" course of things. course of things. For many centuries For many centuries Aristotle's doctrine of essences was used Aristotle's doctrine of essences was used to justify the rigid arrangement of society to justify the rigid arrangement of society by social class as the "natural" order.by social class as the "natural" order. The The equality of opportunity of Plato was not a equality of opportunity of Plato was not a feature of Aristotle's thinking. feature of Aristotle's thinking.

De AnimaDe Anima

De AnimaDe Anima is a collection of Aristotle's is a collection of Aristotle's writings that deal with psychological matters. It is writings that deal with psychological matters. It is clear that Aristotle did not accept the clear that Aristotle did not accept the representational theory of perception and that he, representational theory of perception and that he, like Protagoras, stressed dynamics, activity, and like Protagoras, stressed dynamics, activity, and process. What is anima? It is:process. What is anima? It is:

inseparable from the body; it is not something in the body.inseparable from the body; it is not something in the body. not a static thing; it is a shaping force.not a static thing; it is a shaping force. a sum of life functions.a sum of life functions. a way in which bodies may have life.a way in which bodies may have life. the functioning of a body with organs the functioning of a body with organs If the eye were an animal, seeing would be its soulIf the eye were an animal, seeing would be its soul

Does the Soul Require the Body?Does the Soul Require the Body?

Aristotle began with the same question that was asked by Aristotle began with the same question that was asked by Descartes almost two thousand years later: what is the relation of Descartes almost two thousand years later: what is the relation of soul and body?soul and body?

Protagoras proposed that all mind was reducible to Protagoras proposed that all mind was reducible to sensation, while Democritus and Plato (and uneducated common sensation, while Democritus and Plato (and uneducated common sense) saw mind as fundamentally different. Aristotle's position sense) saw mind as fundamentally different. Aristotle's position was clear and presages the act psychology of Brentano and the was clear and presages the act psychology of Brentano and the radical empiricism of James: radical empiricism of James:

Accordingly, the intellectual faculty, like the sensitive,Accordingly, the intellectual faculty, like the sensitive,has no other intrinsic nature than that of being a has no other intrinsic nature than that of being a certain capacity; from which it follows that 'mind' certain capacity; from which it follows that 'mind' ((nousnous, as we may call this aspect of the soul - I mean, as we may call this aspect of the soul - I meanits thinking and judging aspect - has no actual its thinking and judging aspect - has no actual existence before it thinks... the mind is 'potentially,' existence before it thinks... the mind is 'potentially,' so to speak, identical with its objects, but is not actually so to speak, identical with its objects, but is not actually identical with any of them until it thinks… (Wheelwright, identical with any of them until it thinks… (Wheelwright, 1935, Pp. 94-95)1935, Pp. 94-95)

Aristotle's views on life after death provided Aristotle's views on life after death provided difficulties for later Christian writers, especially difficulties for later Christian writers, especially Thomas AquinasThomas Aquinas. Aristo tle believed that what . Aristo tle believed that what survives death loses the power of sensation, and thus survives death loses the power of sensation, and thus memory and thought; hardly an appealing hereafter: memory and thought; hardly an appealing hereafter:

But we have no recollection of the activity of But we have no recollection of the activity of mind in a pure state; for when mind is in that mind in a pure state; for when mind is in that

state it is not affected by impressions; while conversely, state it is not affected by impressions; while conversely, the impressionable side of mind is perishable. the impressionable side of mind is perishable.

(Wheelwright, 1935, p. 97) (Wheelwright, 1935, p. 97)

What is "mind in a pure state?" He was What is "mind in a pure state?" He was referring to the condition of mind as it exists before referring to the condition of mind as it exists before birth or as it does after death. Without the body and birth or as it does after death. Without the body and its sense organs, there is no sensory experience and its sense organs, there is no sensory experience and no memory! no memory! What is left is not very appealing as What is left is not very appealing as basis for an afterlife. basis for an afterlife.

Aristotle was not an Aristotle was not an associationist or cognitivistassociationist or cognitivist

"Memorizing preserves the memory of "Memorizing preserves the memory of something by constant reminding. This is nothing something by constant reminding. This is nothing but the repeated contemplation of an object as a but the repeated contemplation of an object as a likeness, and not independently. “How can we likeness, and not independently. “How can we perceive things not present? "But surely this can perceive things not present? "But surely this can and does occur. and does occur.

Just as the picture painted on the panel is Just as the picture painted on the panel is at once a picture and a likeness...And for this at once a picture and a likeness...And for this reason sometimes we do not know, when such reason sometimes we do not know, when such stimuli occur in our soul from an earlier stimuli occur in our soul from an earlier perception, whether the phenomenon is due to perception, whether the phenomenon is due to perception, and we are in doubt whether it is perception, and we are in doubt whether it is memory or not” (Aristotle, 450 b11, in Grene, p. memory or not” (Aristotle, 450 b11, in Grene, p. 166). 166).

Nicomachean Ethics: Molar Nicomachean Ethics: Molar BehaviorismBehaviorism

Hedonism, or the view that motivation is wholly explained as Hedonism, or the view that motivation is wholly explained as striving for pleasure and avoiding pain, says only that we seek striving for pleasure and avoiding pain, says only that we seek

some things and are repelled by others. Pleasure and pain have some things and are repelled by others. Pleasure and pain have little to do with happiness - even a slave or a child could little to do with happiness - even a slave or a child could

experience "pleasureexperience "pleasure." But happiness is something that appears ." But happiness is something that appears in "a pattern of life” (Rachlin, 1994),in "a pattern of life” (Rachlin, 1994), not in moments of pleasure. not in moments of pleasure.

Consider what we mean by happiness, asked Aristotle, and we find Consider what we mean by happiness, asked Aristotle, and we find as many definitions as we do for the verb "is." For example, is as many definitions as we do for the verb "is." For example, is happiness to be found in knowing and doing the "good," as the happiness to be found in knowing and doing the "good," as the Platonists proposed? How many "goods" are there and how many Platonists proposed? How many "goods" are there and how many degrees of each good? There must be an infinity of each of them degrees of each good? There must be an infinity of each of them and the Platonists thus tell us little, aside from the fact that vulgar and the Platonists thus tell us little, aside from the fact that vulgar pleasures are not good.pleasures are not good.

One Swallow Does Not Make A One Swallow Does Not Make A SpringSpring

Happiness cannot occur in a moment of pleasure, but only Happiness cannot occur in a moment of pleasure, but only over appreciable periods of time, and Aristotle wrote: over appreciable periods of time, and Aristotle wrote:

But we must add the words "in a But we must add the words "in a complete life." For as one swallow or complete life." For as one swallow or one day does not make a spring, so one day does not make a spring, so

one day or a short time does not make a one day or a short time does not make a man blessed or happy... (man blessed or happy... (Nichomachean EthicsNichomachean Ethics

in Loomis, 1943, p. 92) in Loomis, 1943, p. 92)

As is the case for many virtues and so-called As is the case for many virtues and so-called "states of mind," such as courage, honesty, love, "states of mind," such as courage, honesty, love, pain, contentment, and happiness, one swallow pain, contentment, and happiness, one swallow or one day is not enough. Happiness arises in the or one day is not enough. Happiness arises in the satisfactions that come from consistent noble satisfactions that come from consistent noble action - doing "the highest and best" that one can action - doing "the highest and best" that one can over a long time, perhaps a life time, and certainly over a long time, perhaps a life time, and certainly over many years. One honest act does not define over many years. One honest act does not define honesty, nor does a single virtuous act define honesty, nor does a single virtuous act define virtue and happiness. virtue and happiness.

Patterns of ActionsPatterns of Actions

Honesty, love, virtue, and happiness are among Honesty, love, virtue, and happiness are among many terms that are extremely difficult to define - the best many terms that are extremely difficult to define - the best that we can do is follow Aristotle's definitions. that we can do is follow Aristotle's definitions. That is, That is, "love" and "happiness," to use two common examples, are "love" and "happiness," to use two common examples, are not really emotions or even states of mind. not really emotions or even states of mind.

They refer instead to activities extended over They refer instead to activities extended over appreciable spans of time. "Love" is reflected in what one appreciable spans of time. "Love" is reflected in what one says and does over time and it persists during sleep and says and does over time and it persists during sleep and while engaged in replacing a fuel injector.while engaged in replacing a fuel injector. Similarly, Similarly, "happiness" is a pattern of moral activity over time, not a "happiness" is a pattern of moral activity over time, not a fleeting experience that even a child might feel. A child fleeting experience that even a child might feel. A child may know pleasure, but it cannot know happiness.may know pleasure, but it cannot know happiness.

Make a Habit of VirtueMake a Habit of VirtueMoral virtue on the other hand is the outcome Moral virtue on the other hand is the outcome of habit, and accordingly its name, of habit, and accordingly its name, ethikeethike, is , is derived by a slight variation from derived by a slight variation from ethosethos, habit. , habit. From this fact it is clear that moral virtue is not From this fact it is clear that moral virtue is not implanted in us by nature; for nothing that exists implanted in us by nature; for nothing that exists by nature can be transformed by habit. (Loomis, by nature can be transformed by habit. (Loomis, 1943, p. 101) 1943, p. 101)

That was Aristotle's point in Book II, where he defined That was Aristotle's point in Book II, where he defined morality as a potential to be actualized, beginning with morality as a potential to be actualized, beginning with habitual action in childhood.habitual action in childhood. The greater pleasures, those that may bring real happiness, The greater pleasures, those that may bring real happiness, require a relinquishing of what are commonly called require a relinquishing of what are commonly called pleasures - the activities that come from food, drink, sex, pleasures - the activities that come from food, drink, sex, sloth, and the lot - and children lack the wherewithal to do sloth, and the lot - and children lack the wherewithal to do this. So they must be compelled to do the "good" and this. So they must be compelled to do the "good" and moral actions at first, though they may feel it to be moral actions at first, though they may feel it to be unpleasantunpleasant..

Morality, the key to happiness, is a potential in Morality, the key to happiness, is a potential in everyone which, like other potentials, may never be everyone which, like other potentials, may never be realized or develop at all without help, which may be realized or develop at all without help, which may be coercioncoercion..

The highest pleasures require the use of one's The highest pleasures require the use of one's highest capacities - in humans this is the exercise of highest capacities - in humans this is the exercise of reason in contemplating the highest abstractions of the reason in contemplating the highest abstractions of the universe. universe.

Only the most blessed few are capable of Only the most blessed few are capable of experiencing such pleasures. For most, these pleasures experiencing such pleasures. For most, these pleasures are unachievable and so it is best for them to achieve are unachievable and so it is best for them to achieve whatever high level of moral conduct as their conception whatever high level of moral conduct as their conception of the "good" allows. of the "good" allows.

For some this may restrict virtue to the For some this may restrict virtue to the attainment of "honor," defined as approval from one's attainment of "honor," defined as approval from one's peers. For others, virtue may be limited by athletic peers. For others, virtue may be limited by athletic achievement or by military success, or by fashioning art achievement or by military success, or by fashioning art - whatev er one's "nature" defines as the limits of one's - whatev er one's "nature" defines as the limits of one's comprehension of "good."comprehension of "good."

Ayn Rand's "Objectivism"Ayn Rand's "Objectivism"

Ayn (as in "mine") Rand (1906-1982) was a Ayn (as in "mine") Rand (1906-1982) was a Russian-American author of novels such as Russian-American author of novels such as The The FountainheadFountainhead and and Atlas Shrugged Atlas Shrugged (1943 and (1943 and 1957, respectively), based on a philosophy which 1957, respectively), based on a philosophy which she saw as similar only to Aristotle's. she saw as similar only to Aristotle's.

All other philosophies she attacked, literally All other philosophies she attacked, literally to the end - her last piece was Philosophy: Who to the end - her last piece was Philosophy: Who Needs It? published posthumously by Bobbs-Needs It? published posthumously by Bobbs-Merrill (1982). Merrill (1982).

The following is from an address she gave The following is from an address she gave to the graduating class of the United States to the graduating class of the United States Military Academy at West Point on March 6, 1974. Military Academy at West Point on March 6, 1974. She had just finished reciting evil effects of some She had just finished reciting evil effects of some philosophies. If philosophy is evil, why study it? philosophies. If philosophy is evil, why study it? She answered:She answered:

Not all philosophies are evil, though Not all philosophies are evil, though

too many of them are, particularly in too many of them are, particularly in

modern history. On the other hand, modern history. On the other hand,

at the root of every civilized achieve-at the root of every civilized achieve-

ment, such as science, technology, ment, such as science, technology,

progress, freedom - at the root of progress, freedom - at the root of

every value we enjoy today, including every value we enjoy today, including

the birth of this country - you will find the birth of this country - you will find

the achievement of one man, who lived the achievement of one man, who lived

over two thousand years ago: Aristotle.over two thousand years ago: Aristotle.

But she believed that we have turned from But she believed that we have turned from Aristotle and this was mainly the Aristotle and this was mainly the achievement of the humanities, cause of a achievement of the humanities, cause of a large part of our current problems: large part of our current problems:

Now observe the breach between the Now observe the breach between the physical sciences and the humanities. Although the physical sciences and the humanities. Although the progress of physical science is slowing down (by progress of physical science is slowing down (by reason of a flawed epistemology, among other reason of a flawed epistemology, among other things), the momentum of the Aristotelian past is so things), the momentum of the Aristotelian past is so great that science is still moving forward, while the great that science is still moving forward, while the humanities are bankrupt. humanities are bankrupt.

Spatially, science is reaching beyond the solar Spatially, science is reaching beyond the solar system - while, temporally, the humanities are system - while, temporally, the humanities are sliding back into the primeval ooze. Science is sliding back into the primeval ooze. Science is landing men on the moon and monitoring radio landing men on the moon and monitoring radio emissions from other galaxies - while astrology emissions from other galaxies - while astrology is the growing fashion here on earth; while is the growing fashion here on earth; while courses on astrology and black magic are given courses on astrology and black magic are given in colleges; while horoscopes are sent galloping in colleges; while horoscopes are sent galloping over the airwaves of a great scientific over the airwaves of a great scientific achievement, television... (Rand, p. 97)achievement, television... (Rand, p. 97)

The characters of her novels are superior The characters of her novels are superior and productive people who are self actualized and productive people who are self actualized and who know right and wrong when they see it. and who know right and wrong when they see it. Aristotle certainly did believe in gradations Aristotle certainly did believe in gradations among people and he believed that right and among people and he believed that right and wrong are objective things. wrong are objective things.

These admirable people are contrasted with These admirable people are contrasted with the worthless parasites and the incompetent that the worthless parasites and the incompetent that comprise almost all of society. Her heroic comprise almost all of society. Her heroic characters are conscious of things, never just characters are conscious of things, never just "conscious;" so their souls are one with their "conscious;" so their souls are one with their objects (their work is their life), as Aristotle objects (their work is their life), as Aristotle prescribed. No abstract or other-worldly ideas prescribed. No abstract or other-worldly ideas mediate their view of reality.mediate their view of reality.

Ayn Rand’s West Point address included Ayn Rand’s West Point address included a perceptive contrast of the world views a perceptive contrast of the world views of Plato and Aristotle:of Plato and Aristotle:

““Are you in a universe which is Are you in a universe which is ruled by natural laws and, therefore, is ruled by natural laws and, therefore, is stable, firm, absolute, and knowable?stable, firm, absolute, and knowable?

((AristotleAristotle))

Or are you in an incomprehensible Or are you in an incomprehensible chaos, a realm of inexplicable miracles, chaos, a realm of inexplicable miracles, an unpredictable, unknowable flux, which an unpredictable, unknowable flux, which your mind is impotent to grasp?your mind is impotent to grasp?

((Plato)Plato)

Are the things you see around you real – or are Are the things you see around you real – or are they only an illusion? they only an illusion?

(Aristotle/Plato)(Aristotle/Plato)

Are they the object or subject of Are they the object or subject of consciousness?consciousness?

(Plato/Aristotle)(Plato/Aristotle)

Are they what they are or can they be Are they what they are or can they be changed by a mere act of your consciousness?”changed by a mere act of your consciousness?”

(Aristotle/Plato)(Aristotle/Plato)

Rand argued that our answers to these Rand argued that our answers to these questions affect how we lead your lives. If the questions affect how we lead your lives. If the world around us is mere illusion and chaos, filled world around us is mere illusion and chaos, filled with miracles, why even try to succeed?with miracles, why even try to succeed?