CRADLE TO CRADLE PRODUCTION FOR SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION TEXTILE INDUSTRY WASTE, FOOD FOR CEMENT INDUSTRY IN INDONESIA?

Emilia L.C. van Egmond -de Wilde de Ligny Eindhoven University of Technology

The Netherlands E-mail: e.v.egmond@tue.nl

Jeanette Eggengoor Hengelo

The Netherlands E-mail: jeanet.eggengoor@stork.com

ABSTRACT

The construction industry has been seriously challenged to become more sustainable in terms of decreasing its damaging environmental impact. Generally industrial residues are still considered as waste, whiclz is often dumped in one way or the otlzer. Tlze objective of our research is to investigate the applicability of the so-called "cradle-to-cradle" (C2C) concept to achieve sustainable construction. The C2C concept rests on the philosophy that all waste can be useful as resource for another product in the same or in another industry, thereby offering an opportunity to overcome srcstainability problems. This paper discusses the opportunities and obstacles to apply the concept in Construction by analysing tlze case offly-ash - a residzle of the Indonesian Textile Industry @TI)- as input in tlze Zndonesiarr Cement Industry (ICI). Tlze used metlzodology is based on the innovation theories combined with tlze production systems approach. Despite opportunities, barriers in the context in tvliich tlze ZTI and the ICI currently operate appear to hamper a srrccessful implementation of tlze C2C concept. Nevertheless the results stinzulafe furtlzer researclr on the applicability of the C2C concept to cut back emissions, material and energy use in order tlzat the Constrrzction Industry becomes more sustainable also in Developing Courrtries.

Keywords: Sustainability, Construction, Cradle-To-Cradte, Cement Industry, Developing Countries

1.0 INTRODUCTION

World wide the socio-political, economic as well as the environmental and climatic situation is on the move, and the awareness of and concern for sustainable development in its various dimensions has increased. Building on the definition of sustainability can be stated that Sustainable Construction (SC) involves activities which help to decrease h m l l environmental impacts and contribute to a balanced long term sustainable development reflected in economic growth, social equity and environmental quality. (Kibert, 2003). Increased attention is paid nowadays to the reduction of waste along the whole chain of production processes and prevention is the leading topic according to the International Solid Waste Association. (Tam et al, 2004, Begum et al, 2006, Poon et al, 2001) The construction industry has been seriously challenged to become more sustainable in terms of decreasing its damaging environmental impact. After all as much as 50% of all materials extracted from the earth's crust are transformed into construction materials and products. The sector is responsible for 12-16% of fresh water consumption, 25% of the wood harvested, 40% of all energy use and 20-30% of greenhouse emissions. (Mocozoma 2002, Worrel et

all 2001). When building materials enter the waste stream, they account for some 50% of all waste generated prior to recycling, recovery or final disposal (Environmental Protection Agency U.S, 1995, Arpad, 2004). In Developing Countries (DCs), where 23% of global construction activity takes place, construction is becoming a serious environmental problem particularly in many large cities. Its significant impacts on the environment feed growing public concern. Despite some improvements construction residues are still considered as waste, which is often dumped in one way or the other.

The objective of our research is to investigate the applicability of the so-called "cradle-to- cradle" (C2C) concept to achieve sustainable construction. The C2C concept rests on the philosophy that all waste can be useful as resource for another product in the same or in another industry, thereby offering an opportunity to overcome sustainability problems. The C2C concept might offer an opportunity to overcome sustainability problems. An example of such an oppomnity is to re-use fly-ash - a residue of the textile industry- as input in the cement industry in Indonesia. This research project focused at the applicability of the C2C concept in Construction by investigation of the possibilities for the re-use of textile industry waste as resource in the cement industry. In the following sections first attention is given to cement production and the use of additives such as fly-ash in blended cement. Next the methodological approach applied in our research will be explained. The results of the analyses of the opportunities and obstacles to re-use fly-ash from the Indonesian Textile Industry (ITI) in the Indonesian Cement Industry (ICI) are presented in the sections that follow. The paper concludes with a discussion on the applicability of the C2C concept that seems promising to cut back emissions, material and energy use in order that the Construction Industry becomes more sustainable also in Developing Countries.

2.0 CEMENT PRODUCTION AND FLY-ASH AS ADDITIVE

2.1 Cement Production

Cement is typically made from limestone and clay, crushed to a very fine powder and then blended in the correct proportions, to be heated in a rotary kiln (1400 C to 1500 C ) to form clinker. The clinker is ground into a fine powder together with a small amount of gypsum (CaSo3), which controls the setting properties of the cement when water is added. Portland cement clinker is mainly composed of calcium silicates (70%-80%), (alite= Iricalcium silicate 65% + belite= dicalcium silicatel5%) plus aluminate (=tricalcium aluminate 7%) and ferrite (=tetracalcium alurninofemte 8%). Clinker production is the main energy-intensive step in cement production using large amounts of non-renewable resources. Besides, the cement production process is responsible for polluting emissions that may affect not only the present ecological situation and generation of people but also has an impact in future. Of all COz emissions in the world 2-4% is from cement production. (Egmond & Jongsma 1996; Egrnond 2001; Mocozoma 2002).

2.2 Additives

International cement standards such as the European EN-197 standard -implemented in 2002- allows the production of Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with 97-95% clinker and 3-5% additives in addition to the standard used gypsum (Timberlake, 2005). However there are different cement types that are known for their extra reduction of c l i i e r content in cement (CIC ratio). This reduction of C/C ratio is accomplished by substituting a part of the clinker by alternative materials like industrial by-products and wastes such as fly ash (coal combustion residue), blast furnace slag (residue from iron making) and other pozzolana materials (e.g. volcanic materials). These additives are blended together with clinker in the cement grinding process. The use of additives will progressively reduce the C/C ratio resulting in reduction of C02 per ton produced cement. (Egmond 1 7 5 I P a g e

& Jongsma 1996) Every ton of ash reused in cement products equates to nearly a ton of C02 savings. The difference in additives other than standard for OPC gives the cement different properties, that determine the technical performance like strength, setting time and workability. (Cangiano, et al, 1992) OPC has an average C/C ratio of 0.96, which indicates a high clinker percentage in cement.(Cembureau, 2004) The use of blended cements contributes in any case to sustainable production and development in different ways. The use of blended cement can provide several social, economic environmental and technological benefits.

Table 1 Benefits of Blended Cement (summarized from ITDG and Ecoblend 2004)

Social

Environmental

Generation of employment opportunities for skilled and unskilled workers: waste collection, sorting, transport and analyses. Can be cheaper than OPC, thus convenient for low cost housing

Similar quality properties as OPC, lower C/C ratio; reduction of C02 emission: . conserves narural taw materials; reduces energy requirements. Oopportunities for C2C processing of waste; decrease solid waste disposal (a burden especially in developing counhies where the infrastructure of waste collection and its treatment and final disposal is mostly underdeveloped).

Economic Production requires less energy than OPC, Lower production costs ; cheaper outputtthan OPC No significant investment capital needed on production equipment

Fly-ash is fine powder created during combustion of coal in production processes such as the in the textile industry where it is used to generate heat. Fly-ash consists essentially of spherical glassy particles with pozzolana properties (Si02, ALz03 and Fe203) and small elements like sodium, lime (CaOK) and trace elements, present in the ground like heavy metals. Fly ash particles are dry, and have a spherical, fine glassy amorphous structure. (Electrabell, 2004-2007). The composition of fly ash shows many similarities with that of clay. Fly-ash is latent hydraulic which means that the pozzolana (/LO3, Si02, Fe203) is capable of forming cementious compounds comparable with the binding properties of cement, when they react with free lime (CaO) in the presence of water (hydration). The lime is added to improve the hydration if the lime content in the fly ash itself is too low. Several aspects like the type of coal, the type of boiler system used and the combustion circumstances influence the chemical composition of fly ash. In many cases fly-ash -as a residue of production processes- is currently treated as waste that is dumped in one way or the other.

However there is potential in minimizing the fly ash surplus from industry by re-using it. By application of the C2C principle there will be a contribution to sustainable production in industry by means of waste reduction of fly ash, cost recovery from land filling and treating fly ash as a material with economic value. Pozzolana and hydration are the main characteristics that make fly ash a suitable alternative raw material for building materials like clay, sand and lime that are extracted directly from nature. It can be used as filling in road construction, concrete filling and binding material in the concrete sector, as a secondary material to substitute clinker in cement production, which all set different requirements to the fly-ash. The specific properties and composition of fly ash determine its quality and are decisive factors for reuse of fly ash as raw material in other products. By so called co-processing of fly ash as a substitute in cement it contributes to sustainable construction, by reducing the required amount of fuel and raw materials

Technological Improved water retention1 reduced bleeding. Improved sulphate resistance Improved resistnnce to alkali - aggregate reaction Lower heat of hydration

Ir~Let~ncztio~~ut St:rttpr>ssirrm ir! L;rvelopiii(j Ei~c~rrf:il!ies: Coirtitlrtncilifies ilrt1orr:j Diversities

per tonne of produced cement; by reducing emissions like carbon dioxide (C02) and cost in the cement industry. The use of fly ash as an additive in cement is not a new idea. Lowering the clinker factor in cement is one of the best, technical proven approaches for reducing C02 in cement production process (Holcim). The fly ash used for this purpose however originates mostly from power plants. The opportunity of using fly ash fiom the Indonesian Textile Industry (ITI) in the Indonesian cement industry (ICI) is an issue that is not researched yet.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

The applicability of the C2C w-processing concept in the Indonesian Textiles and Cement Industries has been investigated by using the innovation theories. The innovation theories learn that successful introduction and application of innovative ideas, concepts, technologies, products and production processes depend on (a) the properties of the applied technologies and (b) drivers and barriers that occur in the production environment. (Tidd, Bessant Pavitt 2006) In other words, a successll introduction and application of an innovative concept is the result of a process of interaction between actors and organizations within an environment with particular practices, perceptions, rules and regulations. This environment is the so-called innovation system. (Malerba 2002, Geels 2004) An innovation system is composed of three building blocks:(l) an Actor Network of more or less interrelated enterprises, institutes and organizations, (2) knowledge, technologies, products and production processes which can be shared by the network actors and (3) a Technological Regime (TR) reflected in policies, production practices, awareness, perceptions, expectations rules, norms, values and regulations. (Malerba 2002; Tidd, Bessant Pavitt 2006) Thus when we want to identify the drivers and barriers for successful application of the innovative C2C co-processing concept in the textiles and cement industry, then an investigation of the innovation

system of both industries is needed.

TECHNOLOGICAL REGIME

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework

4.0 THE ACTOR NETWORK CONCERNED WITH C2C CO-PROCESSING OF IT1 FLY-ASH IN THE ICI

The actors included in this research are the textile industry, the cement industry, governmental institutions, non-governmental institutions and the local market and community.

At the time of this research 1414 textile companies were registered in the Indonesian textile association (API 2006); 331 of them are involved in dyeing, finishing or both (API, 2004). We limited our scope to the Bandung area (Kabupaten Bandung, city Bandung, city Cimahi and kabupaten Sumedang) at Java, where 189 companies are involved in dyeing, finishing or both. Data fiom API, the ministry of mining and coal suppliers resulted in the identification of 51 textile companies using coal boilers. These were included in the sample.

kabupaten Sumedang) at Java, where 189 companies are involved in dyeing, finishing or both. Data from API, the ministry of mining and coal suppliers resulted in the identification of 51 textile companies using coal boilers. These were included in the sample.

Indonesia is the 1 lth largest cementproducer in the world (37,000,000 x10 tonlyr = 1.6% of world production) China is the largest (approx. 30 times more than Indonesia), followed by India, the Arab States and USA (indexmundi.com 2005) There are 6 cement producers in Indonesia, which are basically foreign owned ( Cemex, Lafarge, Holcim and Heidelberger with < 50% Indonesian shares). two of them operate in West Java (Holcim Indonesia and Indocement - a subsidiary of the Heidelberg Cement Group which uses fly-ash.) An overview of the actor network concemed with C2C co-processing of IT1 fly-ash in the ICI is given in table 2.

Table 2 Actor network concemed with C2C co-~rocessine of IT1 flv-ash in the lC1

I Environmental regulation, standardization and control. implementation of environmental protection activities, incl. enforcement of

-

I regulations, supervision, monitoring, measuring & analysis of pollution Government of Bandung 1 Environmental impact manaxement agency & Coordinating dept of KLH

Public authorities Function & responsibilities

Indon. Textile association API I Textile branch organization Balai Besar Tebtil (BBT) I Textile R&D centre

The ministry of environment I National Authority

agency of environment (BAPEDAL)

Department of industry and trade (DEPPERINDAG)

Mi. of energy &mineral resources, province Jawa Barat & dept of mining and energy (PERTAMBEN) Private institutions

- - - - . Follow up of environmental policies without legal authority. Registration of companies producing hazardous waste Information and documentation on environmental issues National Authority Implementation of environmental protection activities, including enforcement of regulations, supervision, monitoring, measuring & analysis of pollution National Authority Regulation and control of mining (illegal mining) & environmental impact. Focus on life cycle from mining to shipping to end user. Limited attention to Fly ash.

Institute Technology Bandung (ITB) Industry

5.0 TECHNOLOGY PROFILE OF FLY-ASH PRODUCTION IN THE INDONESIAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY (ITI)

Technical & management assistance to textile companies to improve production, quality/cost effectiveness, product diversification, clean production. University of Science Technology and Arts at Bandung Several inter-university research centers (IUCs).

Textile industry Cement industry Community

5.1 Coal Combustion and Fly-Ash Production

Textile companies involved in the fly ash production in the Bandung Region Cement producers in W-Java Supply and demand market parties of IT1 and ICI Community living in the vicinity of the textile companies

Various boiler systems are used in the dyeing and finishing processes of the textile industry. Due to the increased oil prices a growing part of the Indonesian Textile Industry (ITI) uses coal as an alternative fuel. The combustion of coal comes along with coal combustion by-products (CCB's). One of these CCB's is fly ash. Fly ash from the IT1 is currently treated as waste.

The textile companies use different types of coal boilers. The boilers are mainly from China, low priced and less efficient compared to more expensive ones. However it is difficult to get

electricity supply is getting increasingly more expensive and coping with difficulties and black outs. This will probably happen more often in future. Although the quality and quantity of the fly ash highly depends from the combustion efficiency this factor is not further taken into consideration during this research. (Interviews API 2005) The types of coal used can differ per textile company. Most of them use coal with low caloric values which in combination with inefficient coal burning results in a high loss of ignition value (LOI). The used coal originates mainly from Kalimantan and Sumatra in Indonesia. In the ideal typical situation with high combustion efficiency 90% of the ash would be fly ash. (Indocement 2005) The 51 textile companies included in this research use together 1904 tonneslday of coal and produce 289,42 tonneslday of ash. (Interviews with coal suppliers 2005)

5.2 Quality of Fly Ash IT1

Eight samples of fly ash fiom random textile companies were taken for analyses. As a reference a sample of fly-ash of the power plant in Suralaya (W-Java) was used. This fly ash is already used as a clinker substitute in cement by Indocement. Specific information about fly ash product standards and specification for the use in cement was not found in Indonesia. We therefore relied on the European standard for fly-ash under the code BRL 2505, in which fly-ash is classified into 4 classes V1, V2a, V2b and V3. If the fly ash can not be categorised in one of the four product classes it will be qualified as "off-spec", which means that the fly-ash does not meet the specified or standard requirements for any further reuse. To use fly ash in cement it has to comply with the V2 a standards. The results of the analyses of the fly-ash samples are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Results of Fly Ash Analysis

Source Eggengoor, 2006 The values that are printed bold represent values that do not fulfil requirements.

-

1 7 9 J P a g c

.,...,,-, y. .:,<?%;-.::.E-TG7; "-?.-..:.: ;"= @-&-f, -;~,> .;<!<!;::<.,:,:! . ~;. Off off off off off off off Off off r . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . spec spec Spec spec. spec spec spec spec spec Source Eggengoor, 2006 The values that are printed bold represent values that do not fulfil requirements.

The lost o f imition fLOI) is an indicator for the amount of unburned coal that is uresent in the fly ash, it shouid not excked io % of the total amount of ash. The referential sample b f the power plant (PP) meets the requirement. The results show that the LO1 in all of the eight samples from the textile companies is higher than 10,00%. A high LO1 suggests inefficient coal combustion, which confirms the conjecture that the coal combustion of the coal boilers is inefficient and low caloric coal is used. The particle size of the fly ash is important for its binding properties in cement. The finer the particles size the better and faster the binding, resulting in better strength of the cement. Particles under 10 pm size -regardless the type of fly ash- are beneficial to the early strength. Particles with @<45 pm and larger may be considered inert, they do not participate in pozzolana reactions, they behave like sand and act mainly as fillers. Most fly ashes have less than 15 or 20% particles which are above 45 microns, and more than 40% particles which are under 10 microns.(Mehta, 1998 ) Each sample was sieved for 30 min in a sieve shaker. Each of the obtained size fractions was separately analysed for particle size distribution Normally fly ash has a light grey colour, the colour of the IT1 fly ash varies from dark grey to almost black. The dark colour is mostly due to unburned coal, which is already indicated by the LO1 value. The high content of the Fez03 oxide is probably caused by inefficient burning and the use of low caloric coal. A high3ee lime (CaO) content is not necessarily negative, it results in fast cement binding properties. Due to a faster pozzolana reaction the cement mixture is given a faster early hardness which could bring forth problems with the workability. The AI/Si content shows the alkali fraction, which represents the pozzolana activity. A few samples show an alkali fraction that is too low. The result of the analysis of all the fly ash samples taken from the IT1 was off spec. The main reason is the high content of unburned coal in the fly ash as a result of inefficient coal combustion (high LOI). This confirms the reputation of coal boilers used in the IT1 as being inefficient.

6.0 TECHNOLOGY PROFILE OF CEMENT PRODUCTION IN INDONESIA

6.1 Cement Types

According to Indonesian cement standards, there are four cement types that are produced and sold known to be OPC, Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), masonry cement and blended cements. Table 4 shows the market shares of the four cement types.

6.2 Blended Cement

Table 4 Quantity and Share of Different Cement Types in Indonesia

PPC and masonry cement contain variable amounts of limestone, natural pozzolana materials l i e trass and fly ash from coal-fired power plants in Indonesia. According Indonesian standards blended cement may contain a variety of additives of unspecified proportions, such as natural and artificial pozzolana materials and limestone. (UNFCC, 2004).

Blended cement is produced by Indocement, the second largest cement producer in Indonesia, which introduced a blended cement type with the brand name "Cap Rumah" in 1996, which had a

1 8 0 I P a g t .

Types of cement OPC PPC + Masonry Blended

Source: Indonesia cement association (UNFCC, 2004)

2001 (%) 77.7 22.3

0

1999(%) 74.8 25.2

0

2002 (%) 81.9 18.1

0

2000 (%) 77.2 22.8

0

Irtterntrtioizal ~ r t ( i o s i u m In L)evelopir~g Ecurtomies: Cnrttrrronniities Airiortg Diversities

proportion of additives (blended cement with 3-4.5% additives) in OPC, up to a level that does not require additional equipment or major investment. This new type of cement (Semen Campur) - classified under the Indonesian standard of SNI 15-3500-1994- reduces the amount of clinker which automatically would result in 10% reduction of C02 and in a period of 10 years an emission reduction of around 7 million ton C02. CLR\TFCC, 2004).

7.0 TECHNOLOGICAL REGIME IN THE ACTOR NETWORK OF THE IT1

The technological regime in the actor network of the IT1 was investigated to get insight in how the actors act and interact concerning fly-ash as solid waste from the ITI. This will be reflected in their policies, strategies, rules, regulations, practices, perceptions, market and costs regarding fly ash from the ITI. The impact of the regime of the institutional actors concerning fly-ash as solid waste from the IT1 is indicated in the Figure 2.

Although all interviewed organisations in our survey amongst the governmental (KLH, BAPEDAL, DEPPERINDAG, PERTAMBEN) and non- governmental institutions (API, BBT, ITB) indicate that they perceive the increasing production of fly-ash by the IT1 as a problem (negative impacts of fly-ash production in technical, economic, ecological and social sense) there are apparently quite some constraints to handle it appropriately. Indonesia is a developing country, facing a lot of constraints regarding their environmental regulations and policies. The fly-ash problem has no priority for the national governmental organizations. The ministry of environment (KLH), concerned with the legal enforcement of environmental regulations, has declared fly ash as 1 8 1 I P a g e

facing a lot of constraints regarding their environmental regulations and policies. The fly-ash problem has no priority for the national governmental organizations. The ministry of environment (KLH), concerned with the legal enforcement of environmental regulations, has declared fly ash as a hazardous waste, based on the level of toxicity due to certain contents of heavy metals as well as and its fine particle size. These which could cause dust explosions and could be harmful for human health. Therefore reuse is not permitted legally, the fly ash should be land filled. The local authorities recognize the fly ash problems from the IT1 since local residents started to complain. Some textile companies, which are using coal, are already put on a blacklist because of illegal dumping and air pollution. The authorities agree that handling of fly-ash in the IT1 needs better control and monitoring but they have not enough manpower to do so. (DEPPERINDAG 2005). Due to national decentralization and democratization, the policies became fragmented, non-transparent and responsibilities to improve environmental situation unclear. Several governmental and non- governmental institutions in the West-Java region do not share the opinion of KLH regarding the hazardous waste status of the IT1 fly-ash, since analyses -based on the same criteria as used by KLH- proved that the IT1 fly ash is not hazardous.

The increased oil prices caused a compelled change from oil to coal boilers in the IT1 in order to reduce their production costs. However to obtain a permit to use coal boilers takes long procedures which causes financial troubles for the IT1 and in the worse case cause bankrupts. As a consequence textile companies need to cut workforce or even close the factory which is detrimental for the community of which a great part is working in this labour intensive industry. ( i n t e ~ e w s BBT, 2005) The perceptions and practices regarding fly-ash in the IT1 are summarized in figure 3.

Perception: fly ash is not really harmful for environment and public health

Perception: other companies discard fly ash without care

Limited priority to Environmental Protection (EP) DUMPING

ibility for EP

Little commitment towards EP: Hard to get soft loans Expensive Technologies Limited financial and technical resources Limited monitoring of natural resources &environmental

Figure 3. Perceptions and Practices Regarding Fly Ash in IT1

Alike the institutional actors also the interviewed textile companies mentioned that there is a lack of financial resources and manpower to solve the fly-ash problem. Moreover they indicated that the current regulations include only restrictions, no incentives for solutions and transport, storage and land filling regulations are non-transparent, complex and expensive.

The majority of the interviewed textile companies is not concerned about pollution in general. Yet there is awareness of the environmental regulations and how to protect the environment in general, mainly obtained through information from mass media, personal experience and relatives. They know fly ash can be reused but are not familiar with it. Fly-ash is perceived as a material that

If!ter.nttlio~lul Svnrlrosirtrn in Derelopirzg ~corromic!~~: Coir!~nontrIiti~c.At?!on'~ Diversities

bad monitoring and the lack of environmental awareness in general and regarding fly ash of the IT1 in particular, are the major causes for dumping of the fly ash by the ITI. (interviews API, 2005) This dumping appears to take place in increasing larger amounts. Although the individual companies think that they handle the fly ash properly they are not so sure whether the rest of the IT1 is operating in the same way. This could enforce the temptation to dump fly ash. Environmental protection does not have a high priority amongst the IT1 companies; it is the economic struggle for survival in a highly competitive market that is considered most important. This attitude is confirmed by our observation of fly ash lying idle on the grounds of bankrupt companies. The government is considered partly responsible to protect the environment.

The awareness among the local community about the fact that dumping of fly ash is polluting the environment and harmful for public health, resulted in an aversion of them to coal use and fly ash production by the ITI. Fly-ash is in their perception very dangerous, although they do not exactly know the reasons for this. As a response the community has started rebelling against the IT1 and blackmailing them in order to solve the problem or at least get paid for the inconveniency. On several occasions this has led to temporary closing of the factory, which also strikes the employees working at the companies and thus has a double impact on community as a whole. (interviews with M I , 2005)

8.0 TECHNOLOGICAL REGIME IN THE ACTOR NETWORK OF THE ICI

The technological regime in the actor network of the ICI was investigated to get insight in how the actors act and interact, which will be reflected in policies, strategies, rules, regulations, practices, perceptions, market and costs concerning the production and market of blended cement. A summary of the perceptions and practices regarding blended cement until 2002 is given in Figure 4.

Practices and Perceptions regarding blended cement

I production benefits .

: Financial risks

, .

Figure 4 Practices and Perceptions Regarding Blended Cement

The Indonesian cement industry aims at capacity utilization and financial sustainability thereby producing well accepted cement types (There are no specific requirements or environmental regulations that hamper the utilization of blended cement in Indonesia).

Despite all the benefits that come along with the use of blended cement and the fact that production of blended cement does not require tremendous investments, an attempt in 1996 of

1 8 3 1 P a g c

The Indonesian cement industrv aims at ca~acitv utilization and financial sustainabilitv thereby producing well accepted cement types (There are no specific requirements or environmental regulations that hamper the utilization of blended cement in Indonesia)'.

Despite all the benefits that come along with the use of blended cement and the fact that production of blended cement does not require tremendous investments, an attempt in 1996 of Indocement to launch a new blended cement type (with the brand name "Cap Rumah") on the Indonesian cement market failed mainly due to consumer aversion against blended cement. The cement market in Indonesia is still dominated by OPC. W C C , 2004) A major reason for the preference for OPC is the poor quality of blended cement that was used in the 1970s and 1980s in the construction sector, resulting in bad structures which had to be demolished. This created customer aversion against blended cement and caused a perception that blended cement is low grade, which continues to dominate nowadays. Besides there are no green incentives, l i e legal or regulatory requirements in Indonesia, that stimulate the production and use of new types of cements on the basis of environmental considerations. Blended cement is seen as a cement type with inferior quality The production of Cap Rumah cement stopped in 1998, whilst other countries in the region experience a growth in their blended cement market. In 2002 Indocement owned by Heidelberg Cement S-E Asia participated in a sustainable cement production project. The objective of this project was to reduce C02 emission by implementing new technologies and fuel types. One of the major activities was the introduction of a new type of cement (Semen Campur) with a higher proportion of additive materials (blended cement) to substitute OPC (UNFCC, 2004). The fly-ash is supplied by the power plants. To overcome the high demand risks and to give blended cement a fair chance on the market Indocement signed an agreement in 2004 with the World Bank for 10 years, conceming funding under the Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF) program. The World Bank Carbon F i c e Unit (CFU) uses money contributed by governments and companies in OECD countries to purchase project-based greenhouse gas emission reductions in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. This generated income can be used to for internal capacity buildig and finance marketing efforts to motivate early adopters to use blended cement. Internal capacity building, promotion, education of customers through seminars, study tours and co-operation with governmental institutions, industry association etc requires large investments. A successful introduction of blended cement on the market may be an incentive for other companies, and lead to an even larger CO2 emission reduction.

Carbon crediting: Sale of generated Cot emission reduction Environmental awareness training program

4%- 8 Community

n IT1 1-1 Environmental awareness Finance marketing efforts prove Positive Perception IT1 Investment in efficient coal blended cement boilers ecrease aversion blended cement

ecrease financial & Improve fly-ash quality market demand risks t mproved perception creditability

cement company due to participation

Increased confidence consumers & 1 1 nancers

Figure 5 World Bank Carbon Fund Program impact in Indonesia

regulations, standards, perceptions), make the C2C co-production of fly ash from the IT1 in the ICI impossible. A better coordination and transparent cooperation between the ministries, agencies at institutional level and the fly ash producers, particularly the smaller textile companies, could support in getting attention for the environmental problems caused by fly-ash dumping resulting in change and updating of the regulations.

A major barrier for using fly-ash as additive in the ICI is the perception and acceptation of blended cement in the market. Marketing efforts - which require relatively high investment - is seen as the major driver to change the negative perception in the market regarding blended cement and to establish a switch from OPC to blended cement. Participation in a Carbon Funding Program is a step in the direction towards setting blended cement on the Indonesian cement market. However, at the time of this research only one Cement producer -Indocement- had taken up the challenge. Governmental organizations could help lowering the market barriers which cement companies are facing by means of stimulating policies, and involvement in marketing of new types of blended cement. The latter could take place by enforcing the marketing efforts by using blended cement in their own building constructions projects.

The quality of the IT1 fly-ash is still off-spec, mainly due to the in-efficiency of the used boiler systems. Up-grading of this quality - e.g. by using better quality coal boilers- will imply that fly-ash no longer needs to be land filled. An increase of the quality of the fly-ash from the IT1 will increase its economic value and reduce the ecological impact at the same time. Also the local communities will benefit liom this in terms of reduced health problems. A major barrier to achieve this is the investment capacity of the textile companies. An improved awareness of the environmental, social and economic opportunities offered by higher quality fly-ash might promote its re-use in construction industry. The IT1 might take advantage from the World Bank CFP Plus program. This program enables smaller scale carbon crediting and community development at the same time. The potential impact of the World Bank Carbon Fund Program Plus is showed in Figure 6 .

- ~ ..-. ~~ ~ ... . . ~ ~ ~ ...

Carbon crediting Sale of generated C02 emission reduction

Environmental awareness training program + Community Development

Figure 6 Potential impacts of World Bank Carbon Fund Program Plus

4- s- 4-

Examples in other countries in the region have shown successful projects that were supported by the World Bank CFP Plus program. An example of such a project is the use of fly-ash in brick production as an alternative to burnt clay bricks in residential construction in India supported by the CFP Plus program. It is applied in buildings for government departments and state housing agencies.

Community

Improve Positive Perception IT1

ITI

Environmental awareness

Construction Industry

Oppomnity to start production of sustainable

Collaboration with S? Construction companies in local communities

low cost bldg material Increase environmental awareness

Employment Socio-economic

Income generation

development opportunities

Improved opportunities for low cost housing

Examples in other countries in the region have shown successful projects that were supported by the World Bank CFP Plus program. An example of such a project is the use of fly-ash in brick production as an alternative to burnt clay bricks in residential cons&ction in India supported by the CFP Plus program. It is applied in buildings for government departments and state housing agencies.

10.0 DISCUSSION

The case study showed that despite opportunities, barriers in the context in which the industries currently operate in Indonesia appear to hamper a successll implementation of the C2C concept to achieve sustainable development. However this is not surprising and it confirms the hypothesis of the innovation system theories. Any innovative product or process will face barriers which are to be found in the regime of the actor network in which it is introduced. The C2C principles are rather new indeed. They include many different aspects and present extreme propositions on how to alter the production practices in general. In our research project we only roughly touched the issue of re- using material inputs fiom one industry to another, focussing on the opportunities and obstacles in the actor network. More research should be carried out to get a more detailed picture on the applicability of the C2C concept to improve the sustainability of the present practices in the construction industry and cut back emissions, material and energy use in order that the Construction Industry becomes more sustainable also in Developing Countries.

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Auihor's Biography ~ . .

Emiiia van Egmond is senior Iechrrer and researcher in Innovation, Technology and Knowledge Transfer for Sustainable Consmrction. Currently attached at Section Building Technology, Faculfy of Architecture, Building ondPlnnning, Eindhoven Universify of Technology.