1. The ida. Source of all drivesb. Present at birthc. Includes genetic inheritance, reflexes, capaci-

ties to respond, instincts, basic drives, needs,and wishes that motivate an individual

d. Operates according to the Pleasure Principlee. Does not tolerate uncomfortable states and

seeks to discharge the tension and return toa more comfortable, constant level of energy

f. Acts immediately in an impulsive, irrationalway and pays no attention to the conse-quences of its actions; therefore oftenbehaves in ways harmful to self and others

g. The primary process is a psychological activityin which the id attempts to reduce tension.

h. The primary process can include hallucinat-ing or forming an image of the object thatwill satisfy its needs and remove the tension.

i. The primary process by itself is not capable ofreducing tension; therefore a secondary psycho-logical process must develop if the individual isto survive.When this occurs, the structure of thesecond system of the personality, the ego,begins to take form.

2. The egoa. Functions include reality testing and problem

solvingb. Begins its development during the fourth or

fifth month of lifec. Emerges out of the id and acts as an interme-

diary between the id and the external worldd. Emerges because the needs, wishes, and

demands of the id require appropriateexchanges with the outside world of reality

e. The ego distinguishes between things in themind and things in the external world.

f. Reality testing is a function of the ego, andthe ego uses realistic thinking.

g. The ego follows the Reality Principle andoperates by means of the secondary pro-cess—that is, realistic thinking.

h. The aim of the Reality Principle is to satisfythe id’s impulses in the external world withan object that is suitable; the Reality Principledetermines whether an experience is true orfalse and whether it has external existence.

i. The ego devises a plan and tests the plan bysome type of action to see whether it will work.

3. The superegoa. Necessary part of socialization that develops

during the phallic stage at 3 to 6 years of ageb. Develops from interactions with the child’s

parents during the extended period of child-hood dependency

c. Includes internalization of the values, ideals,and moral standards of society

d. Child internalizes moral standards of the par-ents and society

e. Superego consists of the conscience and theego ideal

f. Conscience refers to capacity for self-evalua-tion and criticism; when moral codes are vio-lated, the conscience punishes the individualby instilling guilt.

g. What parents approve of and what theyreward the child for doing becomeincorporated as the ego ideal by the mecha-nism of introjection.

h. The superego strives for perfection ratherthan pleasure and represents the ideal ratherthan the real.

i. Living up to one’s ego ideal results in the indi-vidual feeling proud and increases self-esteem.

D. Anxiety and defense mechanisms1. The ego develops defenses or defense mechan-

isms to fight off anxiety.2. Defense mechanisms operate on an unconscious

level, except for suppression, so the individual isnot aware of their operation.

3. Defense mechanisms deny, falsify, or distortreality to make it less threatening.

4. An individual cannot survive without defensemechanisms; however, if the individualbecomes too extreme in distorting reality, theninterference with healthy adjustment and per-sonal growth may occur.

E. Psychosexual stages of development (Box 32-3 onnext page)1. Human development proceeds through a series

of stages from infancy to adulthood.2. Each stage is characterized by the inborn ten-

dency of all individuals to reduce tension andseek pleasure.

3. Each stage is associated with a particular conflictthat must be resolved before the child can movesuccessfully to the next stage.

4. Experiences during the early stages determinean individual’s adjustment patterns and thepersonality traits that the individual has as anadult.

MORE QUESTIONS ON THE CD!

Practice Questions325. A clinic nurse is preparing to discuss the concepts

of moral development with a mother. The nurseunderstands that according to Kohlberg’s theoryof moral development, in the preconventionallevel, moral development is thought to be moti-vated by which of the following?1. Peer pressure2. Social pressures

s373CHAPTER 32 Theories of Growth and Development