effects of science process skills approach on academic performance and attitude of integrated...
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EFFECTS OF SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS APPROACH ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND ATTITUDE OF
INTEGRATED SCIENCE STUDENTS WITH VARIED ABILITIES.
BY
BITRUS IJAI GADZAMA M.ED/EDUC/10410/07/08
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, AHMADU BELLO
UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.
SEPTEMBER, 2012.
ii
EFFECTS OF SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS APPROACH ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND ATTITUDE OF
INTEGRATED SCIENCE STUDENTS WITH VARIED ABILITIES.
BY
BITRUS IJAI GADZAMA B.Sc (ED) Integrated Science (1999) A.B.U, Zaria
M.ED/EDUC/10410/07/08
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, AHMADU BELLO
UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.
SEPTEMBER, 2012.
iii
Effects of Science Process Skills Approach on Academic Performance and Attitude of Integrated Science Students
with Varied Abilities.
BY
BITRUS IJAI GADZAMA, B.Sc (ED) Integrated Science (1999) A.B.U, Zaria
M.ED/EDUC/10410/07/08
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE POST GRADUATE SCHOOL,
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA. IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE IN SCIENCE EDUCATION. DEPARTMENT
OF SCIENCE EDUCATION AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA-NIGERIA.
SUPERVISORS REV. DR. S.S OBEKA
DR. (MRS.) MARY A. LAKPINI
SEPTEMBER, 2012.
iv
DECLARATION
I declare that the work in this thesis entitled “Effects of Science Process Skills
Approach on Academic Performance and Attitude of Integrated Science students with
varied abilities”, has been performed by me in Science Education Section,
Department of Education under the supervision of very Rev. Dr. S. S. Obeka and Dr.
(Mrs.) M. A. Lakpini. The information derived from the literature has been duelly
acknowledged in the text and a list of references provided. No part of this thesis was
previously presented for another degree or diploma at any University.
Bitrus Ijai Gadzama __________________ ___________ __________ Name of student Signature Date
v
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis entitled “Effects of Science Process Skills Approach on Academic
Performance and Attitude of Integrated Science Students with varied abilities” by
Bitrus Ijai GADZAMA, meets the regulations governing the award of the Masters
Degree in Science Education of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and is approved for
its contribution to knowledge and Literary Presentation.
_______________________________ _______________ Very Rev Dr. S. S. Obeka Date Chairman, Supervisory Committee _______________________________ _______________ Dr. (Mrs) M. A. Lakpini Date Member, Supervisory Committee _______________________________ _______________ Dr. Mamman Musa Date Head of Department
_______________________________ _______________ Prof A. A. Joshua Date Dean Postgraduate School
vi
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to Almighty God and to the memory of my beloved
parents. Late Ijai Katabi Japul Gadzama and Mrs. Massu Ijai K. Gadzama.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I must express my special appreciation and thanks to the
Lord Almighty for His abundant Love, mercy and grace that made it possible for me
to accomplish this work. I wish to express my profound gratitude to my major
Supervisor Very Rev. Dr S. S. Obeka who did not only painstakingly go through the
write up several times, providing valuable suggestions, but kept his office and home
open for consultation as often as I called on him. His constructive critism helped to
refine this work. To me, it is a rare privilege to work under such a distinguished and
highly seasoned scholar. The Lord Almighty will reward him accordingly.
My sincere thanks and appreciation also go to Dr. (Mrs.) M. A. Lakpini my
second supervisor for her meaningful constructive criticism and valuable suggestions.
Her motherly encouragement helped to build the strength in me. I am also indebted to
Dr. J. S. Mari, Dr. (Alh.) I. Usman, Dr. (Mrs.) F. K. Lawal, Dr. (Mrs) T. E. Lawal, Dr.
S. S. Bichi, Prof. A. A. M. Shaibu, Dr. (Mrs.) S. B. Olorukooba, Dr. (Mrs.) J. O.
Olajide, Prof. I. O. Inuekwe and members of the advisory committee for their
constructive criticism and valuable suggestions. I wish to acknowledge the assistance
of Dr. Abubakar T. Dagoli, Mr. Emma Yakubu and Mohammed Mohammed
Mammai for typesetting this work.
I am quite indebted to my brothers Mallam Bzigu A. Thliza, Gideon Ali Saleh,
Mr. & Mrs. Bitrus A. Gadzama, my sisters Mrs. Parmata Pindar, Mr & Mrs. Joab W.
Gadzama, Mr. Pindar Mshelia, Mrs Esther Habu Bature, Mr & Mrs Madu Ahmadu
Mshelia, Mr. & Mrs. Ladi Maiwada Maijama’a Mr & Mrs Patricia Baba Usman
Wakawa for their prayers, financial support and encouragement which provided the
strength I needed to complete this work. I am also grateful to my uncles RSM
Anthony Sunu Bazza and police commissioner Kefas T. Gadzama (Rtd) who
contributed greatly in funding my education.
To my friends, Bukata D. D., Yaga Banfe Micheal, Ezekeil Silas, Mr & Mrs
Birma D. Mshelbwala, Mr. & Mrs. T. G. Ndirmbita, you have been quite a wonderful
source of encouragement and comfort. To my beloved wife, Lucy and my lovely
children Anthony, Maryamu, Ngida and Ijai this work wouldn’t have seen the light of
the day without your support, encouragement and sacrifice. To God be the Glory
Amen.
viii
ABSTRACT
The objective of the study was to investigate: The Effects of Science process Skills Approach on Academic Performance and Attitude of Integrated Science Students with varied Abilities. Four Research Questions and four Hypotheses guided the research. The hypotheses were tested at P<0.05 level of significance. The pretest and post test quasi experimental and control group design was used for the study. The population comprised all the 4,464 JSS III students from 28 Junior Secondary Schools in the Zone. A sample consisting of 504 students randomly selected by balloting from four co-educational schools in Potiskum Educational Zone was used for the study. The experimental group was taught Integrated Science concepts using Science Process Skills Approach, while the control group subjects were exposed to Lecture Method. Three validated instruments called Test of Practical Skills (TOPS), Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) and Attitude of Students Towards Integrated Science Questionnaires (ATISQ) were used to gather data. Data collected were analyzed using Cronbach Alpha Technique for reliability coefficient as follows: TOPS r = 0.96, ISAT r= 0.69, ATISQ r = 0.69. The result of the study revealed that: (1) there was significant difference in the mean academic achievement scores of the experimental high, average, and low ability levels, followed by control group average, high and low. (2) For all cases when males and females in the different ability sub-groups were compared, the result revealed that there is no significant difference in attitudinal change to Integrated Science, which implies that males and females attitudinal change to Integrated Science is gender-friendly. The researcher recommended that Science Process Skills Instructional Strategy should be incorporated in Integrated Science Teacher Training Curriculum in order to produce teachers who would handle Science Process Skills Instructional Technique effectively. The Federal and State Ministries of Education should provide adequate funds to sponsor Integrated Science Teachers for in-service training in Science Process Skills Instructional Strategy towards improving academic performance of students in schools.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page - - - - - - - - i
Declaration . . . . . . . . . . ii
Approval Page . . . . . . . . iii
Dedication. . . . . . . . . . iv
Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . v
Abstract. . . . . . . . . . vi
Table of Contents. . . . . . . . . vii
Operational Definition of Terms. . . . . . . viii
List of Abbreviation. . . . . . . . . xiv
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . xvii
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM. . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Theoretical Frame Work - - - - - - 7
1.3 Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . 7
1.4 Objectives of the Study. . . . . . . 8
1.5 Research Questions. . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Null Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Significance of the Study. . . . . . . 10
1.8 Scope of the Study. . . . . . . . 11
1.9 Basic Assumptions. . . . . . . . 12
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . 13
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Philosophy and Objectives of Integrated Science. . . . 13
2.3 Science Process Approach - - - - - - 16
2.4 Science Process Skills - - - - - - 19
2.5 Over view of Similar Studies on Science Process Skills Approach - 31
2.6 Concept of Varied Ability as a Factor in Learning Science. .. . 35
2.7 Ability Groups in Relation to Academic Performance - - 38
2.8 Instructional Methods in Science Education. . . . . 39
2.9 Academic performance in Integrated Science. . . . 45
2.10 Gender and Science Education. . . . . . 47
2.11 Attitude of Students to Learning Science. . . . . 50
x
2.12 Implications of Literatures Reviewed on Present Study. . . 54
2.13 Summary of Related Literatures. . . . . . 57
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY. . . . . 58
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Research Design. . . . . . . . 58
3.3 Population of the Study. . . . . . . 60
3.4. Sample and Sampling Procedure. . . . . . 62
3.5 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . 63
3.6 Selection of Concepts to be taught . . . . . 63
3.7 Pilot Study. . . . . . . . . 64
3.8 Treatment of the Experimental Group. . . . . 68
3.9 Treatment of the Control Group . . . . . 68
3.10 Administration of the Instruments. . . . . . 68
3.11 Treatment of Administration . . . . . . 70
3.12 Procedure for Data Collection . . . . . 75
3.13 Procedure for Data Analysis. . . . . . 76
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 78
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Analysis, Results Presentation/Hypothesis Testing. . . . 78
4.3 Summary of the Findings . . . . . . 92
4.4 Discussion of Result. . . . . . . . 94
CHAPTER FIVE:
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . 90
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . 90
5.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . 101
5.4 Recommendations. . . . . . . . 102
5.5 Limitation of the Study. . . . . . . 103
References. . . . . . . . . 106
xi
LIST OF APPENDICES. . . . . . . .
A: Test of Practical Skills (TOPS) Pre-Test . . . . . . 121
B: Test of Practical Skills (TOPS) Making Scheme . . . . . 129
C: Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) . . . 131
D: Marking Schemes in Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT). . 141
E: Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) Answer Sheet in Potiskum
Educational zone. . . . . . . . 143
F: Letter of Introduction. . . . . . . . 144
G: Attitude of Students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire (ATISQ). 145
H: The Distribution of Items according to dimensional scales of attitude of
students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire (ATISQ) . 147
Ia: Science Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP) Lessons on Science
Process Skills . . . . . . . . 148
1b: Lesson Plan for Experimental Groups . . . . . 153
J: Lesson Plan for the Control Group (Lecture Method). . 181
K: Pilot Study of the Instruments . . . . . 207
L: Discrimination Indices (DI) for the Integrated Science Achievement
Test (ISAT). . . . . . . . 209
M: Item Facility Difficulty (F1) for the Integrated Science Achievement
Test (ISAT) . . . . . . . . 210
N: Items Selected based on the Analysis of the Difficulty Index. . 211
List of tables
3.1 Population of the Study . . . . . . 61
3.2 Summary of the Sample Size . . . . . . 62
3.3 Summary of table of specification on test of Science Process
Skills (TOPS) . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 Table of Specification Based on Attitude of Students Towards Integrated
Science Questionnaire using Bloom Six Levels of Cognitive Objectives . 75
4.1a Summary of Descriptive Statistics of Experimental (Exposed to Science
Process Skills Approach) and Control Groups Exposed to (Lecture Method)
mean scores of High, Average and Low Ability sub-groups . . 79
4.1b Summary of a 2-ways Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of Mean
Scores was used which presented below: . . . 80
xii
4.c. Summary of Post hoc LSD Multiple Comparism Pair wise between
Experimental and Control Groups of Males and Females in High,
Average and Low Ability Sub-groups . . . . 82
4.2a Summary of the Descriptive Statistics of Mean Scores of Males and
Females Of the High, Average and Low Ability Sub-groups taught
Integrated Science Using Science Process Skills Approach . . 84
4.2b Summary of 2-ways Analysis of Variance of the Differences in the
Mean Scores of Males and Females of the High, Average and Low
Ability Sub-groups taught Integrated Science using Science Process
Skills Approach . . . . . . . . 85
4.2c Summary of Post Hoc LSD Multiple Comparism (pair wise) on the
Difference in the Mean Scores of Males and Females of the High,
Average and Low Ability Sub-groups taught Integrated Science
using Science Process Skills Approach . . . . 86
4.3a Table 4.3a Summary of mean ranks and Standard Deviation of sujects
of Post test attitudinal change in Integrated Science among subjects of the
high, average and low using using Science Process Skills Approach. 87
4.3b Table 4.3b Summary of Kruskal Wallis Statistics Test in the
Attitudinal change to Integrated Science among Subjects of the
High, Average and Low Ability sub-groups.. . . . . 88
4.3c. Table 4.3c: Summary of Kruskal Wallis statistics postest in the
attitudinal change to Integrated Science among subjects of the High,
Average and Low ability sub-groups. . . . . 89
4.4a Table 4.4a Summary of Descriptive Statistics difference in attitude
change in male and female subjects taugh Integrated Science Using
Science Process Skills Approach. Mann Whitney U-Test of mean rank
and Standard Deviation of Post Test was used.. . . . 90
4.4b Table 4.4b Summary of Mann-Whitney U- test statistics posttest in
attitude change to Integrated Science among male and female
subjects taught integrated science using Science Process Skills
Approach. . . . . . . . . 91
4.4c Table 4.4c Summary of Mann-Whitney U. test statistical difference
in attitude between male and female subjects taught integrated
science using Science Process Skills Approach is presented below: . 91
xiii
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Science Process Skills Approach: Skills needed to learn concepts and broad
principles used in making valid inductive influence in science education.
Attitude: A person’s feeling thought and predisposition to behave or respond
in some particular manner.
Ability: A relevant action taken or work done in order to provide output of a
project by using resources such as funds, technical assistance and other types
of resources.
High Ability: These are students who score sixty percentage (60%) and above
in term of examination in integrated science
Average Ability: These are students who score between 50% - 59% in their
average mean scores in integrated science.
Low Ability: These are students who score between 0 to 49% in their average
mean scores in integrated science.
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
JSS: Junior Secondary School.
WASSCE: West African Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination.
JSSCE: Junior Secondary School Certificate Examination.
STAN: Science Teachers Association of Nigeria.
NISP: Nigerian Integrated Science Project.
SAPA: Science A Process Approach
AAAS: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
FME: Federal Ministry of Education
NCCE: National Commission for Colleges of Education
TOPS: Test of Practical Skills
ISAT: Integrated Science Achievement Test
ATISQ: Attitude of Students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire.
SPSIP: Science Process Skills Instructional Package.
ANOVA: Analysis of Variance
ANCOVA: Analysis of Covariance
APSP: African Primary Science Project
USA: United States of America
YSUBEBZI: Yobe State Universal Basic Educational Board Zonal
Inspectorate
CHAPTER ONE
THE PROBLEM
1.1 Introduction
Science is an embodiment of knowledge or subject which includes Physics,
Biology and Chemistry at senior secondary school and tertiary institutions. At the
junior secondary school and primary school level, it is called integrated science. The
first step towards designing a science programme with an integrated approach was
taken by some educators from university of Nigeria, Nsukka. Thus as early as 1961,
Nsukka Primary Science Project was designed. Fafunwa was the leader of this group
(Odubunmi, 1991). However, nothing was done in terms of integrated science
curriculum for the lower forms of secondary school, until about seven years after the
Nsukka Primary Science Project was designed.
The idea of designing Nigerian Integrated Science Project (NISP) was raised
among members of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) in 1968. STAN
also participated in the revision of the West African School Certificate (WAEC)
science syllabus as a result of new development in science education. After reviewing
the Syllabus in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics, members of
curriculum review panel that reviewed the syllabus for STAN. The existing science
programme could be modified and adopted for junior forms of the secondary school.
Odumesi (2001), Abdullahi (2007) stated that representatives from various subjects
were selected to serve on the integrated science curriculum committee. In January
1970, the committee published the curriculum newsletter No. 1 specifying the
philosophy, methodology, content and evaluation of integrated science.
Owing to financial constraints, STAN could not proceed on the writing of text
materials for schools immediately. Bajah (1998) asserted that with the collaboration
of STAN and Heineman Educational Books International, Pupils’ Textbook,
Teachers’ Guide and Pupils’ Workbook were produced in 1972. With the adoption of
2
the National Policy on Education in 1979, Integrated Science became a core subject
taught at the Junior Secondary School level. Jacob and George (2007) Atadoga and
Onaolopo (2008) stated that in 1981 some members of STAN working in
Universities, Colleges of Education and Secondary Schools were selected to produce
the new edition of the Nigeria Integrated Science Project. In 1982, the new edition of
Integrated Science Text Book for the three year Junior Secondary School was
published.
Learning Integrated Science among students in Junior Secondary schools is not
exciting, captivating and alluring because of the lecture method that is being used to
teach the students. Lecture method employed by teachers poses problem to effective
teaching and learning of Integrated Science in the school because Integrated Science
Teaching does not only involve lecture, but also include practical demonstration and
experiments to be carried out by teachers for students to observe and practice.
The importance of teaching integrated science and the way it should be taught
has become apparent since science knowledge acquired at JSS level would form the
foundation for future science education of young children. Madueke, Ibrahim and
Usman (2002) observed that, the teaching of integrated science must be made
exciting, captivating and alluring to make the children develop deep interest in
science. The introduction of integrated science into the junior secondary schools
curriculum, originated from the shift in the trend of curriculum change in the world,
especially in Europe and America in response to the emergence of the Russian
Sputnik era, that brought the exploration of space using satellite by the Russians. This
development led American and European Governments to introduce the use of
Science Process Skills Approach in teaching basic and Integrated Science in their
schools. FME (2004), in the National Policy on Education recommended that
Integrated Science should be a mandatory school subject for junior secondary schools.
3
The policy stipulated that integrated science should be one of the core-curriculum
subjects to be taught at JSS level of Nigerian Educational System. Akale (1992)
observed that the implication of this aspect of the policy pre-supposes the availability
of trained manpower and infrastructural facilities for the successful implementation of
the policy.
The take off of the National Policy in 1982, resulted in a National Workshop
on the new Integrated Science Project and the 3-3 Secondary School System.
Madueke, Ibrahim and Usman (2002) observed that series of papers and a
communiqué were issued as part of the resolutions, part of which stressed that
institutions (Colleges of Education and Universities) concerned with teachers
preparations as a matter of urgency should create separate department of integrated
science or build in training of qualified integrated science teachers into their existing
programmes. The resolution was implemented because most Colleges of Education
and some universities in the country offer Integrated Science Courses.
However, despite these efforts to improve the quality of implementation of
integrated science, the quality of teaching and learning in Junior Secondary School is
below expectation. Akale (1992) observes that, our schools have no adequate facilities
required for integrated science teaching and learning, and this he said could affect the
teaching/learning of Integrated Science in the schools.
There has been poor performance of students in Junior Secondary School
Certificate Examination (JSSCE III) in integrated science. This poor performance
among students Fojola (1992) attributes to inadequate provision for practical activities
due to lack of adequate facilities. This inadequate facilities have made the teachers of
the integrated science to turn experiments in integrated science into demonstrations
for students to observed and copy notes rather than practically handling the materials
in order to acquire the desired process skills activity.
4
Effective Integrated Science teaching and learning ought to involve students in active
participation in teaching/learning process. Lack of such active participation of
students was identified by Shaibu and Usman (2002) as one of the factors responsible
for poor academic performance in integrated science. (Kempa, 1986 and Usman,
1993). Martins (2000) also note that poor performance of students in integrated
science could be attributed to the use of teaching methods that are not activity
oriented. Lecture method offers easy coverage of syllabus and faster dissemination of
scientific information and facts.
The lecture or expository method of teaching of Integrated Science does not
take care of the ability groups and there is a need to consider ability groups. Achilles
and Pate (1992) also reported a decrease in performance of students of different
abilities when the lecture method is used. In the same vein, Okoli (2006) indicated
that many integrated science teachers prefer the use of lecture method of teaching
than activity-oriented teaching method such as science process. This is because it
offers easy coverage of the syllabus, save time and energy.
Another factor that can affect poor performance of students in integrated
concepts could be as a result of difficulty of some concepts. Some studies conducted
by Iyang and Ekpoenyong (2000), Makanjuola (2002), Oyediran, Agoro and Fabiyi
(2004) differently, reveals that students have difficulties in coping with certain
concepts like energy conversion, mode of feeding in plants and animals. The
difficulty according to them is as a result of the frequent use of lecture method in
teaching Integrated Science at the Junior Secondary School levels.
Most junior secondary school teachers spend most of their time in class
teaching for memory and comprehension as opposed to teaching for the development
of process skills. Akinmade (1996) notes that experiences for science students in
schools where the students are adequately guided promote acquisition of skills, such
5
as measuring, observing, classifying, predicting to mention but a few. These skills are
critical for the development of a worthwhile and fruitful understanding by students of
integrated science concepts. Observing, measuring, identify, inferring and classifying
experiences are also critical for achieving expertise in the meaningful use of scientific
procedures for problem- solving and for applying scientific understanding to one's
own life. Yuguda (2008) was of the opinion that, successful use of science process
skills in class lessons will make learning richer and more meaningful to students
learning integrated science. Ango (2002) maintains that, expertise in science process
skills is a basic and integral part of having effective science teaching and learning
skills. Such expertise obviously is not innate. Employing Science Process Skills
Approach involves practical work and practical work creates meaningful learning
experience.
Abdullahi (2007) states that, practical work has been found to enhance the quality and
the extent of scientific understanding that is achieved by students. Based on the merits
of using Science Process Skills Approach in enhancing academic performance of
students, this study sought to use SEPA to find out if it will improve the academic
performance of students of varied ability groups and also to find out if its use will
have any effect on their attitude to integrated science as a subject.
The importance of gender to science learning cannot be overemphasized. One
major goal for reform in science education is to evolve a science oriented programme
for every child to participate actively and learn maximally irrespective of sex, social
background and ability levels. Males and females varied in physical appearance; the
question raised is what about their abilities in perceiving science process skills? Males
had better performances than females when the Science Process Skills Approach is
used (Omotayo 2002). According to Adegive (2000) attributes the differences in the
learning ability levels of males and females due to socialization processes that take
6
place at home and the society around them. Samba (1998) attributes the differences in
the learning abilities of gender to social, educational, role model, orientation and
stereotyping. The researcher has endeavoured to find out the effect of science process
skills on gender.
In discussing factors that cause poor performance of students in integrated
science, one also looks at factors that can enhance academic performance of students
in integrated science, such as attitude among others. Attitude is an important variable
that can improve the performance of student’s especially junior secondary school
students in integrated science. Omotayo (2002) argues that there is the need to
develop strategies that will foster desirable scientific attitude among students in order
to improve the teaching/learning of integrated science in Nigerian schools. The
researcher further recommended that incentives should be given to students who show
less interest in integrated science course.
Educational researchers such as Matins and Oyebanji (2000), Mari (2001) and
Dandlandi (2003) have spent a lot of time to identify factors and conditions that
promote or hinder learning of science process skills. Their results revealed that factors
such as cooperative learning experiences, hands on and minds on activities promote
development of science process skills in learners. Factors such as uncooperative
learning experiences which could cut down on interpersonal relationship because
students work individually do not promote learning of Science Process Skills (Otuka,
(2004), Shata (2006) and Abdullahi 2007).
1.2 Theoretical Framework
The study on Effects of Science Process Skills Approach on Academic
Performance and Attitude of Integrated Science students with Varied Abilities was
hinged on the works of Dunkin and Biddle (1994). They identify variables that affect
7
teaching/learning process and categorized them into four groups: Context Variables,
Presage Variables, Process Variable and Product Variables.
Context Variables are those conditions to which the teacher must adjust,
context variables in this study are formative experiences (age, gender and socio-
economic status), students’ characteristics (Ability, knowledge and attitudes). School
and community characteristics (ethnic make-up, school size, climate, busing), and
classroom variables (class size, text books and technology involved). Presage
variables are those characteristics of teachers that could affect the teaching/learning of
process skills, such as personal formative experiences, teachers training experiences.
Process variables are those activities that influence classroom teaching, consisting of
actions by both the teacher and the students. The final category, product variables
represent the outcomes of teaching/learning grouped into learning attitudes, skills
development or adult personality development. This study would investigate the
effects of Science Process Skills Approach on academic performance and attitude of
Integrated Science students with varied abilities taking into consideration variables
like attitude, gender and ability as outlined by works of Dunkin and Biddle.
1.3 Statement of Problem
During teaching activities, teachers assumed that students are at the same
ability levels, low achievers that need more attention are neglected. If the ability
levels of students are not given the needed attention, then poor performance of the
JSS students could remain (Chadau, 2002). Studies of Stanley (2008), Kaduna
Educational Resource Centre (2008 and Usman (2010) in their study conducted on
teaching and learning of integrated science revealed that lecture method is the
commonly used method of teaching. Mari (1994), Usman (2000) and Danladi (2003)
state that as a result of the constant use of lecture method, the academic performance
8
of students in integrated science remains poor. Though the Nigerian Integrated
Science Project emphasizes development of science process skills in students, little or
no attention has so far been paid to ascertaining whether or not participation in it has
any influence on students’ academic performance. Science Process Skills Approach
according to Madueke, Ibrahim, and Usman, (2002) has the merits of making teaching
of Integrated Science exciting, captivating and interesting to students.
It is in the light of these merits that this study was conducted to find out if
Science Process Skills Approach would have positive impact or otherwise on
academic performance of students with varied abilities. Omotayo (2002) has
identified attitude as an important variable that can improve the academic
performances of students’ especially junior secondary students in integrated science
project.
The study therefore also sought to determine the effects of Science Process
Skills Approach on the attitude of students in the various ability levels to integrated
science. The effects of Science Process Skills Approach on gender were also
examined.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The effects of Science Process Skills Approach on academic performance in
and attitude of Integrated Science students with varied abilities, has the following
objectives which are:
i. To determine the effects of Science Process Skills Approach (SPSA)
on academic performance and attitude of JSS students in integrated
science.
ii. To find out if using Science Process Skills Approach (SPSA) would
make students understand concepts taught in Integrated Science
9
iii. Ascertain the effects of Science Process Skills Approach on
performance of various ability group subjects in terms of performance
and gender.
iv. Find out whether the varied ability groups subjects attitudes towards
integrated science, after exposing them to science process skills
approach would be enhanced or not.
1.5 Research Questions
The following research questions were addressed in this study. Specifically,
the study sought to answer the following research questions:
1. What are the differences in the mean scores of the subjects in the high,
average and low ability sub-groups taught Integrated Science using Science
Process Skills Approach and their counterparts taught using lecture method?
2. What are the differences in the means scores of males and females of high,
average and low ability groups taught Integrated Science using Science
Process Skills Approach?
3. What are the effects of Science Process Skills Approach on attitudinal change
of subjects of high, average and low ability groups after exposure to Science
Process Skills Approach?
4. What is the difference in the attitude of males and females taught using
Science Process Skills Approach?
1.6 Null Hypotheses
Based on the research questions four null hypotheses were formulated and
tested at P ≤ 0.05 level of significance.
10
HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean scores of subjects in the
high, average and low ability sub-groups taught integrated science using Science
Process Skills Approach and their counterparts taught using lecture method.
HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean scores of males and
females of the high, average and low ability sub-groups taught integrated science
using Science Process Skills Approach.
H03: There is no significant attitudinal change to integrated science among
subjects in the high, average and low ability sub-groups after they were taught
integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach.
H04: There is no significance difference in attitude of males and female
subjects taught integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach.
1.7 Significance of the Study
This study sought to find the effects of Science Process Skills Approach on
academic performance and attitude of integrated science students’ with varied
abilities. It is hoped that the findings from these study would:
help integrated science teachers to teach students using process skills
approach. be of benefit to students and it would equip them in solving
problems of scientific nature effectively and probably enhance their
academic performance.
help the students to develop positive attitude towards learning
integrated science.
benefit institutions of higher learning, where integrated science
teachers are trained on how Science Process Skills Approach can be
used for teaching and learning.
11
provide researchers with empirical evidence on the performance of
students exposed to Science Process Skills Approach when compared
with lecture
method, which would provided a stepping stone for further studies.
be useful to other researchers who are interested in issues related to
varied abilities.
be useful to associations concerned with outcomes of research
especially those interested in instructional innovations in integrated
science packages.
It would also be of interest to curriculum developers who would
benefit from the findings of the study by bringing into focus the
effectiveness of Science Process Skills Approach and thereby enable
them to make necessary adjustment in the curriculum where necessary.
enormously contribute and stimulate further research which would
results in up-liftment of the standard of science education in Nigeria.
1.8 Scope of the Study
For this study JSS III students in four Junior Secondary Schools in Potiskum
educational zone were used. The average age ranges of the subjects was 13-16 years.
The study was delimited to concepts of, energy conversion and the methods of
feeding in plants and animals. These concepts are in the JSS III syllabus.
12
1.9 Basic Assumptions
The following basic assumptions were made.
The students already have good foundation in integrated science.
The teachers teaching integrated science in the various schools under
this study are qualified.
Laboratory facilities needed to inculcate in student’s science process
skills as recommended by Science Teachers Association of Nigeria
(STAN) are available in the schools.
13
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights some theories which guide the learning strategies
which teachers use in teaching integrated science. It also presents previous studies
which have direct relevance to this study. This chapter is organized under the
following sub-headings.
Philosophy and Objectives of Integrated Science.
Science Process Skills Approach
Science Process Skills
Overview of Similar Studies on Science Process Skills.
Concept of Varied Ability as a Factor in Learning Science.
Ability groups in Relation to Academic Performance
Instructional Methods in Science Education
Performance in Science Education
Gender and Science Education
Attitude of Students to Learning Science
Implications of Literatures Reviewed on Present Study
Summary of Related Literatures
2.2 Philosophy and Objectives of Integrated Science
The philosophy and objectives of integrated science is based primarily on the
philosophy and objectives of the National Policy on Education as they affects science
education in general and integrated science in particular. Based on the National Policy
on Education (F.M.E, 2004) secondary school education is expected to among others;
(a) Prepare the children to become useful to themselves and their society and
14
(b) Prepared the children for higher education. In specific terms, the secondary
school education shall:
provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of a
higher level, irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background.
diversify its curriculum to cater for differences in talents, opportunities and
future roles.
provide trained manpower in the applied science technology and commerce at
sub-professional grades;
raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views
and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those values
specified under broad national goals and live as good citizens of this great
country Nigeria.
provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agriculture,
industrial, commercial and economic development, If, secondary education is
properly handled and its aims and objectives are achieved, the products should
be capable of functioning well in our society. They should also have acquired
great potentials for higher education which is paramount to the provision of
manpower. Integrated science is a foundation of science in junior secondary
school. Atadoga and Onaolapo (2008) suggests that, integrated science as a
course must gently and slowly introduce learners to what science is all about
and how scientist do their work.
i. Objectives of Teaching Integrated Science
The objectives of teaching integrated science to learners or students such as
acquiring basic knowledge in science developing attitudes of scientist, as stated in
National Policy on Education F.M.E (2004) and N.C.C.E (2002) are:
15
(a) Preparing for careers in science and technology prescribed examinations.
The objectives of teaching integrated science:
i. helping learners solve some problems arising from observation of their
immediate environment.
ii. developing high skill observation
iii. contributing meaningfully to the development of their society.
iv. helping the learners to learn themselves via more simple observation.
v. equipping the learners to choose careers in science and technology.
vi. helping the learners to learn scientifically, manipulating their world for the
good. Hence, the objectives of integrated science in NPE (2004)are geared
towards equipping the learners with the following skills:
observation, particularly carefully and thoroughly,
reporting correctly and accurately things observed,
organizing carefully and correctly information gathered from
observation and report; testing the data collected.
experimenting of the data collected, some of the experiments may go
with control where necessary.
analyzing the result of the experiments.
tabulating the results of analysis,
generalizing the results collected,
predicting the outcome of the results conclusion and
conclusion
The list mentioned above makes up what is known as science process skills.
16
2.3 Science - A Process Approach
Since the mid-fifties, revolutionary changes have been taking place in the
teaching of science. Teams of scientists and teachers have attempted to bring about far
reaching improvement in Science Education at all levels, including the elementary
school level. The commission of Science Education of the American Association for
the Advancement of science with financial support from the national science
foundation embarked upon the preparation of Science programme for the elementary
school. Materials were first written during the summer of 1963 and in each of the
subsequent summers through 1967. This effort gave birth to a new curriculum called
Science – A process Approach (SAPA) in August, 1969.This curriculum considered
the Process Approach as its main instructional strategy for teaching and learning of
science.
In Nigeria, it was after 1969 (the year in which the first National curriculum
conference was organized) there were increased conscious effort to modernize science
content and instruction (Akpan, 1992) to reflect this pedagogical triumph. Such
attempt according to Akpan (1992) have been made through programmes like the
Nigerian Integrated Science Project (NISP) by the Science Teacher Association of
Nigeria (STAN) the Bendel Primary Science Project (BPSP) and the Nigeria
Secondary School Science Project (NSSSP), which was a project of the comparative
Education Study and Adaptation Centre (CESAC) Now Nigeria Educational Research
and Development Council (N.E.R.D.C)
In science process approach, the ability to read is not as essential as it is in
many traditional curricular. Thus, inquiry into science can begin as early as
kindergarten. Success does not depend on reading skill, but on the ability to use the
process of science. The implication of this according to Ameh (2001), lie in the
provision of equal opportunity to children from low socio-economic backgrounds
17
(many of whom may have reading problem), and those children from higher socio-
economic strata.
There is however several basic assumptions underlying the SAPA programme.
Ahmed (2004) identified some of these basic assumptions as follows:
The first assumption is that science can be taught to young children in an
honest and open minded manner. For the SAPA programme, the primary implication
of this is that children should learn no so much the facts which are the outcome of
scientific investigation but as the process used by scientists. There are five basic
processes and eight integrated taught in the programme. The second assumption is
that science is best by doing.
The third assumption is that the lesson must take into account the empirical finding of
developmental psychology. SAPA used the insight of the psychologist Robert Gagne
as a guide in the programme design. Each lesson in SAPA specified the particular
behavioral objectives of that lesson. Each lesson also specifies the competency
measure for that lesson. This represents a very specific way of teaching science and
unique contribution to the teaching of integrated science. The strategy is based on the
notion that children undergoing very active processes during their growth and
development and that science is a participatory subject and not a spectator art
(Akinmade 1996). Hence science teaching can not be done by listening and reading
alone. Pupils should involve in meaningful activities during which they have ample
opportunity to use a functional in intellectual skills called the science process to solve
problems. These processes according to Wuyep (1996) are the foundation for
scientific inquiry and the generalized intellectual skills selected to learn the concepts
and broad principles used in making the valid inductive inferences.
Akinmade (1996) found out that process approach improves students’ ability to apply
intellectual skills to solve problems. It also helps the learner become more creative,
18
master science content better; develop position attitude towards science and the
scientist. Eniayeju (1994) observe that children who study science through applying
science process to solve problem, do learn and remember as many or more facts than
those who study science by more traditional methods. Further support for the
adaptation of the process approach in science teaching was given by Awodi in Shaibu
and Mari (1997) observed that science teacher can not teach science effectively
without employing the process of science and neither can students learn effectively
without the use of the process of science which is assured by the process approach.
In an attempt to meet the instructional demand of the new 6-3-3-4 system of
education in Nigeria, Danladi (2003) observed that a greater concern was given on
how to organize science lesson in line with the demand of the process approach. This
could be the reason why science teaching presently emphasized the 3 H’s (Head,
Heart and Hand) and no more the out dated 3 R’s (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic)
(Akpan, 1992).
In science, process approach content is used to develop processes and both
students and teachers are actively involved in categorizing and criticizing information
from the object (Mari, 1994). However, research on strategies and methodologies for
teaching science in elementary schools has produced clearer evidence that students in
the process approach programme learn more than do students in traditional text books
– based programmes (Breedman, 1997). Report by Karen (1998) also indicates that
the process approach programmes of the sixties and seventies. Elementary science
study (ESS). Science curriculum improvement study (SCIS) and science- A process
Approach (SAPA) were more effective in raising students performance and attitudes
than the traditional reading-based programmes.
19
In attaining the above objectives, SAPA considered the interest of the African
child in learning of science; it therefore employed the child’s own environment and
employed the techniques of science as a vehicle (Ogunleye, 1999).
SAPA also produce many textual materials, in form of teacher guide and
engage in training teachers since it appreciates the role of the teacher in the
preparation of learning materials diagnosing the needs of the people. Eniayeju (1994)
identified seven additional skills attainable from the process approach which include
creativity, counting number relationship, questioning, manipulating, control variables,
organization and acquisitive skills.
2.4 Science Process Skills
(Gagne; 1971) states that Science Process Skills are intellectual skills needed
to learn concepts and broad principles used in making valid inductive influence. The
commission on Science Education of the America Association for the Advancement
of Science (AAAS) has identified eleven (11) process skills which are considered to
be representative of problem solving activity. Akinmade (1992) and Mari (2001)
noted that, these process skills are categorized thus:
i) Basic process skills i.e observing, measuring, inferring, predicting, classifying,
collecting and recording.
ii) Integrated process skills i.e. integration of data, controlling variables,
defining operationally, formulating hypotheses, experimenting and
communicating.
According to Gagne’ (1971) the process skills are hierarchically organized
with the ability to use each upper level process being dependent on the ability to use
the simpler underlying process.
Finley (1983) identifies the major features of the process skills as;
20
(i) Each process is a specific intellectual skill used by all scientists and applicable
to understand any phenomena.
(ii) each process is an identifiable behaviour of scientists that can be learned by
students.
(iii) being generalizable (transferable) across content domain and contribute to
rationale thinking in every day life.
This study assumes that, subjects are capable of acquiring these intellectual
skills that students employ in scientific investigation through planned hands-on-
activities. Padilla (1989) in Mari (1994) establish a high relationship between
integrated science and formal reasoning ability and postulated that exposure to
integrated process skills may have positive influence on the development of formal
reasoning.
The process-based activity involved the use of seven (7) integrated science
process skills. Possession of such skill according to Danladi (2007), is apparent if
students can take action to find appropriate information and techniques from the
previous experience and bring them to bear new problems and situations.
i. Process: Observing
(Abdullahi 1982) states that the observation is the first process in scientific
inquiry. It is made up of particular event and general principles are developed from a
number of specific and consistent cases It is considered to be the fundamental skill by
virtue if its position at the foundation of the hierarchy of skills needed to discover
knowledge required conducting inquiry. Eniayeju (1994) describes it as the skills of
looking and seeing which may be made directly. Thus, the active use of the sense
organs during the process of observation according to Ogunleye (1996) enables one to
determine the quantity and quality of things and events. Observations are influenced
by post experiences often involving instruments (microscopes, hand lens, telescope,
21
etc) and requiring careful recording and description (Karen, 1998). Abdullahi (2007)
identifies three broad proficiencies that are logically necessary for achieving
observational competence to include:
making observation well
reporting observation well
assessing report of observation
ii. Process: Measuring
(Karen 1998) maintains that, measuring involves assigning numbers to objects
or events that may be arranged in a continuum according to set of values and
expression of observation in quantitative terms adds precision and permits more
accurate descriptions. According to Eniayeju (1994) measuring employs the use of
counting skills to man-made units of length, area, volume, weight and time. The units
are initially those developed and applied by the pupil themselves. It is a process which
involves the use of an instrument to determine the quantitative value associated with
the properties of an object or event (Akinmade 1992, Ogunleye 1996). Mari (1994)
identify seven (7) sub-process involved during the process of measuring, thus:
ordering objects by inspection in terms of magnitude of selected common
properties such as linear dimension area or volume.
comparing quantities such as length area, volume and weight to arbitrary unit,
taking measurement using standard units.
taking measurement of quantities which depend upon more than one variable.
converting from one system of unit to another.
using and division indirect means to measure quantities.
To be proficient in the use of the process of measurement according to
Akinmade (1992), students should be able to measure time, rate of change and
22
property of an object, represent an object by scale diagram, draw an accurate map and
be aware of the limitations of the various measuring devices in use. In addition,
students should be able to determine the area and value of one, two or three
dimensional objects.
iii. Process: Inferring
Inferring as perceived by Ogunleye (1996) is a skill of basing judgment on
observed and measured event. Smith and Welliver (1990) see it as an interpretation of
one’s direct observing, past experiences are generally used as a basis for
interpretation. According to Eniayeju (1994) inference implies the cause and effect
relationship which may be based on preliminary or sketch data or very well founded
data from experiment.
The following sub-process are involved in the process of inferring as identified by
Mari (1994) are:
distinguishing pertinent observation upon which given inferences are based
and are extraneous.
drawing an inference from a set of related observations.
stating cause and effect relationships from observation of related events.
identifying and extending inferences to include discrepant event.
modifying and extending inferences to include discrepant event.
developing plans to test the validity of inferences
using inferences from one set of observations to suggest forth observation.
iv. Process: Interpreting data
According to Smith and Williver (1990) interpreting is a process of using
various forms of data to determine the validity of a hypothesis, to organize
information derived from an experiment, or revise interpretation of data based on new
information. When using the process of interpreting, students are required to
23
determine the pattern or put meaning into it or as well as take meaning out of their
experience. They are also expected to provide a justification for the measuring put
into their experience and to generalize to other situations on the basis of sufficient
evidence (Akinmade 1992). Mari (1994) views interpreting data as a process which
involve identifying changes in size, shape, position and judgement of validity and
usefulness of data. However, Akinmade (1992) identifies what a student should be
able to do to determine competence in the use of skill as follows:
make sound generalization from a set of data
identify cause and effect relationship
provide reasonable justification for any generalization made.
draw as many plausible inferences as are permitted by a given data set.
test an inference by collecting more data and
recognize which data lend support to an inference.
Eniayeju (1994) explains that, these skills help the students to collect data,
identify cause and effect, provide reasons for justifying generalization and draw
inference from a data set.
v. Process: Classifying
Classifying objects according to Mari (1994), involves sorting and arranging
objects according to their similarities and differences. During this process things or
events are organized, categorized and grouped, based on observed or measured
property to form an easily recognized pattern. Akinmade (1992) identifies six (6)
characteristics of a child who attain certain level of competence in using the process
of classifying thus the child is able to:
categorize object or system of objects using a given property.
24
determine with reason an appropriate property and categorize objects or
systems of objects according to that property.
classify object or systems of objects according to two or more given
simultaneous properties.
select and justify two or more appropriate simultaneous properties and group
objects or systems of objects on the basis of those properties.
identify the properties on which a given set of objects has been grouped and
regroup a given set of objects or systems of objects using a rational procedure.
Eniayeju (1994), sees classification as a process and skill of sorting, grouping and
ordering objects by both their quality and quantity. The desired goal in this
scientific process is for children/students to develop sensible reasons as bases
of their grouping, sorting and ordering.
vi. Process: Predicting
Making prediction according to Akinmade (1992), involves figuring what
future observation will be on the basis of available previous information, identifying
some proficiency associated to a person who achieves competence in using the
process prediction. Akinmade (1992) suggested that such a person should be able to:
find out and explain trends in a given set of data,
device appropriate procedures for checking the correctness of the prediction
made.
present plausible arguments and evidence to justify his prediction; and
exercise restraint in making predictions in the absence of reliable and valid
multiple observations.
Smith and Welliver (1990), see the skills of predicting as the process of
determining or anticipating future events based on past observations and experience.
To Eniayeju (1994), predicting is a scientific process which arises from a well
25
founded base of hypothesis, theory or even law. With regularly consistent data at
hand, one can predict. According to Ogunleye (1996) and Mari (1994) predicting
involves forecasting or extrapolating on the basis of past observations.
vii. Process: Communicating
This is the process skill of transmitting acquired information from one person
or group to another which may result in change in behavior. Scientific experiences in
observation, data collection, discovery etc. according to Eniayeju (1994), need to be
communicated to other people through the means of communication. This will give
growth to knowledge and it could be in written words, diagrams, graphs or models.
However, Mari, (1994) identifies the following sub-processes involved during the
process of communicating thus.
describing observation verbally.
describing conditions under which observations are made:
recording observation in a systematic way.
using table and graphs to communicate data
planning for communication of procedures and result as an essential part of an
experiment.
reporting experimenting procedures in a form so that other persons can
replicate the experiment.
using mathematical analysis to describe interpretation of data.
viii. Process: Experimenting
This is the testing of hypothesis to confirms our guess or disprove it. Initially,
it might be in form of trial and error. According to Eniayeju (1994), experimenting
involve chasing after answer along a path that appears faithful. Abdullahi, (2007)
states that, designing experiment involves planning a serial of data gathering
26
operations which will eventually provide the bases for testing hypothesis or answering
a research questions. The achievement of competence in the use of this process skill
according to Akinmade (1992), implies that students are able to.
chose, clarify and state the primary variable being investigated in a way that
could be tested.
confine the number of variables to a manageable number.
competently control variables.
differentiate between independent and dependent variables.
select or design data gathering procedures that are appropriate to the
investigation.
use the process of observing, classifying comparing and measuring to gather
relevant data.
ensure the reliability and validity of data gathering procedures employed.
record and organize data using tables, graphics representations and models.
use the process of inferring and predicting to interpret the data collected.
find a rational answer to the research questions posed.
Raise new relevant question and
design new experiments to find a rational answers or the new research
question raised.
Experimenting according to Mari (2001) involves designing an investigation
to find out the effect of independent variables on dependent variables. Failure to
identify significant variables and control them will affect the result. In designing
experiments, limitations of the method and apparatus must be considered.
27
xi. Formulating questions and hypothesis
Questions are formed on the basis of an attempt to evaluate situation. They
point to the specific problems to be solved. Hypothesis on the other hand, is based on
questions under investigation. Okebukola (1985) defines hypothesis as making wise
guesses as tentative and unproven answer to questions raised. It is usually statement
that can be tested through experiment. In this study subjects were led to how to use
their hands and senses to manipulate the available materials to do as scientists do in
the laboratory set up.
Students should be involved in science process oriented activities in the
laboratory like; hands and minds on activities. Students should learn to use science
process skills by engaging them in daily activities, while the teachers supervise their
work.
x. process: control variables
This is the process so identifying the influential variables in a system, holding
in a system, holding some constant and varying others to see how system behaves
(Eniayeju 1994). Thus the experiment will discover the real role of a variable or factor
in a system.
ii) Related Findings in the Science Process Skills Approach.
The development of a sound scientific, reflective and problem solving
capabilities in children as demanded by the federal ministry of education policy
document (National Policy on Education F.M.E, 1998) have been the concern of
many science curriculum innovators in Nigeria. This could be achieved when children
are exposed to the process of scientific inquiry. The Process Approach, because of its
unique and distinguishing feature of developing in children, a set of Science Process
Skills, will be helpful in this respect, more so, that there are indicators in works of
28
Ronning and Curdy (1982) Lassa and Akpan (1998), showing that students of
integrated science performed poorly in tasks involving the use of basic and integrated
science processes skills. This trend may be partly due to many factors some of which
include students’ characteristics, teachers and the curriculum content.
Report by Karen (1998) indicates that science experience not only enhance
operational abilities of kindergarten and first Grade students, but also facilitates the
transition from one level of cognitive development to the next in older students;
Osisioma and Nzewi (1994) observe that, the difficulty in science is believed to be
associated with students’ intellectual development. In their study, Osisioma and
Nzewi (1994) discovered that formal thinkers were found to perform better than
concrete thinkers than abstract.
In a joint study conducted by Padilla, Okey and Dillashaw (1989), to
determine the relationship between science process skills and formal reasoning ability
among 500 grade 7-12 students in Atlanta Geogia in the United States of America, a
formal operational and integrated science process skills achievement instruments were
administered. Result from these two instruments indicated a strong relationship
between performance on the two measurements (r=0.73).
However, Borich and Baird (1987) observe a moderate degree of overlap
existing between integrated science process skills and formal operational thought.
Tobia and Tapie (1984) found a significant inter-correlation between formal reasoning
ability and process skills achievement (r=0.6 and r=0.71) Akinmade (1996) too noted
that formal reasoning and science process skills acquisition and achievement are not
independent of one another.
The kind of science curriculum students is exposed to play an important role
in the development of integrated science skills. Akinmade, (1992) Nwosu (1994),
observe a low level acquisition of both aggregate and individual process skills among
29
SS1 Biology students and that students performed better on basic process skills than
higher skills. Similarly, Nwosu and Okeke (1995) report that teacher sensitization of
students acquisition of science process skills enhanced the acquisition of the
higher/integrated process skills like interpreting data.
Shaw (1983) investigating the effect of process oriented science curriculum upon
problem-solving ability reported that a relationship does not exist between students’
being involved in the Science a Process Approach (SAPA) curriculum and their
ability to apply problem-solving skill to content not covered in the possibility that the
use of these skills may transfer to other academic areas and make a person a better
problem- solver throughout his life.
The selection of process-oriented curriculum and training of teachers are
necessary but not sufficient condition for the process skills development and
achievement in children. Students must also be optimally involved in the process
oriented activities if development must take place. The view expressed by
Akinmade (1992) that, students learn how to use science processes by engaging them
in their daily activities is crucial. Hence, students should learn the process skills by
doing them in and out of school.
A study conducted by Tobin (1986) shows that students performance on
higher process skills was significantly related to higher students’ encouragement in
collecting in and planning task. This is supported by Strawltz (1989) that, students
using self-instructional materials significantly out-performed students taught process
skills by a teacher. Nwosu (1994) also maintains that, science process skills
development requires direct involvement in scientific activities and procedures in the
laboratories and in the field. (Machlin and Oliver, 1993), Simon, Zimmerman, (1980)
and (Karen, 1998) research indicated that integration of science with reading and
mathematics has produced positive effect on teaching. Reading and activity oriented
30
science emphasized the same intellectual skills and are both concerned with thinking
processes. Karen (1998) also notes that, when a teacher helps students to develop
science process skills, reading process are simultaneously being developed. When
students use the process skills of observing, identifying and classifying, they are better
able to discriminate between vowels and consonants and to learn the sounds
represented by letters, syllables,
Furthermore, Machlin and Oliver (1993) observe that students’ ability to learn
and acquire science process skills enable them apply mathematics to real world
problems. At the elementary level, the teacher can provide a “hand-On” science
activity that facilitates the learning of abstract arithmetic concepts such as number
sequencing, regrouping and fraction. Attitude was found to be an important correlate
of science process acquisition and achievement. Beaker (1981) reports in his finding
that there is a higher correlation of achievement causing attitude than for the reverse,
achievement is more related to interest than it is to attitude. Students characteristics
play a major role in the shaping of attitude to science, that significant relationship
exist between the child’s attitude and his achievement. Gyuse and Akinmade (1986)
and Wareing (1990) in a related study stated that although a one-to one
correspondence between attitude and behaviour is yet to be definitely proved, the
ability of attitudinal characteristics influencing behavioural outcomes, can be
categorically denied. This shows that, there appear to be no cross-age causal
relationship between attitude and student’s behavior or characteristics.
Study on the relationship between attitude and achievement in science process
which indicated a fairly significant relationship between the two measures was
observed by Houtz (1995) and Danladi (2003) who discover that there were no
significant differences between attitude towards science as a school subject for males
31
and females regardless of their instructional strategy. Baker (1985) specially found
that middle school females had significantly higher attitudes than males.
Nwosu (2001) in a study reveals that exposure to science process skills based learning
involving activities for both females and males (experimental group) yield a more
effective learning irrespective of gender and ability level. It is in line with Yoloye
(2004), Nworgun (2005) and Usman (2010) who share the opinion that if males and
females are given equal opportunity, they will perform equal well. The findings also
show that Science Process Skills Appraoch is gender friendly. Therefore, the Science
Process Skills Approach has potential of enhancing both males and females subjects
academic performance in Integrated Science of the Junior Secondary School level.
Also Ogunboyode (2003) who independently reported that males are better than
females in terms of educational achievement when independently carried out studies
on gender differences and student’s achievement at the primary and secondary school
levels. Report by Danladi (2003) also reveals no significant difference in
achievement between females and males on task involving process skills acquisition.
There is thus, the need to use activity-based learning in schools to help
learners especially females who are denied these opportunities at home to acquire the
process skills. Nwosu (2001) suggest that gender stereotyping has to be discouraged
in the homes, school and societies to enable girls participate freely in skills based-
activities.
2.5 Overview of Similar Studies on Process Skills Approach
Process Skills Approach according to Abdullahi (2007) since the mid-fifties,
revolutionary changes have taken place in the teaching of science. Teams of scientists
and teachers have attempted to bring about far reaching improvement in science
education at all levels, including the elementary school level. In the same vein, this
32
study is similar to the above observation, it is because, the researchers have suggested
that, Science Process Skills Instructional Strategy should be included into Integrated
Science Teacher’s Training Curriculum. In order to produce teachers who would be
able to handle teaching of Integrated Science effectively. Using the practical activities
such as hands on and minds on activities to improve the academic performance of
Integrated Science Student’s most especially at Junior Secondary Schools in Nigeria.
This strategy of teaching originated in United States of America (USA) in 1960s. This
strategy assumes that, science is much more than an encyclopedia collection of facts
and that, children even in the primary level will derive much more from the study of
science if they learn the behaviour of scientists (Mari, 2001) pointed out that,
although behaviour of scientist are complex, they have been classified into a number
of process skills, some simple and some complex. The acquisition of these intellectual
activities of the scientist, the process skills, forms the goal of science instruction.
Mari (2001) asserts that, because of the importance of science process skills in
inquiry, they are described as scientific reasoning skills. German, Aram, and Bunde,
(1996) also pointed out that, classroom studies of scientific reasoning in science
education have centered on the basic and integrated science process skills as they are
elements in inquiry. Gagne (1971) describes Science Process Skills Approach as the
foundation for scientific inquiry. The integrated science process skills form the core
of hypothetico-deductive form of inquiry based on, hands-on learning in which
students are reasoning to construct knowledge by recognizing and stating problems,
asking questions in a manner that will allow them to pursue answers, formulating
hypotheses, identifying variables, reaching conclusion concerning their observation
and questions about natural phenomena.
The commission on Science Education of America Association for the Advancement
of Science (AAAS) with financial support from the National Science Foundation
33
embarked upon the preparation of science programme for the elementary school.
Kindergarten through the grade six materials were first written during the summer of
1963 and each of the subsequent summer through 1967. Furthermore, the effort gave
birth to a new curriculum called Science A Process Approach (SAPA). This
curriculum considered the process approach as its main instructional strategy for
teaching and learning of science.
Lomask and Lazaorcitz (1989) observed one of the advantages of teaching
science process skills, is their transfer effects to other academic curriculum area,
exposing students to process skills as an instructional strategy which also enhances
learning because what students learned through doing increases their ability to retain
the knowledge learnt. Abdullahi (2007) explained that, science process skills can also
be used by the teachers to identify the different abilities in students and help them to
understand the process skills approach being taught. The emphasis is due to the
significance of the process skills in learning of science, Eniayeju (2001) opined that,
in science teaching, memorization of facts is discouraged. Activities that foster
process skills development are promoted.
This is because in Piagetian classification, when children enter formal operational
stage. They are no longer tied to tangible problems. They think about the possible
ways as well as the hypothetical, they think about abstract problems systematically
and generalize about the result. The child at this period begins to consider all possible
explanation to a problem. The process approach, because of its uniqueness and
distinguishing feature of providing variety of stimulating experiences, may be found
useful in enhancing process acquisition and performance in integrated science,
children operate at the concrete operational level. They need concrete first hand
experiences in order to understand science. Practical work helps to stimulate interest
and get the child involved in the learning process. It is very essential for the
34
acquisition and development of techniques, process and problem solving skills.
Eniayeju (2001) further observes that, knowledge of the available strategies or
teaching methods as they are often called, and appropriate materials to use are some
of the major factors that distinguish competent science teachers from those who are
less capable. The researcher also outlines five factors to be considered in deciding
whether or not to use a particular strategy or type of method. These include:
How would the strategy contribute to the academic performance of the various
components of scientific literacy? For example, will it use performance only in
pupils learning of facts, concepts and principles or will students also be able to
develop attitude, interests and values?.
Why is the strategy appropriate for the students being instructed? For example,
lack of laboratory bench skills or class management problems may warrant a
demonstration rather than individual laboratory work at the beginning of a
course.
Is the strategy the most effective method of instruction? For a example, a film
show may be a more effective way of introducing a topic rather than a class
discussion, a reading assignment or in situations where expensive pieces of
equipment are not available.
What strategies have been used in recent lesson? For example, students like
variety and will become tired of even highly stimulating strategies such as
laboratory work and demonstrations if one strategy is used monotonously.
Are materials or the necessary financial resources available for using a
strategy? For example, using a film showing complicated processes or distant
place like the moon may be more economical than visiting those places or
seeing the processes physically.
35
Science process skills generally are divided into those that are cognitive in
nature (i.e. concern intellectual abilities) and those that relate to practical abilities.
Manipulative, observational skills, for example those belongs to the later category,
whilst the recall and application of knowledge, the interpretation of information and
problem solving are examples of cognitive skills.
For the treatment of (Science Process Skills Approach) have significant effects
on Students Academic Achievement. This has to be emphasized in the curriculum,
Demystifying Science Process Skills Approach showing in practical terms their
relevance in Science Teaching and Learning in Nigeria Secondary Schools.
2.6 Concept of Varied Ability as a Factor in Learning Science
For larger schools with children of a given age, several classroom groups
should be provided for them Thorndike and Hagen (1997). The grouping may be done
at random or in some systematic way. One of the approaches has been widely used
over the years to place children in a sorting out of “Homogeneous Grouping”. This
type is done by placing children with basically similar cognitive ability in the same
group. This is done so that, the teacher could adapt the tempo and content of
instruction to the characteristics of a class that is being taught. Thorndike and Hugen
(1997) affirm that 95% of a class population falls into the middling average in the
United States of America.
In the Nigerian situation the “middling average” is usually lower than 95% of
the group’s total population [Aliyu, 1987, Aboderin, 1987 and Lakpini 2006].
According to Ajewole and Okebukola (1988) categorizations of varied ability are:
high ability group from 60% and Above
average ability group from 50% to 59%
low ability group from 0% to 49%
36
Using Ajewole and Okebukola (1988) mode of categorization of grades scores, upper
25% is for high ability group, middle 50% is for average ability group and bottom
25% is for low ability group. Adegive (2000) further observes that, there was need for
the females to substantially relate scientific concepts to their day-to-day lives. This
state of affairs needs rectifying and an obvious place to start is with the education of
the teachers themselves.
For this study, students would be grouped using the ability grouping above
based on their pretest scores. Ridgeway (2004) reports the outcome of a study using
interactive lecture strategy and lecture – and – note – method. The researcher used
two classes of students. One class- comprised students who were termed, gifted (high
or brilliant) and the other class comprised the not so gifted who were termed the basic
(Low ability). The gifted students were taught using the usual lecture-and-note
methodology, while the basic class was taught using the interactive lecture strategy.
The two groups were taught three units on evolution and they were given the same
test at the end of the treatment. The test according to the study had difficult multiple-
choice questions and several short answers and essay questions that required students
to apply their knowledge. At the end of the test, the basic class (Low ability) had a
high-class average than the gifted class, it was also found that the basic class students’
essays were almost the same with those written by the gifted students and the very
best essay of all was written by one of the students in the basic class. This study
revealed that the academic performance of low ability students can be improved using
an improved teaching strategy.
This study aimed among other things, to group students into varied ability
groups because of the disadvantages associated with heterogeneous grouping.
According to American Association of Physics Teachers (2001) heterogeneous group
students who are:
35
37
ambitions and talented may take a large portion of group take and then resent
the other group members who made minor contribution both will receive the
same amount of credit as the one who did the work.
Lazy and neglect to do their part will hide under the system that reward them
in spite of lack of effort.
In possession of strong leadership skills over whelm the rest of the group with
their ideas even if others have better and more acceptable ideas.
Academic achievers are of different types. Collia (2002) and Nonye (2009)
identify three categories of academic achievers listed below:
(a) The High Abilities: Collia (2002) referred to those who did not ascribe their
fate to luck or to vagaries of chance but rather to their own personal decisions and
efforts. Studies by Rosenshine (1980) and Coleman (1986) further show that, the most
important single ingredient in achievement is feeling of self ability of self-directed
competence. Competence as defined by Uba (1987) means knowledge acquired both
as a result of instruction and experiences outside the educational system. (That is
outside the four walls of the school). James (1991) describes the high ability as those
students who perform well in test, assignments and examinations. Ofonime (2007)
further describes the high abilities as students whose academic potentials are above
class average and their performance described as good.
(b) Average Abilities: These are the group of students who according to Taylor
(1999), Eleda (2002) and Awe (2003) can only record average abilities, not because
they are not capable of doing better, but partly because they cannot put in extra effort
to attain better achievement. They are therefore, contented to remain average. For this
reason; they content themselves with the classroom learning without trying to reach
out to other information.
38
(c) Low Abilities: As described by Humel and Sprinthal (1965) and Ashilley
(2001) is the group of students who perform poorly in tests, examinations and also are
easily distracted and less able to set about tasks in an organized manner. They further
stressed that these students were less able to control their own basic impulses and
their destiny Oforime (2007) also describes the under achievers as students whose
academic potentials are judged below class average while their performance is
described as poor.
Low abilities students need constant study, evaluation and help so as to
reverse their condition Ayeremoi (2001) and Chadua (2002) identified the problem of
the low ability students to be one of the more tragic dilemmas in education. Bonnie
(2003) is of the view that, the problem of the under abilities illustrates per excellence
the importance of the motivational variables in academic success. These motivational
variables according to him include social class difference and educational background
of the teachers. Mueller, Chase and Walden (1988) reports that student’s that received
more immediate feedback as a result of individualized attention were able to achieve
higher as in the case of both below average and above average age students.
Contrastingly to all these views, academic abilities according to Musa (2000) refers
abilities as the quantity of result produced by students as reflected in the quantity of
their examinations. This study attempt to group students according to their abilities in
order to ascertain to what extent using Science Process Skills Approach could affect
the performances of students of integrated science, in the varied abilities group as a
factor in learning science.
2.7 Ability groups in relation to academic performance
Ability groupings refer to several distinct practices intended to reduce the
range of the students’ academic performance in an instructional group. Salvin (1987)
39
found that high average and low ability groups recorded the same level asked to
remember previously presented information when it is offered to him again Schunk
(1987) indicated, that average and low ability students model on students of like
ability and not students of high ability.
Schunk (1987) further reported that students of low and average ability flourish or
become better students in their academic performance when the gifted (high ability
student) are not present and leading the competition. Fieldhusen and Moon (1992)
agreed that grouping students with similar academic performance and talent is
essential if the desire is to help students achieve at levels experience, but also in the
process of closing the door to many future occupational opportunities. The different
literatures cited have showed some gender differences with respect to academic
performance of the students. The differences have consistently favoured the male, the
causes of these differences is not well understood. The explanation for the observed
differences in gender difference in Integrated Science is inconclusive.
This study intended to find out if the Science Process Skills instructional
strategy would enhance academic performance in the same proportion in the various
ability groups or even raise considerably the performance of subjects in the low
ability significantly, when compared with those taught using traditional method. The
study also desired to find out if Science Process Skills Instructional Strategy will
trigger differential effect on the subjects in the high, average and low ability groups.
2.8 Instructional Methods in Science Education
The development of sound basis of scientific and reflective thinking as
demanded by the National Policy on Education F.M.E, (2004) could only be achieved
when science is properly and effectively taught. This calls for the provision of
opportunity for the students to manipulate and explore their environment through
40
interaction with materials and equipments (hands-on activities) there by behaving like
scientists. (Gumel,1995). He/she should have a great deal of knowledge, problem
solving skills, desirable attitudes, appreciation for the contribution of others and the
broad interests in integrated science. Eniayeju (2001) assert that, science education
contributes to critical thinking. A science lesson of an investigative experimental type
demand sensory motor involvement and when science is taught through discovery
method, activities are structured so that the students learn science concepts principles
and also how to use their mind in science related problems.
During the past decades science teaching was geared towards memorization of
scientific facts. Danladi (2003) observes that, teachers at this time employ teacher-
centered method of instruction which disallow student’s active participation in the
lesson. Abimbade (2002) asserted that, the strategy for teaching science-based
subjects is expected to be different from the lecture method of classroom instruction.
According to Harlen, Horoyd, and Byrne, (1995) pedagogical concepts in teaching
science process skills support the notion of a relationship between confidence and
understanding science. The choice of instructional methods by the teacher in the
classroom should depend on the prevailing circumstances of the learners, the subject-
matter or content, objectives or intended outcome of the lesson, as this will lead to the
type of instructional materials to be used. The cognitive ability and the developmental
stage of the learner and of course, the teacher ability to effectively use the method
bring about meaningful learning on students. Bichi, (2005) agrees that despite
all these reasons, the teaching and learning of science in most classes in United States
of America are characterized by chalk and talk method. This was pointed out in a
study of science and mathematics education by Weiss, Banilower, Memahon and
Smith (2001) who found that, the most common instructional strategy used in
teaching science was chalk and talk.
41
Teaching strategies can also influence the attitude of students positively or
negatively. Reports have shown that instructional strategy affects the attitude of
students positively. Olorukooba (2001) reports that, students taught using cooperative
learning strategy in science teaching have a positive attitude to the educational
benefits derived from group work, Samba (1998) reported that conceptual change of
instructional strategy significantly improved students’ attitude towards science.
AJewole (1997) found out that guided discovery help students develop significantly
more favourable attitude of science process skills than the lecture method.
Mari (1994) posits that good instructional methods would emphasize learning
process of what students will do by themselves under teachers’ assistance. In this
way, students will find out things for themselves by identifying problems and seek
solutions to them, they will be encouraged to make inquiries, prediction,
investigations, description explanation and draw meaningful conclusion. Usman
(2000) and Bichi (2002) observed that what students learnt when instructional
activity-based method is employed, the learning outcome are significantly retained
which resulted in students’ academic achievement in Biology and integrated science.
Abdullahi (2007) also notes that, despite the reported emphasis on science process
and inquiry skills, classes at all levels are much more likely to stress having students
to learn to explain ideas in science. However, towards the end of 1950’s emphasis was
shifted from the lecture method or “chalk and talk” method to learning by doing.
Nigeria is not left out of this growing culture. Science teaching had its root in
the primary schools to higher level. Modern science teachings emphasize hands on
activities approach as well as students’ active participation. Akinmade (1992) believes
that students’ participation in science lesson is required for learning to take place.
Active participation of students in science lesson is also important as it tends to
increase discipline and students management of problems.
42
Some studies such as Beumont-Walters (2001) shows that, instead of using the
didactic approach, teaching science through the use of activity-based approach
significantly improved student's performances in science. Akpan (1992) observes that,
the recognition of the superiority of activity- based instructional method over other
methods has resulted in the recommendations of the Science Process Skills Approach
to science teaching as a method of instruction in science classes. Activity-based
science programme which provides students with the opportunity to interact with
objects and materials is often recommended to teachers, on the ground that they
improve students’ attitude (Akinmade, 1992).
This is so because the learning activities force the students to formulate
hypothesis, control variables, and make operational definitions and to carry out the
various scientific skills and processes. Atadoga and Onaolapo (2008) hold that
teaching methods and techniques have to be varied and mixed in real life situations.
However, there are general rules, which facilitate the selection of appropriate and
adequate approaches of imparting knowledge or developing a particular skill for
students outside integrated science, but they have been found to have instructional
value for science teaching.
The teachers have to consider his personal ability in selecting the methodology for a
science lesson, as rightly observed by Aliyu (1982), Atadoga and Onaolapo (2008) as
follows:
The pupils’ age, previous knowledge on the topic and general ability. The
teacher must bear in mind that the class may not be homogenous in ability but
mixed.
The topic to be taught, the content of the topic including the concepts to be
taught must be well understood to make the choice of an appropriate method
easier.
43
The teacher’s effectiveness in handling a particular method. Whatever
advantage a method may have, if the teacher is not competent to use it, the
students may suffer unduly.
The timing of the lesson is also very important. For afternoon lessons, methods
that will make the students to participate actively are advocated so that
students can be alert and attentive.
The class size is a very serious factor in the choice of method of teaching.
For example, choosing a demonstration method for a class of over one
hundred students is suicidal, because the teacher will not be able to control or
direct the class appropriately.
The available resources at the teacher’s disposal will be an important
determinant in the choice of teaching method.
Aliyu (1992), Atadoga and Onaolapo (2008) observed that, it is very clear that
science teachers cannot be dogmatic in their daily choice of methods of teaching, they
are of the opinion that, teachers should change or vary their methods of teaching as
many times as the need arises. A science teacher may introduce a lesson with a
method, goes on to develop the lesson by one or more other methods and ends the
lesson employing a different method. The frequency with which the teacher changes
his/her method of teaching will depend on the concepts skills or attitude to be
developed in the students (Atadoga and Onalolapo, 2008). Aliyu (1982) argues that,
there are several methods that teachers of science education employ in the classroom
to present scientific facts, information, principles, skills or concepts to the students.
However, some methods are more frequently used than others. Frequently
used and general methods include the following:
44
Lecture method
Science Process Skills Approach as an instructional strategy and related
findings on Science Process Skills Approach in relation to achievement and
attitude.
Lecture or Chalk and Talk Method
Lecture method traditionally referred to as “didactic approach” can be define
as a teaching technique in which one person usually the teacher present a spoken
discourse on a particular subject (Dienye and Gbamanja, 1990). This is the method of
teaching that emphasizes “chalk and talk” in the teaching of science subjects. (Aliyu,
1982) asserts that more than 80% of scientific information and principles are
delivered as lectures. Teachers embrace these methods for easy coverage of the school
syllabus. It is characterized by one way flow of information from the teacher, who is
always active, the students who are always passive. In its true nature, the lecture
method is not effective for science teaching Aliyu (1982), James (2000) and Usman
(2000) argues against lecture method, because it does not promote meaningful
learning of science. The differences in students’ ability are not considered because it
cannot satisfy the difference in individuals such as slow learners and fast learners. The
students easily become restless and disruptive since their attention span is very
limited.
Furthermore, the aspect of relating the method of instruction to students’
academic performance in integrated science is another area of study, more especially
at JSS III level. Lecture methods are employed as one of the variables in this study.
45
2.9 Academic Performance in Science Education
Academic performance is the measure of the student-learning outcome at the
end of teaching learning activities. This can be assessed by outcomes and
improvement in the performance resulting from education. Science educators have
given various definitions of academic performance Marshal (1971) defines academic
performance as the extent to which a person has possessed something or acquires
certain information or skills. Academic performance is relatively defined in different
ways by different authors depending on the issues at hand. Academic performance as
defined by Chadau (2002) is what students are able to gain in the senior secondary
school certificate examination (SSSCE) after completion of the senior secondary
school instruction. Academic performance, according to Imo (1997) is seen as a
situation where the nation expects students to make their contributions to the society
after they leave school. According to Uba (1987) believed that academic performance
is about knowledge and skill possessed by an individual as a result of instruction or
specific curricula that has been administered. Academic performance according to
Dike et al (1999) is an appraisal of a students’ educational growth. It also assesses
what a student has learnt in school or other situations where teaching and learning are
intended to go on. Schofied, (1972) sees academic performance as a student’s relative
growth in a given field of work. Achino (2000) considers academic performance to
the level of an individual’s educational growth in a test when compared with the
scores of others of the same level. Academic performance to Idowu (1990), as a
student’s acquisition of knowledge, in school subjects such as mathematics, English,
science, social studies in the schools setting. While Akindehin (1999) views academic
performance as what students have been able to gain at the end of a given period of
instruction. Nnachi (2002), on the other hand, noted that science academic
46
performance is a quantitative indication we have of the positive result of behaviour
accruing from the study of science.
Generally, academic performance means accomplishment or proficiency of
performance in a given skill or body of knowledge. (Abdullahi, 2007) academic
performance according to Amuset (1994) is the knowledge attained or skill developed in
the school subject, usually designated by test score or by means assigned by teacher.
Usman (2000) describes academic performance as the assessment of how much students’
have learned, the extent to which a student has acquired certain information or mastered
skill usually because of planned information or training. In this study, therefore, the
academic performance is in relation to the assessment of how many students have
learned in a given situation. Therefore, the integrated science academic performance in
this study will be based on this idea.
Thus, the study would investigate the effects of Science Process Skills
Approach on academic performance and attitude of JSS III integrated science
students’ with varied abilities. The major objectives of teaching are to promote the
understanding of the concepts being taught with a view to applying such knowledge
to real life situations and to promote academic performance of students in sciences.
The consistent poor academic performance and negative attitude towards science
attest to the fact that science teaching procedure has not been perfectly done. Hence,
the concepts being taught are not properly understood due to improper science
teaching which has led to poor academic performance in science subjects (Eta, 2000).
Therefore, science teaching needs appropriate method of instructional strategy that
will best achieve the aim of science teaching, thus improving the academic
performance and enhancing the positive attitude towards science subjects.
Reports indicated that students achieved poorly in secondary schools science
subjects Akubuilo, (1995), Ajewole, (1997) and (Lakpini, (2006). These researchers
47
expressed the view that teachers shy away from activity-based teaching methods and
rely on the teaching methods that are easy but most often inadequate and in
appropriate. Based on such findings, several attempts have been made to investigate
the effectiveness of teaching methods on academic performance in integrated science,
(James and Shuaibu, 1997). Abdullahi 2007). Result from these studies indicated that
innovative teaching method such as processes approach, guided discovery cooperative
learning and inquiry methods were more effective than the lecture method in
enhancing students’ cognitive performance in process skills at junior secondary
school level.
2.10 Gender and Science Education
Erinosho (2005) notes that, the main concern in the field of science education
is the biases and misconception about women and science i.e. science is a male
enterprise. In Nigeria and Africa, gender bias is still very prevalent (Arigbabu and Mji
2004). This is a view to which Onyeizubo (2003) alludes by pointing out that “sex
roles are somewhat rigid in Africa, particularly in Nigeria, gender as a factor in
learning science education is emphasized”. Bichi (2002) explains the concept ‘gender’
which refers to the content of masculinity and ferminity found in an individual. While
there are mixtures of the two traits in human beings, the normal man has a
preponderance of the masculinity and the normal female has a preponderance of
feminity, (Oakkey, 1993). Gender-related issues have attracted the attention of many
researchers in science education for males and females in the secondary schools.
Many studies have investigated the influence of gender on academic achievement or
performance.
Studies in Singapore suggested that males’ achieved better than females in
mathematics (Kaure, 1992). Similarly in West Indies, Driver (1993) reports superior
48
performance of females in mathematics and physical sciences to that of males. In
Great Britain, Coats (1994) observes that males tend to have far more out of schools
experience of scientifically based activities than girls. Eta (2000) reveals that males
have a head start advantage over females in opting for science related careers. In the
same vein, studies of Stemkamp (1982), Jedege and Inyang (1990) reveal that,
females are more prone than males to exhibiting fret and anxiety that are related to
science tasks. This is particularly so in the academic situation. A number of
researchers have come up with reasons for gender-related differences in science
achievement. Becker (1981) observes that teachers spoke more frequently to males,
asked the males more questions. Praise males for quality work and females for
neatness. Sadker and Sadker (1985) reveal that male students received more praise
and criticism from teachers than the female students during teaching and learning
situations.
As it was reported that, there is a low participation of females in high school
courses in science and technology as well as the low numbers of women who hold
professional careers in science or technology Idowu (1990). However, data collected
by Shemes (1990) also reveals that males are more oriented towards “hard” courses
like science subjects (chemistry, physics, etc). Females prefer the “soft” subjects such
as a human physiology, plant life, Zoology, Biology. Young and Frasher (1994) report
that gender differences in integrated science occurs as a result of a number of social
factors both at home and at school, and that gender as a factor in learning science
education appear to be greater in some schools, than others, although statistically
achievement were also found among SS II chemistry students favouring males
(Young and Frasher, 1994).
A study conducted by Lock (1992) on gender and practical skill performance
on integrated science indicated that, there is no gender difference in observation,
49
reporting, or planning skills and there was no differential performance in the use of
scientific knowledge. The report also indicated that males performed better in
interpretation than girls. However, report by Mari (1994), Shaibu and Mari (1997)
reveals that there was significant difference between the male and female subjects. In
their ability to solve problem requiring their understanding of science process skills as
a pre-requisites but the female subjects were significantly better in their understanding
of science process skills than their male counterparts.
A study conducted by Ameh (1980) determine the influence of sex upon the
acquisition of science process skills revealed that males were better at using numbers,
measuring and experimenting than girls. While females performed better in the
process of observing and inferring. However, the overall mean score of females in
both integrated and basic science process skills was found to be higher than that of the
males. Similar results obtained by Shuaibu and Ameh (1982), Nwosu (2001) reveal
that exposure to science process skills based learning involving activities for both
females and males (experimental group) yielded a more effective learning
irrespective of gender and ability level. Report by Danladi (2003) also reveals that
there is no significant difference in achievement between females and males on task
involving science process skill acquisition. Nwosu (2001) suggests that gender
stereotyping has to be discouraged in the homes; schools and societies to enable
females participate freely in skills based activities. It is also important to note that
integrated science is the grass root subject that introduces children into the field of
sciences. If equal opportunity to education has been taken care of at this level, it thus
provides sound bases for reducing gender biases and misconceptions. This study
desired to find out if gender as a factor affect learning science taught using Science
Process Skills Approach.
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2.11 Attitude of students to Learning Science
According to Mukherjee (1987) and Omotayo (2002) attitude plays a vital role
in student’s learning. There are various definitions of attitude. Victor and Lerner
(1995) define attitude as a psychological construct or latent variable inferred from
observable responses to stimuli. They noted that attitude regulates behaviour that is
directed towards or away from an object or situation or group of objects or situations.
Aro and Ekwere (1985) defines attitude as a predisposition to act in a positive or
negative always towards persons, objects, ideas and events. Gagne (1971) defines
attitude as an internal state that influences the personal action of an individual.
Attitude according to Ezenwa (1993) is what educators refer to as “affective domain”
it is a continuum from positive to negative. It is the disposition respond positively or
negatively.
Attitude, once established, help to shape the experiences the individual has
with object, subject or person. Although attitude changes generally, people constantly
form attitudes and modify old ones when they are exposed to new information and
new experiences Adesina and Okebukola (2005), Okebukola (2009) Observe that, the
teachers have the opportunity of structuring lessons co-operatively, competitively or
individualistically and the decisions teachers make in structuring lessons can
influence students interactions with others, knowledge and attitudes. Ogunleye (1999)
reported that, many students developed negative attitudes to science learning,
probably due to the fact that teachers are unable to satisfy their aspiration or goals.
Alao (1990) reported that there is positive correlation between attitudes and
performance in the science subjects. Co-operative learning experiences can promote
more positive attitudes towards the instructional experience than individualistic
methodologies Johnson and Johnson (1989). Udousoro (1999) reveals that, gender
ability of students failed to have a significant effect in the co-operative group. The
51
improved attitude is due to the novelty of the approach, evidence supported for the
use of co-operative learning in physics according to Okebukola (2004) higher level of
thinking skills, increase students retention and foster team building. Hence, the
improved students’ attitude in physics will enhance students’ performance in the
subject.
In the study that examined the relationships between students’ attitudes towards
cooperation, competition and their attitude towards science education, the results
indicated that student’s cooperativeness and competitiveness, was positive related to
motivation. Johnson and Ahlgren (1986), Tjosvold, Marine and Johnson (1997) found
that cooperative strategies promoted positive attitudes towards both didactic and
inquiry methods of teaching process skills and students taught by cooperative
strategies. This type of learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small
teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning
activities to improve their understanding of integrated science.
Affective domain attitude needed for science process skill approach: Garba (1993)
state that, the affective domain is concerned with learners’ social development, the
inculcation of new positive attitudes, values, interest, feelings and social interactions.
This is equally an important domain which is difficult to teach and be evaluated.
Yalams (2001) views that, Krathwohl and associates developed the affective in 1964.
Affective learning outcomes are those behaviourial changes that are not readily
observed. They are internalized and are more concerned with the inner minds and
feelings of the learner, it manifestation is hardly seen from the outside such changes
include attitudes, values, feelings, emotions, appreciation, mode of adjustment and
interest. The affective learning outcomes are in five stages. They are characterization,
organization, valuing, responding and receiving Solomon, Ikwuam, Gayus and
Mohammed (2003).
52
Teaching Affective Domain:
Teaching cognitive is easier than teaching attitude; interest and values are
taught through association. Attitudes are developed in several ways. Some individual
develop their attitudes by imitating other people consciously or unconsciously Okorie
(1989).
Usually people acquire the attitudes of those with whom they associated. Bello
(1981) notes that, people develop attitudes from emotional experiences usually
resulting in unfavourable attitudes. Similarly a person’s attitude towards another
person and an object are as a result of information gathered on the subject and on the
person. On the other hand, in order to develop ideas in the students, they must be
helped to comprehend what the goal is and that such a goal is desirable like wise the
development of appreciation and interest follow the same pattern as the development
of other attitudes. In developing values in students, educators like Curzon (1980),
Fagbulu (1985) and Ezekiel (2008) suggest the follow steps:
Encourage students to make choices, and to make them freely.
Help students to discover and examine available alternative when faced with
choices.
Assist students with alternatives thoughtfully, reflecting on the consequences
of each.
Encourage students to consider what they cherish and prize. Give the students
opportunity to make public affirmations of their choices
Encourage students to act, behave live in accordance with their choices.
assist students to examine reported behaviours and patterns to their life.
Several educators have considered different methods of teaching attitudes and values.
Okorie (1979); Farrant (1980); Bello (1981); Fagbulu (1985) and Yaya (2001)
enumerate the following methods to be vital for teaching attitudes.
53
The teacher need not to use lecture method when teaching attitudes, instead
the teacher can use informal activities based work to convey the idea.
The teachers need to provide the students with models which they can identify
with and imitate. Some Science Process Skills Approach, current events,
which have bearing on the topic, can be utilized as vital models.
The teacher needs to avoid preaching and dictating rather, the teacher can
appeal to reason.
The teacher can adopt such teaching procedures as role-playing; discussion
groups, problem solving, case studies and other approaches which enable the
students find their own answer.
The teacher can use audio-visual aids such as films to present attitudes. This
can be followed with a detail discussion with the class so that, the students can
draw the inferences objectively.
The students should be encouraged to find out the facts and information for
themselves. In other words, their thinking can be challenged always by the
science teacher asking the students series of questions such as: how did you
prove your facts? How reasonable is your thinking.
The teacher can live an exemplary life so that students can identify him and
model themselves after him.
Among the methods of teaching attitudes, interest and values suggested above
is the model method. According to Ilori (1992) using the modeling approach, the
teacher can be an example to the students. A teacher teaches much more by his
actions than by his words. The principles of modeling state that, one needs to show
students how to do something correctly as well as to tell them. The principle of
modeling applies whether people are aware of it or not. Teachers of integrated
Science Practicing Science Process Skills Approach (SPSA) need to set good example
54
while teaching Science Process Skills Approach to students. Teachers can
demonstrate this by being punctual to their lessons, prepare their notes thoroughly.
Get all necessary instructional materials that will aid their lesson presentation.
Teacher can use acceptable language in setting examples of kindness, consideration
and interest as role models to the students. Students are more likely to learn what
teachers present of them with an example model and pattern to watch and imitate.
When a student’s attitude towards a school subject or instructional mode is positive, it
is very likely that such a student would develop interest in learning tasks associated
with the subject.
The learner who is interested in a subject would likely enjoy and fell satisfied
in what he is expected to do. The satisfaction they derived would lead to success
which in turn would result to high positive attitudes of perseverance, patience and
open mindedness which are scientific attitude required for successful science
activities Osafehint (1986). There is ample evidence in literature to show that,
enhanced science process skills as an instructional strategies increases students’
interest and more favourable attitude, towards learning science.
The researcher intends to study the extent to which the attitudes of students in varied
ability group are affected by learning science. The study endearvoured to examine
whether there is difference between the attitude of the students who are high
achievers, average achievers and low achievers.
2.12 Implications of Literature Reviewed on the Present Study
The study has researched into numerous research studies, in the areas of
Science Process Skills Approach and the use of Science Process Skills Instructional
Strategy in improving the performance of students of varied ability levels in science.
This Science Process Skills Approach have proved to enhance students’ learning,
55
hence their academic performance. The outcome of these studies can be summarized
thus:
In some of the studies reviewed, researchers who used Science Process Skills
Instructional Strategy in correcting some concepts of integrated science among
students reported better, gain in academic performance of the subjects used as a result
of improving of this varied ability levels. However, the use of the lecture method of
teaching has been shown to be of little help to student’s academic performance or
alter varied ability levels, and reports in literature have also indicated poor academic
performance among learners Usman (2000) and Ahmed (2004). In the light of these
literature reports, the researcher deemed it necessary to help student’s gain better
understanding of the concepts in integrated science through improving the
performance of subjects of the varied ability levels using the Science Process skills
Instructional Strategy. It is hoped that, the lecture method students used, which make
them achieve poorly in integrated science, will be enhanced.
In addition, the Science Process Skills Instructional Strategy has been found
by science instructors like Mari (2001), Abdullahi (2007) and Nonye (2009) to have
effects on such variables as attitude and gender. These variables have been shown to
have effect on learning. Most of the studies on Science Process Skills instructional
strategy in improving some concepts in integrated science as well as improving
learning have been carried out internationally, a few are indigenous, Shaibu and Mari
(1997), Mari (2001), and Danladi (2003).
These researchers used the science process skills instructional strategy to teach
other areas of Biology and Chemistry. The present study uses James and Karen (2000)
model of Science Process Skills Instructional Strategy to teach aspects of integrated
science to Nigerian students, in order to determine the effect of it on improving
Science Process Skills Approach among the students of integrated science.
56
The uniqueness of the study as follows:
The use of science process skills instructional package (SPSIP) models on
subject varied abilities interacting in sub-groups according to their ability
levels is relatively new in Nigeria. The outcome of this study would therefore
be instructive on the possibility of adopting SPSIP model as a learning
strategy for students in the various schools in Nigeria.
Studies on gender have already been compared the performances of males and
females in the class (Lakpini 2006, Nonye 2009).The finding in this study
will provide insight into the above issue in some details through comparison
based on gender within the same ability group. This will determine whether
SPSIP is gender friendly level or not which was missing in the literature cited
previously.
During teaching activities, teachers assumed that students are at the same
ability levels, low ability students that need more attention are neglected in
this study, ability levels of students would be given needed attention to
enhance students academic performance in integrated science at junior
secondary school levels.
The studies on attitude have always been the comparison of the overall attitude
of subjects of the experimental and control groups. The study on attitudinal
change of subjects within the same group based on ability levels is not
common in Nigeria.
57
2.13 Summary of Related Literatures
Summary of related literatures are clearly explains the Concept of Science
Process Skills Approach as science teaching instructional strategy. It also shows the
scope of description and importance of Science Process Skills in inquiry, they are
described as scientific reasoning skills. The eight basic science process skills include
observing, measuring, inferring predicting, identifying, classifying, collecting and
recording data. The five Integrated Science Process or Process Skills is composed of
interpreting data, controlling variable, defining operationally, formulating hypothesis,
experimenting and communicating. In each of the variables mentioned above, they
were sub-divided into sub-process involved in each of the skills. In the same vein
related findings covering Science Process Skills Approach and academic performance
was overviewed. The students with low ability may be expected to have difficulty in
understanding some integrated science concepts like energy conversion and the mode
of feeding in plants and animals in Junior Secondary Schools curriculum and this
could lead to poor performance. Study on relationship between attitude and academic
performance in Science Process Skills Approach which indicated a fairly significant
relationship between the female and male subjects was observed by Houtz (1995) and
Danladi (2003). In a similar study, Nwosu (2001) reveals that exposure to Science
Process Skills based teaching and learning involving practical activity oriented for
both females and males in (experimental group) yield a more effective learning
process irrespective of gender and their ability levels. There is thus, the need to use
activity-based learning in schools to help learners especially females who are denied
these opportunities at home to acquire the process skills. Similar study of this type at
Junior Secondary School Level is required. This study therefore, aimed at
investigating the effects of Science Process Skills Approach on Academic
Performance and attitude of integrated science students with varied abilities.
58
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of Science Process Skills
Approach on academic performance and attitude of integrated science students with
varied abilities. In this chapter, the methods and procedures employed in conducting
the research are presented under the following sub-headings:-
Research Design
Population of the Study
Sample and Sampling Procedure
Instrumentation
Selection of Concepts to be Taught
Pilot Study
Treatment of the experimental and control groups
Data Collection Procedure
Data Analysis
3.2 Research Design
The research design was a quasi-experimental and control group design
employing Pre-test and post-test, the study involved the use of four classes. A random
sampling technique through the use of balloting was carried out to select four (4) co-
educational secondary classes, two from each of Potiskum and Fika Local
Government Areas of Yobe State. Subjects were randomly assigned to experimental
and control groups before the administration of the pretest. This was to ensure that
every student had equal chances to participate actively in the study and secondly, to
obtain an unbiased assessment of student’s performances and thirdly, the researcher
59
can have a good varied ability groups among the subjects under study. Intact classes
were used because, the principals of the affected secondary schools insisted in using
all the students in four classes. Pretest was administered to the subjects, before they
were exposed to the treatment in Science Process Skills Approach.
The post test was given to determine the effects of the two methods of
instructions which was Science Process Skills Approach for experimental group and
Lecture method for control group. The same instrument was used in pretest and post
test.
The experimental and control group subjects were assigned to sub-groups
according to their ability levels. The grouping was carried out based on the
categorization used by Ajewole and Okebukola (1998) in which the top 25%
comprised of high ability, middle 50% average ability and 25% comprised of low
ability subjects.
The design illustration of the study is represented as follows
EG O1
CG O1
Fig 3.1 Research Design Illustration
EG - Experimental Group
CG - Control Group
XO - No Treatment
X1 - Science Process Skills Approach
X2 - Lecture Method
O1 - Pre Test
H
A
L
X1 O2
H
A
L
H
A
L
X2 O2
H
A
L
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O2 - Post Test
H - High Ability Group
A - Average Ability Group
L - Low Ability Group
H - High Ability
A - Average Ability
L - Low Ability
The design pre-test and post test quasi-experimental and control groups design
is suitable for this study because of the advantages listed by (Samba, 1998 and
Lakpini, 2006.) This could be summed up as follows:
a) The superiority of one instructional strategy over the other can easily be
tested.
b) It gives indications of concept attainment ability or understanding gain by
students after they have been exposed to a particular teaching treatment.
c) The pretest scores give indication as to whether the groups are equal in the
concepts they hold before interaction was given.
3.3 Population of the Study
The target population of this study comprised of Junior Secondary Schools III
Integrated Science students in Potiskum Educational Zone of the Yobe State
Universal Basic Educational Zonal Inspectorate (YSUBEZI). Potiskum Educational
Zone comprise of 28 Government Junior Secondary Schools with a total number of
4,464 JSS III Students. 2,851 males and 1,613 females. The population for this study
has already been exposed to integrated science teaching for two years.
61
Of the 28 Junior Government Secondary Schools, twenty are co-educational junior
secondary schools and eight single sexed secondary schools in the zone. See table 3.1
for details.
Table 3.1 Population for the Study
S/No
Name of the school Types
Enrollment of Integrated Science
students Total No of J.S.S III
Integrated Sci. Males Females
1. Fika G.J D.S.S Males 218 218 2. G.D.J.S.S Damboa Males 184 - 184 3. G.D.J.S.S Danbulwa Males 70 - 70 4. G.B.J.S.S Zadawa Males 24 - 24 5. G.B.J.S.S Fika Males 205 - 205 6. G.B.J.S.S K/gadu Males 222 - 222 7. G.G.J.D.S.S Kwata Females - 456 456 8. G.G.B.J.S.S Potiskum Females - 211 211 9. G.G.B.J.S.S Mamudo Co-educ 73 36 109 10. G.D.J.S.S Garbawa Co-educ 65 21 86 11. G.D.J.S.S Danchiwa Co-educ 45 25 70 12. G.D.J.S.S Chadi-
Potiskum Co-educ 132 120 252
13. G.G.D.J.S.S Kara Co-educ 88 65 153 14. G.D.J.S.S Bula Co-educ 60 22 82 15. G.D.J.S.S Moimama Co-educ 84 30 114 16. G.G.J.D.S.S Yerimaram
(Army) Potiskum
Co-educ
367
163
530 17. G.D.J.S.S Dorauwa Co-educ 104 84 188 18. G.D.J.S.S. Daya Co-educ 55 33 88 19. G.D.J.S.S Ngalda Co-educ 60 24 84 20. Ari-Kime G.G.J.D.S.S Co-educ 118 55 173 21. G.G.J.D.S.S Dakasku Co-educ 33 19 52 22. G.D.J.S.S. Gashaka Co-educ 109 24 131 23. G.J.D.S.S Jumma’a Co-educ 77 38 115 24. G.D.J.S.S Mamudo Co-educ 103 36 139 25. G.J.D.S.S Badejo Co-Educ 215 90 305 26. G.D.J.S.S. Godowali Co-educ 50 22 72 27. G.D.J.S.S. Gadaka Co-educ 78 33 111 28. G.D.J.S.S Maluri Co-educ 14 06 20 Total 2851 1613 4464 4464
Source: Yobe State Ministry of Education inspectorate Division, Potiskum (2010)
62
3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedure
A random sampling technique using balloting was employed to select the study
sample of 504 JSS III subjects from four (4) co-educational secondary schools out of
the twenty-eight Junior Secondary Schools in Potiskum Universal Basic Education
Board of Yobe state. This was to ensure that every student had equal chances to
participate actively in the study. Secondly, to obtain unbiased assessment of student’s
performances and thirdly, the researcher can have a good varied ability groups among
the subjects under study.
The selected schools were randomly assigned to experimental group
comprising GDJSS Kara/GDJSS Gadaka and Control Group comprising GDJSS
Mamudo and GDJSS Gashaka. The samples were drawn from the three comparable
ability groups from each of the four co-educational schools using the categorization of
subjects into high, average and low ability levels adopted from (Ajewole and
Okebukola 1998). The mode of categorization in which subjects grades were arranged
in descending order with the top 25% as high, middle 50% as average and bottom
25% as low ability subjects respectively pre test results were used to sort the students
into the three groups. Two hundred and eighty two subjects (282) served as the
experimental group subjects, while two hundred and twenty two (222) subjects served
as control group subjects. The details of the sample for this study are presented in
table 3.2 below.
Table 3.2 Summary of the distribution of the Samples in experimental and control groups as shown in Table 3.2 as presented below.
Treatment School Number of Total Males Females
Experimental group 1 88 65 153 2 78 33 111
Control group 3 73 36 109 4 109 24 131
3468 158 504
Source: Yobe State Ministry of Education inspectorate Division, Potiskum(2010).
63
The ratio of males to females in the population of the study (Table 3.1) was about 2:1
ratio of the males to females (subjects) used as sample selected schools presented in
Table 3.2 is ratio 2:1
3.5 Instrumentation
Three (3) instruments were used for the purpose of this study. These are the
Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) adapted from Inyang (1988) and Usman
(2000), Test of Practical Skills (TOPS) adapted from James (2000) and Ashok (2005)
and Attitude of Students Towards Integrated Science Questionnaire (ATISQ) adapted
from James (2000) and Lawal (2009). These were validated by three penal of experts
of senior lecturers of PhD status, Science Education Department, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria.
3.6 Selection of Concepts to be taught.
The following concepts were selected from integrated science curriculum for JSS III.
1. Energy conversion
2. Method of feeding in plants.
3. Method of feeding in animals.
The choice of these concepts was motivated by a number of reasons:
Studies show that students have difficulties in understanding some concepts in
integrated science. Methods of feeding in plants, animals and energy
conversion inclusive. (Onyeneyin and Balogun, 1981; Bomide; 1983, Inyang
1988, Akinmade; 1992, Olarewaju; 1993).
The concepts are taught at the junior and senior secondary schools as well as
the University level as such the understanding of the concept is very important
64
for the learner. More so, McPherson (2001) stated that students find these
concepts difficult either because:
They were not taught in most cases or the teaching method used by the teacher
was not appropriate.
3.7 Pilot Study
Pilot study was carried out on sixty six (66) students of JSS III Integrated
Science in Government Day Junior Secondary School Yerimaram (Army) Potiskum
Yobe State. They were randomly picked from two different classes by random
sampling through balloting. This is part of the population but not among the schools
selected for the study.
Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) Adapted from Inyang (1988) and
Usman (2000). In the same vein, Test of Practical Skills (TOPS) was adapted from
James (2000) and Ashok (2005) was used on the subjects.
The subjects used were taught for four weeks by trained research assistants
using Science Process Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP), while lecture method was
used to teach the control group for the same period of four weeks.
Using Ajewole and Okebukola (1988) and Lakpini (2006) categorization, subjects
were divided into groups, the upper 25% were placed in the high ability group, the
middle 50% constitute the average group while the bottom 25% were placed in the
low ability group.
Forty (40) question items of Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) were
administered to sixty-six (66) subjects. Test retest using Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC) which yield r = 0.69 was obtained following the
pilot study while 40 items of Test of Practical Skills (TOPS) test-retest using Pearson
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC) which also yield r = 0.96.
65
Similarly, 30 items of Attitude of Students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire
(ATISQ) was r = 0.69.
After two weeks, Attitude of Students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire
(ATISQ) was administered to the experimental group-using-split-half method. The
formula-used was the Kuder – Richardson measure of internal consistency.
i. Reliability Coefficient of the Test Instruments
The data collected from the pilot study was used to establish reliability
coefficients.
ii. Items Analysis
The pilot study provided data for item analysis. The data collected were
analysed to determine the indices of difficulty and discrimination of each of
the 40 items. The facility index or difficulty index indicated the difficulty level
of each item. It indicated the percentage of candidates that got an item right.
The Facility index of Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) cited by
Bichi (2002) criteria was used to select the items as follows.
Items with difficulty indices of 0.71, was revised and retained. Items with
difficulty indices ranges between 0.60 to 0.70 were accepted without modification.
While that of 0.95 were replaced with another new item it is because students scored
higher in the item.
For this study items that fell between the ranges from 0.60 to 0.70 of the facility index
were finally selected.
The difficulty level or the case of answering an item and the Discrimination Indices
(DI) were derived from the formula as in the equation mentioned below:
…………………………………………………..
Discrimination Index= (P1-P2)……………………………..
66
R = number of correct responses
T = the total number of students
P1 = proportion in the top 50% responded correctly
P2 = proportion in bottom 50% responded correctly
This formula was used by Bichi (2002) and the calculated discriminating index and
difficulty index are shown on the tables 3.3 and 3.4 in appendix L and M respectively
iii. Discrimination index:
The discrimination index of a test is a measure of its ability to discriminate
between high and low ranking in the test as a whole. Discrimination index for each
item was calculated by subtracting the number of students in the lower group who
answered the item correctly from the number in the upper group who got the item
right. For this study items, which have fallen between the ranges of 0.30 to 0.70 for
the discrimination indexes.
The discrimination indexes of the construction validation and standardization
of Integrated Science Achievement Test for Junior Secondary Schools. The
discrimination index criteria are as cited by Bichi (2002) are as follows: 0.40 and
above are very good, 0.30 to 0.39 are reasonably good, 0.20 to 0.29 are marginal
items that need improvement, while items below 0.19 are poor items to be discarded.
Based on these criteria, items marked RR on tables 3.3 and 3.4 were reframed and
retained. The details are shown in appendix (N).
iv. Validity of the Test Instruments and Instructional Package
Validity of the test instruments and instructional package were presented to
experts for face validation. Three panel experts who are seasoned science
educators of PhD status comprising three University senior lecturers from the
department of Science Education, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria were used.
67
The experts were specifically requested to examine whether the items in the
instruments:
Match the abilities of the students
Test what they were set to test and
Whether the language used was clear, unambiguous and correct for JSS III
students.
In all, ISAT and ATISQ recommendations were made in relation to the
language used in some of the items that the language was not very clear while in the
TOPS, they suggested the need to include more drawings and diagrams for some
questions to make the items clearer. All the suggestions were considered and dully
effected. The three instruments were screened and found to be valid by three Senior
Lecturers of PhD status, of Department of Science Education, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria for the tests.
(i) Validity of the lesson plans. The Sciences Process Skills Instructional
Package was validated by the three panels of experts in Department of Science
Education in Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. They were specifically
requested to examine whether;
the lessons plans covered the units of the study.
the lesson objectives were clearly stated
the objectives were appropriate to the students level
appropriate instructional materials and method were specified.
students activities were adequate
evaluation questions measured the objectives of the lessons.
their suggestions and recommendations guided the construction of the lesson
plans.
68
3.8 Treatment of the experimental group
Based on the pre-test scores of the subjects obtained from these schools The
pre-test result of the experimental group was divided into ability sub-groups as
mentioned earlier. The high ability group was divided into 4 sub-groups comprising
22 students each, the average ability group was divided in 4 sub-groups comprising 22
students. The low ability group too was also divided into 4 sub-groups comprising 22
students each. The same way was applied to control group. Each sub-group was
mixed up with (Males and Females) to allow for better interaction between the
students within the group and also take care of the gender issue. The regular
classrooms and laboratories were used for the lessons.
3.9 Treatment of the control group
The control group subjects who had earlier been assigned to ability groups
based on the pre-test scores were taught by research assistants whom the regular class
teacher was using the traditional method described earlier in the chapter. The lessons
were taught through verbal presentation. The lessons prepared had also been validated
by groups of experts in Department of Science Education of Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria.
3.10 Administration of Instrument
The activity based work using the activity-oriented ideas of science process
skills instructional strategy was given to each student; the activity was designed for
brainstorming so as to help the students to get prepared for the actual activity. The
contact session for both the experimental and control groups was four weeks of 1 hour
and 20 minutes per lesson. It is not a regular period, but it was specially organized by
the principles of the schools under the study which was requested by the researcher.
69
In the experimental group, Science Process Skills Instructional Package
(SPSIP) was used, while lecture method was used for control group. In the
experimental and control groups, students were assigned into heterogeneous groups.
All the necessary materials needed for the laboratory activities were provided by the
researcher. The four research assistants acted as guides during the laboratory activities
to the students. They cross-checked and assess the activities of the students
throughout the contact session. While in the control-group class, the teachers
conducted the lesson using the lecture method. The content taught in this group was
the same to that of the experimental group and the lesson plan used were prepared
based on the lecture method. The students were in their respective classes on the
venues allocated to them in their various schools.
(i) Marking Schemes, Scoring of Tests and Answer Sheets
In the mode of scoring the test instruments, the marking schemes was used and
total marks obtained was 40 marks for pilot test in ISAT, and 40 marks in
TOPS test, while 30 marks went to the attitude of students towards science
process skills. Any correct response was scored one mark while any wrong
answer was given zero (0). A detail of the marking schemes are found in
appendix D and B.
(ii) Scoring of Tests/Answer Sheets
All the test answer sheets were scored manually. A subject was scored one
mark for each correctly answered item and zero for a wrongly answered item,
thus earning a total scores corresponding to the sum of the entire correctly
answered item. Houston (1970) opines that, random guessing would occur
where the subjects face unfamiliar situation. Here, the subjects in this study
had gone through the course on which the tests were based. The scores (both
70
correct and wrong) for all the 80 were used for the purpose of the data
analysis.
3.11 Treatment of the Administration
(i) Training of Research Assistants
In order to avoid teacher bias, four integrated science teachers were invited to
do the teaching and laboratory activities. The researcher in this respect acted
as co-coordinator. And it was under closed-monitoring and supervision by the
researcher. However, four weeks training on how to teach and guide science
process-based teaching was given to the teachers.
The training was activity-based on the integrated science concepts and the
skills chosen. The selected concepts for this study were on energy conversion and the
methods of feeding in plants and animals. While the process skills include, observing,
measuring, inferring, interpreting data, classifying, predicting, communicating and
experimenting. A serious attention was given to the qualification, working experience
and the commitments of these teachers. This is necessary in order to avoid teacher
factor influencing the result of this study. Intact class was used to avoid the movement
of students.
However, this arrangement was adopted because “the use of the class teachers
provides a familiar atmosphere to the testee and thereby promotes performance”
(Mishral, 1983). Four weeks training on how to teach using the package was given to
the research assistants who took care of the experimental group in each of the selected
schools. The training took the form of laboratory activity-based work on integrated
science employing the science process skills chosen.
The researchers’ attention was given to the qualifications, working experience and
commitments of these research assistants. This is necessary in order to avoid teacher
71
factor influencing the results of this study. However, to teach integrated science using
Science Process Skills Approach, the following 4-procedures were adapted;
i) Identification of the Science Process Skills Approach you want your
students to develop and the levels of success you want them to attain in the
practice of these skills.
ii) Statement of behavioural objectives specifying the level of skills attainment.
iii) The design of activities that would inculcate the desired skills.
iv) Provision of adequate materials to the students and guidance on the conduct of
the
proposed activities.
The contact session for both the experimental and control groups were four
weeks of one (1) hour 20 minutes per lesson (80 minutes).
The Science Process Skills Approach was used for the experimental group while
lecture method was used for the control group using the same concepts in integrated
science.
The administration of the instruments was conducted by research assistants
who did the teaching with the assistance of the researcher under close monitoring and
supervision. The arrangement was adapted because “the use of the class teachers
provides a familiar atmosphere to the testes and promotes performance (Mishral,
1983).
Attitude of Students towards Integrated Science Questionnaires were adapted from
James (2000) and Lawal (2009) and it was validated by three panel of experts of
senior lecturers of PhD status in the Department of Science Education Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria. It was administered before and after to the experimental group only,
this is because the test was designed to test Science Process Skills Approach of
72
subjects of the experimental groups. The questionnaire comprised thirty (30) items.
Thirty (30) of the items reflected an overall attitude towards integrated science.
(ii) Science Process Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP)
The researcher adapted Science Process Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP)
from James and Karen (2000). The Science Process Skills Instructional Package was
trial tested during the pilot study based on the ideas of (SPSIP) and Nigeria Integrated
Science Teacher Education Project (NISTEP, 1993) containing concepts and activities
in Science Process Skills Approach. The package was adapted in order to ensure that
all the experimental subjects have equal access to the relevant instructional materials.
The Science Process Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP), the instrument was
developed in (2000) by James and Karen
In developing the instructional package, the following text books commonly
recommended for basic junior secondary schools were used.
Science Teacher Association of Nigeria (STAN, 2005) Nigerian Integrated
Science Project, Pupils Textbook 3 revised Edition: Heinemann Educational
Books (Nig) Plc.
Examination focus integrated science for J.S.C.E Begun et al (2008)
University press Ibadan Nigeria revised edition.
Asun and et al (2004), Longman integrated science for Junior Secondary
Schools Textbook Pupils Book 3 revised edition.
Ndu and Somoye (2008) Basic science an integrated science course for Junior
secondary schools by Longman Nigeria Plc, Lagos UBE Edition
Jegede and et al (1991), New integrated science pupils book 3 Macmillan
Publishers London.
73
Three panels of experts of senior lecturers of PhD status in the Department of
Science Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria validated the package. Based on
the suggestions from the experts and observations made during the pilot study, some
activities were restructured to suit the time table arrangements in the secondary
schools sampled.
iii. Test of Practical Skills (Tops)
This instrument developed by James (2000) and Ashok (2005) was adapted by
the researcher. It has a reliability coefficient of r = 0.96. The instruments were used as
pretest and posttest for experimental and control groups in order to determine the
entry level of the subjects.
The instrument consists of short answers and multiple choice items which
consist of four options (A-D),one of the options is the correct answer and the
remaining three, being distractors. The students were asked to select the correct option
by ticking the letter bearing in mind the correct answer. The test items were validated
by three panel experts of PhD status senior lecturers in the Department of Science
Education Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.
Table 3.3 Summary of Table of Specification on Test of Science Process Skills (TOPS)
S/No. Process Skills Items Total 1. Observation 7, 8, 11, 13, 16, 23, 26, 29 8 2. Measuring 1, 3, 5, 12, 17 and 30 6 3. Inferring 9, 10, 19, 20, 24, 27, 32 and 38 8 4. Interpreting data 21, 36 2 5. Classifying 15, 31, 37 3 6. Predicting 6, 14, 40 3 7. Communicating 22, 35, 39 3 8. Experimenting 2, 4, 18, 25, 28, 33 and 34 7 Total 40
74
iv. Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT)
Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) was adapted by the researcher
from Inyang (1988) and Usman (2000) to access the students’ understanding and level
of academic performance in integrated science concepts.
The instrument comprised of forty (40) multiple choice items with one correct answer
and the three distractors for each set. At the end of the test, the researcher collected
the test questions and their answers. One mark was allocated for each question
answered correctly, making a total of forty (40) marks. All the items in this instrument
were constructed using the multiple choice format.
Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) was used to generate data on two
occasions during the study, namely pretest and posttest. A panel of three experts who
are of PhD status senior lecturers of the Faculty of Education, in the Department of
Science Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria validated the instrument. They
are to access the content and face validity of Integrated Science Achievement Test
(ISAT). This was done to avoid bias of the scores.
Subjects of the experimental and control groups were given pretest and posttest in
Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) before and after treatment. The results
of the tests formed the data of this study.
v. Attitude of Students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire (ATISQ)
The ATISQ questionnaire was adapted from James (2000) and Lawal (2009)
and was validated by three senior lectures who are seniors in the Department of
Science Education in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The questionnaire was
administered to the experimental group only; this is because, the test was designed to
test Science Process Skills Approach on academic performance and attitude of
integrated science students with varied abilities. Since experimental group was the
only group taught using skills-based strategy, the test was administered to the
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experimental group only. Before and after treatment was used to determine their
attitude change. This was to determine whether the subjects still maintained the same
attitude towards integrated science process skills after being exposed to the training
strategy or there is a change in attitude either positively or negatively.
The questionnaire comprised thirty (30) items, the items reflected an overall
Attitude towards the Integrated Science. The subjects were instructed to read the
instructions on the attitude of students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire
(ATISQ) and to respond appropriately depending on what they felt about each time.
45 minutes was allowed for the students to answer the questionnaire. After
completion, the questionnaires were collected from the subjects ready for marking and
scoring them.
Table 3.4 Summary of Table of Specification Based on Attitude of Students Towards Integrated Science Questionnaire using Bloom Six Levels of Cognitive Objectives
S/No. Topic Items Total 1. Knowledge 13, 14, 18, 21, 24, 29 6 2. Comprehension 1, 15, 22 3 3. Application 3, 5, 19, 23, 27 5 4. Analysis 6, 8, 17 3 5. Synthesis 9, 20 2 6. Evaluation 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 16, 25, 26, 28, 30 11 Total 30
3.12 Procedure for Data Collection
The data collection for this study involves the following: Integrated Science
Achievement Test (ISAT) the twelve (12) groups from four schools were pretested
and post tested with (ISAT). The (ISAT) was marked over 40 as observed in the
marking scheme (Appendix D). Attitude of Students towards Integrated Science
Questionnaire (ATISQ) was distributed to all students of experimental group to find
out their attitude towards integrated science. The subjects were instructed to read the
76
instruction on the Attitude of Students’ Towards Integrated Science Questionnaire
(ATISQ) and to respond appropriately depending on what they felt about each item.
After completion, the questionnaire was collected from the subjects, marked and
recorded appropriately.
3.13 Procedure for Data Analysis
Where a sampled school had more than two streams of JSS III, two intact
classes were drawn by simple random sampling technique. These groups were
randomly assigned to treatment. The pre test results obtained from the four intact
classes were subjected to statistical to t-test. It was used to find out the differences in
their ability level of the subjects.
The data obtained was further subjected to Pair-wise t-test to find out the
equivalent among the subjects. From equivalent of classes A and B the experimental
and control groups were selected through simple random sampling technique
employing “balloting method” using the categorization of subjects into high, average
and low ability levels adopted from (Ajewole & Okebukola (1988) ; Lakpini (2006).
The analysis of data for the study was based on data collected. Probability
level of p ≤ 0.05 was set for retaining or rejecting the hypotheses. The scores obtained
from the (ISAT) provided data for testing hypotheses 1- 4.
The stated hypotheses along with the suitable statistical analysis used are as
follows.
HO 1: There is no significant difference between the mean academic achievement
scores of subjects in the high, average and low ability sub-groups taught
Integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach and their
counterparts taught using lecture method. To analyze the data, statistical tool
77
Two-ways analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine the
whether there is a significant different between the post test scores of both
experimental and control groups, at p ≤ 0.05 level of significant.
HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean academic achievement scores of
males and females of the high, average and low ability sub-groups taught
integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach. Two-ways Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the post test scores of the
experimental group at p ≤ 0.05 level of significance.
HO3: There is no significant attitudinal change to integrated science among subjects
of the high, average and low ability groups are taught integrated science using
Science Process Skills Approach. To analyze post test scores of the
experimental group, Kruskal Wallis Test statistical tool was used at p ≤ 0.05
level of significant.
HO4: There is no significant difference in the change in attitude of males and
females of high, average and low abilities when taught integrated science
using Science Process Skills Approach.
For this hypothesis, Mann Whitney U-Test statistical tool was used to analyze
the pre test and post test scores of experimental group. At P≤ 0.05 level of
significance was set for retaining or rejecting null hypothesis.
The data generated from the above the hypotheses were used in analysis in the
subsequent chapter.
78
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of Science process Skills
approach on Academic Performance and attitude of integrated science students with
varied abilities. The analysis essentially involved statistical testing of the hypothesis
states in chapter one and three. The level of significance adopted is P< 0.05 level
which form the basis for retaining or rejecting each of the null hypothesis were stated.
Two ways analysis of variance (ANOVA), Kruskal Wallis Test and Mann Whitney
U-test statistical tools was used for the analysis. This chapter contains data analysis,
results and discussions. The chapter is presented in the following sub-headings:
Data presentation/hypothesis testing
Result presentation
Summary of the findings
Discussions
4.2 Data Analysis, Hypotheses Testing
The research questions, hypothesis and results obtained in the study is presented as
follows:
1. What is the difference in the mean academic achievement scores of the
subjects in the high, average and low ability sub-groups taught integrated science
79
using Science Process Skills Approach and their counterparts taught using Lecture
Method?
Hypothesis 1: This null hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference in the
mean academic achievement scores of subjects in the high, average and low ability
sub-groups taught integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach and their
counterparts using Lecture Method.
Table 4.1a Summary of Descriptive Statistics of Experimental (Exposed to Science Process Skills Approach) and Control Groups Exposed to (Lecture Method) mean scors of High, Average and Low Ability sub-groups
Group Method Number Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Error
Science Process Skills Approach/ Lecture Method
Science Process Skills Approach
Experimental High
Science Process Skills Approach
78 28.92 3.49311 .39562
Experimental Average
Science Process Skills Approach
125 24.02 3.05962 .27366
Experimental Low
Science Process Skills Approach
50 23.56 4.79160 .59810
Control High Lecture Method
79 23.78 3.72246 .52544
Control Average Lecture Method
128 24.39 4.22526 .37346
Control Low Lecture Method
44 16.04 6.08450 .91727
Total Science Process Skills
252 25.30
Lecture Method
252 22.62
504
Significant difference at P< 0.05
The Table 4.1a above showed that the mean achievement scores of
experimental and control groups were High 28.92, Average 24.02, Low 23.56 and
control group average 24.39, control high 23.78 and control low 16.04 respectively,
80
with standard deviation of experimental high with the value of 3.493, average 3.0596,
low 4.791 and control group high 3.722, control group average 4.225 and control
group low 6.084 respectively. These implied that subjects taught Integrated Science
using Science Process Skills Approach had the highest mean achievement scores in
experimental high. The group taught with Lecture Method had the least mean
achievement scores in control low ability group.
In order to test for significant difference the students’ mean academic
achievement based on the use of Science Process Skills and Lecture Methods,
hypothesis one was tested as below:
Hypothesis 1: This null hypothesis state that there is no significant difference in the
mean academic achievement scores of subjects in the high, average and low ability
sub-groups taught integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach and their
counterparts using Lecture Method.
4.1b Summary of a 2-ways Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of Mean Scores was used which Presented below:
Source of variable
Sum of Squares
Df Mean Score
F. Ratio P-value
Remark
Between Within Intraction Between Within Total
4716.124 235721.055 3809.241 8429.368 302682.000
1 2 2 498 504
943.225 235721.055 952.310 16.926
55.72 13926.20 56.26 24.223
.000
.000 .000 .000
S S S S
Significant at P< 0.05
From Table 4.1b above, the result of the 2-ways analysis of variance shows
that there is significance difference between Experimental and control groups the F-
Critical is 55.72 and P-value of ,000 df = 1 and 498. Since .P.value .000 is less than
0.05. It shows there is a significant difference in mean scores between the
experimental groups. And within the experiments groups, the F- Critical is 13926.20
81
and P-value of .000 at Df 1 and 498, since .000 is less tha 0.005, it also indicated that
there is significant difference in the mean scores within the experimental groups. But
between the control groups that F- calculated is 56.26 and P-value of .000 at Df 1 and
498, since the P-value is less than 0.05, this indicated that there is a significant
difference in the mean scores between control groups. And within the control group
the F-calculated is 24.22
and the P-value is .000 which is less than 0.05 at Df 1and 498 which indicated that
there is significant difference in the mean scores within the control groups.
To show which groups among High, Average and Low of both Experimental
and Control groups that shows significant difference Scheffe’s LSD post hoc test was
carriedout. The result is presented in Table 4.1c.
82
Table 4.1c Summary of Post hoc LSD Multiple Comparism Pair wise Between Experimental and Control Groups of Males and Females in High, Average and Low Ability Sub-groups.
(J) Science Process Skills Group
Science Process Skills Group
Mean Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig
Scheffes/ LSD
Experimental High male
Experimental Average male Experimental Low male Control High female Control Average female Control Low female
5.7050* 5.5381* 1.0743 6.7948* 2.2091
.61922 .66313 .91095 .85167 1.26115
.000
.000
.239
.000
.081
Experimental Average male
Experimental High male Experimental Low male Control High female Control Average female Control Low female
-5.7050* -.1669 -4.6307* 1.0898 -3.4959
.61922 .57774 .85081 .78701 1.21842
.000
.773
.000
.167
.004
Experimental Low male
Experimental High male Experimental Average male Control High female Control Average female Control Low female
-5.5381* .1669 -4.4638* 1.2567 -3.3290
.66313 .57774 .88328 .82200 1.24131
.000
.773
.000
.127
.008
Control High female
Experimental High male Experimental Average male Experimental Low male Control Average female Control Low female
-1.0743 4.6307* 4.4638* 5.7205* 1.1348
.91095 .85081 .88328 1.03237 1.38958
.239
.000
.000
.000
.415
Control Average female
Experimental High male Experimental Average male Experimental Low male Control High female Control Low female
-6.7948* -1.0898 -1.2567 -5.7205* -4.5857*
.85167 .78701 .82200 1.03237 1.35146
.000
.167
.127
.000
.000 Control Low
female Experimental High male Experimental Average male Experimental Low male Control High female Control Average female
-2.2091 3.4959 3.3290 -1.1348 4.5857*
1.26115 1.21842 1.24131 1.38958 1.35146
.081
.004
.008
.415
.001
The mean difference is significant at P< 0.05 levels
When the Scheffe’s Post-hoc pair wise comparison test was conducted on the
mean scores of the three groups it was observed that, significant differences exist
between the three groups at P< 0.05. According to the table 4.1c, the experiemental
high group subjects had the higest mean performance and this group is significantly
83
higher/better compared with experimental average, low and control group high,
average and low. The experimental average mean scores is sigificantly different from
experimental high mean scores and control low mean scores. The experimental low
mean scores is significantly different from experimental high and also different from
control low mean scores. In the same vein, the control high mean score is
siginificantly different from experimental high, and also significantly different from
contol low mean scores.
The control average mean scores is significantly different from the
experimental high mean scores, and also significantly different from control mean
scores. The control low mean scores, is significantly different from the mean scores of
all the other five groups. Therefore, this implies that the experimental high Science
Process Skills Experimental group has the highest mean scores of 28.92 while the
contrl group with mean scores of 22.62 has the higher mean scores. Therefore
experimental high Science Process Skills and experimental method perform higher.
This also implies that the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant
difference in the mean academic achievement scores of males amd females of the
High, Average and Low Ability sub-group is rejected which means that Science
Process Skills has effect on the mean scores of males and females of the high, average
and low.
4.2a Research Question Two:
What are the differences in the mean academic achievement scores of males
and females of high, average and low ability groups taught Integrated Science using
Science Process Skills Approach?
84
Table 4.2.a: Summary of the Descriptive Statistics of Mean Scores of Males and Females of the High, Average and Low Ability Sub- groups taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach. Science Process Skills Approach
Gender N Mean Standard Deviation
High Male 55 29.50 3.77552
Female 23 27.52 2.19233
Total 78 28.92 3.49311
Average Male 96 23.84 3.17996
Female 28 22.71 2.43215
Total 124 23.58 3.05508
Low Male 69 23.97 4.85668
Female 10 27.30 3.16403
Total 79 24.39 4.79160
Total Male
220 25.30 4.60008
Female 61 25.27 3.40652
Total 282 25.29 4.36319
Table 4.2a above showed that mean scores of males and females of the high,
average and low ability groups taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills
Approach where males experimental high 29.50, males experimental average 23.84
and males experimental low were 23.97 respectively. For females experimental high
27.52, 22,71 and females experimental low 27.30 respectively with standard deviation
of males high 3.77, males average 3.17, males low 4.85 and females high 2.19, female
average 2.43 and female low 3.16. This implies that males high ability have the
highest mean scores than females in high ability groups, followed by females in the
low ability with 27.30. In order to test for any significance on students’ mean scores
of males and females of the high, average and low ability using Science process Skills
Approach, hypothesis two was tested as below: The above Table 4.2a showed the
descriptive statistics of mean scores of males and females of the High, Average and
85
Low within each gender males and females, the table revealed that within the High
Science Process Skills Approach both male and female had their highest mean scores
of 29.50 and 27.52 respectively. the female respondents second highest mean scores
of 27.30 occurs in the Low Science Process Skills, while the male second highest
mean scores of 23.97 could also be found in the Low Science Process Skills. This
implies that the model could be the best when the High ability levels used Science
Process Skills is applied to both males and females. In order to test for significance
difference on the students’ mean academic achievement based on the use of Science
Process Skills Approach, hypothesis two was tested as below:
Hypothesis 2: The null hypothesis state that there is no significant difference in the
mean scores of males and females of the High, Average and low ability sub-groups
taught integrated science using Science process skills approach.
Table 4.2.b: Summary of 2-ways Analysis of Variance of the Differences in the Mean Scores of Males and Females of the High, Average and Low Ability Sub groups taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach.
Source Sum of Squares
Df Mean Square
F-ratio
P-Value
Partial Eta Squared
Remark
Between 1640.587 5 328.117 24.454
.000 .308 *S
Within 107887.233 1 107887.233
8040.601
.000 .967 *S
Science Process Skills
1017.898 2 508.949 37.931
.000 .216 *S
Interaction .203 1 .203 .015 .902 .000 N.S Between 172.119 2 86.059 6.414 .002 .045 *S Within 3689.897 275 13.418 Total 185130.000 281 Corrected Total
5330.484 280
* Significance at P< 0.05
The Table 4.2b above revealed the existence of significant difference between
and within the Science Process Skills Approach in their mean scores. This is because
the calculated alpha P- value of 0.000 is less than the P < 0.05 level of tolerance was
86
obtained. But there was no significant difference in their interaction between males
and females of F-value was 0.05 and P-value .902 which is greater than P-value .000.
Hence, the decision therefore was to reject null hypothesis and accept alternative
hypothesis that there were significant differences in the mean scores of males and
females of the high, average and low ability sub-groups taught Integrated Science
using Science Process Skills Approach.
Table 4.2.c: Summary of Post Hoc LSD Multiple Comparison (pair wise) on the Difference in the Mean Scores of Males and Females of the High, Average and Low Ability Sub groups taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach.
(I) Science Process Skills
(J) Science Process Skills
Mean Difference (I-J)
Standard Divation Error
P-Value Remark
Tukey LSD
High
Average Low
5.3344* 4.5307*
.52937
.58470 .000 .000
*S *S
Average High Low
-5.3344* -8037
.52937
.52731 .000 .281
*S N.S
Low High Average
-4.5307* .8037
.58470
.52731 .000 .281
*S N.S
LSD High Average Low
5.3344* 4.5307*
.52937
.58470 .000 .000
*S *S
Average High Low
-5.3344* -8037
.52937
.52731 .000 .129
*S N.S
Low High Average
-4.5307* .8037
.58470
.52731 .000 .129
*S N.S
The above post Hoc LSD (Least significant) table 4.2c showed where and the
level of differences within the three groups of Science Process Skill Approach groups
of High, Average and low. According to the table, significant difference exist between
the mean scores of High and Average and also between the High and Low as the
computed P- value of 0.000 in each case is lower than the P < 0.05 level of
87
significance. However, there was no significant difference between the mean scores
of Average Science Process Skills mean scores and the Science Process Skills Low
mean scores and vice versa because the calculated P- value of .129 is higher than the
P< 0.05 level of tolerance. Hence in terms of mean scores of male subjects did not
achieved higher than the female subjects taught some concepts in Integrated Science
Using Science Process Skills Approach. Therefore, the null hypothesis which states
that there is no significant difference in the mean score of males and females of the
high, average and low ability groups is hereby retained. Meaning that, there is no
significance difference in the mean scores of the males and females of the high,
average and low ability sub-groups.
Research Question Three
What are the effects od Science Process Skills Approach on attitudinal change
of subjects of high, average and low ability groups after exposure to Science Science
Process Skills Appraoch?
Table 4.3a Summary of Mean Ranks and Standard Deviation of sujects of Post test attitudinal change in Integrated Science among subjects of the High, Average and Low using using Science Process Skills Approach.
Group No Mean ranks Standard Deviation
Males High 55 150.96 .91623 Males Average 97 148.93 .94281 Males Low 69 148.23 .84327 Females High 23 151.80 .84327 Females Average 28 151.50 .78881 Females Low 10 129.50 .99443 Total 282
The Table 4.3a above showed that the mean ranks achievement scores of the males
and females experimental group were males high 150. 96, males avarage 148.93 and
males low148.23 respectively. Females high 151.80, females Average 151,50 and
females low 129.50 respectively. This implies that the females subjects achieved
88
slightly higher in their mean ranking followed by females average, then males high,
males average, males low and females low achieved the least mean rankings. To test
for significant difference on males and females subjects of the high, average and low
ability sub-groups mean scores based on the use of Science Process Skills Approach,
hypothesis three was tested as below:
HO3: There is no significant attitudinal change to Integrated Science among high,
average and low ability sub-groups after there were taught Integrated Science using
Science Process Skills Approach. Kruskal-Wallis non praramettic test statistics on the
attituddinal change to integrated science among subjects in high, average and low
pretest scores ability sub-groups after they were taught integrated science using
Science Process Skills Approach. To test this hypothesis 3, Kruskal Wallis K-critical
Test was used which is based on using the nominal values of variables that are more
than two variables. It is presented in:
Table 4.3b Summary of Kruskal Wallis Statistics Test in the Attitudinal change to Integrated Science among Subjects of the High, Average and Low Ability Sub-groups.
Group (Pretest) N Mean Ranks
Df K-Critical
p-value Remark
Male high Male average Male low Female high Female average Female low Total
55 97 69 23 28 10 282
158.11 187.65 174.63 167.63 154.66 122.16
5
10.025
.075
N.S
According to the K-Critical mean ranking of the Kruskal Wallis test, the
ranking are 158.11, 187.65, 174.63, 167.63, 154.66, and 122.16 for male high, male
average, male low, female high, female average and female low pretest attitudinal
rank respecteively. K-Critical significant P-value of 0.075 at degree of freedom of 5 is
89
greater than the 0.05 level of tolerance, hence the null hypothesis is accepted and
retained. Table 4.3b Kruskal –Wallis test statistics on attitudinal change to integrated
science in the subjects of high, average and low post test ability sub-groups after they
were taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach. To test this
hypotheis 3, Kruskal-Wallis K-Critical test for norminal values of variables more than
two variables was used.
Table 4.3c: Summary of Kruskal Wallis Statistics Postest in the Attitudinal change to Integrated Science among subject of the High, Average and Low ability Sub-groups.
Group (Post test) N Mean Ranks
Df K-Critical p-value Remark
Male high post test Male average post test Male low post test Female high post test Female average post test Female low post test Total
55 97 69 23 28 10 282
150.96 148.93 148.23 151.80 151.50 129.50
5
0.85
0.977
NS
Table 4.3c above shows the K-Critical mean ranking of the Kruskal –Wallis
test. The ranking are 150.96, 148.93, 148.23, 151.80, 151.50 and 129.50 for male
high, male average, male low, female high, female average and female low post test
attitudinal rank respectively. The K-Critical P-value of 0.977 at the degree of freedom
of 5 which is greater than the 0.05 level of tolerance. They showed no significant
difference in their attitudinal change to Integrated Science. This might have been due
to the fact that, they already had positive attitude towards the subject and since they
were high performers, they did not have negative impression about the teacher which
could have brought about change in attitude among the subjects. Hence, the null
hypothesis which states that there is no significant attitudinal change to integrated
science among subjects in the high, average and low ability sub-groups after they
were taught integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach the dicision
90
therefore was to reject and to accept alternative hypothesis which stays that there were
significant attitudinal change of subjects of High, Average and Low Ability groups
after the exposure to Science Process Skills Approach.
Research Question Four
What is the difference in the attitude of males and females taught using
Science Process Skills Approach?
Table 4.4a Summary of Descriptive Statistics Difference in Attitude change in Male and Female subjects taugh Integrated Science Using Science Process Skills Approach. Mann Whitney U-Test of Mean Rank and Standard Deviation of Post Test was used.
Method Gender N Mean rank Standard Deviation
Science
Process Skills
Approach
Maless
Females
221
61
175.85
154.22
0.6440
0.3824
Total 282
Table 4.4a above showed that the mean achievement ranks of the males
experimental and females experimental group were 175.85 and 154.22, with standard
deviation of 0.6440 and 0.3824 respectively. This implies that male subjects taught
with Science Process Skills Approach has the highest mean achievement ranks,
followed by the females with least mean achievement ranks. Therefore, based
on the research question four above, Science Process Skills Approach seems to be
more of suitable and appropriate for students of different abilities to learn and
consequently enhanced students understanding and academic achievement of
Integrated Science concepts in respect of gender differences. In order to make
decisions on the students’ achievment based on the use of Science Process Skills
Approach, hypothesis four was tested below:
91
Hypothesis 4:
There is no siginificant difference between male and female attitude change
subjects taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach. To test this
hypothesis the Mann-Whitney U-test is used because the test variable are all
norminal attitudes.
Table 4.4b Summary of Mann-Whitney U- Test Statistics Post test in Attitude change to Integrated Science of Male and Female subjects taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach.
Group Pretest Gender
N Sum of rank
Mean Ranks
U-Critical
p-value Remark
Males Pretest Females Pretest Total
221 61 282
49588.50 9407.50
175.85 154.22
1.715
0.086
N.S
Outcome of the above Table 4.4b Mann-Whitney U. test table shows that there
is no significant difference between male and female attitude change in subjects
taught integrated science. This is because the U-Critical 1.715 significant P-value of
0.086 is greater than 0.05 level of tolerance value. Hence null hypothesis is
aceepted/retained..
Table 4.4c Summary of Mann-Whitney U. Test Statistical Difference in Attitude between Male and Female subjects taught Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach is presented below:
Group Post test Gender
N Sum of rank
Mean Ranks
U-Critical
p-value Remark
Males Post test Females Post test Total
221 61 282
35060.50 9192.50
148.56 150.70
200
0.841
NS
The Table 4.4b above reveals that Mann-Whiteny U- Test showed that there is no
significant difference between male and female attitude change in subjects taught
integrated science. This is because the calculated U-Critical 200 P-value of 0.841 is
92
greater than 0.05 level of tolerance. Hence, the null hypothesis which states that,
there is no significant difference in attitude of male and female subjects taught
integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach is accepted and retained.
This could be said that the subjects are familiar with lecture method already.
Therefore, their exposure to Science Process Skills Approach to short period of four
weeks might not have influenced their attitude significantly. Though their mean
scores.
4.3 Summary of Findings
Summary of findings from the study, the result obtained are:
4.1a There was significant difference in the mean scores of the experimental high,
average and low ability sub-groups followed by control group average, high
and low (in table 4.1a).
4.1b Result indicated that there is a significant difference in mean scores between
and within the experimental groups. And also there is a significant difference
scores between and within control groups. (see Table 4.1b).
4.1c According to Table 4.1c, the experimental high group subjects has the highest
mean performance than other groups in favour of experimental group,
followed by control average mean scores. The control low mean scores is
significantly different from the mean scores of all other five groups.
4.2a The result revealed that, within the high, Science Process Skills Approach,
both male and female subjects had their highest mean scores of 29.50 and
27.52 respectively. The females low had the second highest mean scores. (see
table 4.2a).
93
4.2b The result revealed the existence of significant difference between and within
the Science Process Skills Approach in their mean scores. (see table 4.2b).
4.2c According to the table 4.2c, the significant difference exist between the mean
scores of high and average and also between the high and low as computed
results indicated the level of significance.
4.3a The result indicated that based on their mean ranks and standard deviation in
pretest, the females high achieved highest, followed by females average, then
males high, average and low, the least is in the females’ low group. This
implies that, the female subjects achieved slightly higher in their mean ranks
than their males counterparts. (see table 4.3a).
4.3b According to Kruskal Wallis Test, the table 4.3b showed no significant
difference in their attitudinal change to Integrated Science among subjects in
the high, average and low sub-groups after they were taught Integrated
Science using Science Process Skills Approach. (See table 4.3b).
4.4a The result reveals that, there is a difference in mean ranks and standard
deviation of the ranks in the favour of males experimental group than that of
the females (see table 4.4a).
4.4b The outcome of the result of the test shows that, there is no significant
difference between male and female attitude change in the pretest subjects
taught Integrated Science (see table 4.4b).
4.4c Similarly, in the post test showed that, there is no significant difference
between male and female attitude change subjects taught Integrated Science
(see table 4.4c).
94
4.4 Discussion of Results
The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of Science Process
Skills Approach on academic performance and attitude of integrated science students
with varied abilities. Secondly, if using Science Process Skills Approach would affect
the performance of subjects in the high, average and low science. Thirdly, to
investigate the effects of Science Process Skills on performance of varied ability
groups in terms of gender. The data collected for this study was based on the
performance of subjects in Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) and
responses obtained from Attitude of students Towards Integrated Science
Questionnaire (ATISQ) and Test of Practical Skills (TOPS). The results of the
analysis as presented in table 4.1a, 4.1b. 4.1c, 4.2a, 4.2b. 4.3a, 4.3b 4.4a and 4.4b.
These were analyzed according to the demand of the research questions, hypothesis
formulated and the design of the study.
The research question one which states that “What is the difference in the
mean scores of the subjects in the high, average and low ability sub-groups taught
Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach and their counterparts
taught Lecture Method”
To answer this research question in table 4.1a, the result shows that there was
significant difference in the mean scores of the experimental high, average and low.
Followed by control group, average, high and low taught Integrated Science using
Science Process Skills Approach than those taught using Lecture Method. The
significant difference found among the groups might likely be due to the use of
Science Process Skills Instructional Strategy on the experimental groups as it is
indicated in the means scores and standard deviation shown on the table.
95
The result from testing of hypothesis 1 revealed that, the subjects were
significantly different by their ability levels of experimental and control groups. This
implies that, the experimental group which was exposed to science process skills
instructional strategy performed significantly better in their various ability levels than
their counterparts in the control group who were taught the same integrated science
concepts using traditional lecture method.
This finding is in line with Abdullahi (2007) which explains that, science process
skills can also be used by integrated science teachers to identify the different abilities
in students and to help them to understand the process skills approach being taught,
which will lead to an improvement. Usman (2000) and Bichi (2002), observed that,
when students learnt when instructional ability based method like science process
skills is employed, the learning outcome are significantly retained which resulted in
students' academic performance in integrated science and Biology. The better
performance might have been induced by the fact that the subjects of experimental
group were able to discuss freely with one another within the group and even the
whole class.
The research question two which state that “What are the differences in the
mean scores of males and females of high, average and low ability groups taught
Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach” To answer this research
question two, there was significant difference in the mean and standard deviation
scores of males and females of high, average and low ability sub-groups taught
Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach, where the males
experimental high achieved the highest mean scores. Followed by females
experimental high, low and average. This implies that the males’ high ability has the
highest mean and standard deviation scores than females in high ability group.
96
The second hypothesis 2 focused on finding-out whether "there is no
significant difference in the mean of males and females of the high, average and low
ability sub-groups taught integrated science using Science Process Skills Approach.
The findings of the study revealed that the students on the basis of their gender
were slightly significantly different by their ability levels. The null hypothesis which
states that there is no significant attitudinal change to Integrated Science of the
subjects in the high, average and low ability sub-groups after they were taught
Integrated Science using Science Process Skills Approach is accepted and retained.
Danladi (2003) also reveals that there is no significant difference in achievement
between females and males on task involving science process skills acquisition male
and female subjects achieved equally in their computed post test scores, while Nwosu
(2001), suggests that gender stereotyping has to be discouraged in the homes, schools
and societies to enable females participate freely in skills based activities like science
process skills. It is inline with Yoloye (2004) Nworgun (2005), Usman (2010) that if
males and females are given equal opportunity, they will perform equally well. The
findings also show that Science Process Skills Approach is gender friendly.
Therefore, the Science Process Skills Approach has the potential of enhancing both
males and females students academic performance in Integrated Science of the Junior
Secondary School level. Also Ogunboyele (2003) who independently reported that
males are better than females in terms of educational achievement when
independently carried out studies on sex differences and student’s achievement at the
primary and secondary school levels.
The research question three which states that “What are the effects of Science
Process Skills Approach on attitudinal change of the high, average and low sub-
groups after exposure to Science Process Skills Approach” To answer this research
question above, in table 4.3a above showed that, there is mean ranks attitudinal
97
change to Integrated Science of males and females of the high, average and low using
Science Process Skills Approach. Females high achieved highest and then the
females, average followed by males high, males’ average and low. The females low
achieved that least of all the ability groups. This implies that females’ high ability
appears to have the highest mean ranks and standard deviation followed by males
high respectively.
Hypothesis 3
Looking at the attitudinal change of the subjects in the pretest and posttest of
the experimental groups of various ability levels and sex status of males and females,
the calculated significant value of Kruskal Wallis K-Critical value of 0.977 in the post
test which is higher than the P < 0.05 level of tolerance. As the null hypothesis states
that; there is no significant attitudinal change to integrated science subjects of the
high, average and low ability sub-groups before and after there was exposed taught
integrated science using science process approach. For all the cases when males and
females in the different groups of attitudinal change were compared, the result
revealed no significant difference in gender, hence they are gender friendly. But
male’s average in pre-test has slightly higher than females counterparts.
Bichi (2002) reports that there was no significant difference in academic achievement
between male and female subjects taught evaluation concepts using traditional method
of instruction.
The research question four which states that “What is the difference in the
attitude of males and females taught using Science Process Skills Approach” To
answer this research question four, the table 4.4a showed that there is difference in
mean ranks and standard deviation in attitude of males and females taught using
Science Process Skills Approach. Thus even though, the males mean experimental
scores in pretest group performed reasonably progressively higher in experimental
98
group than their females’ counterparts. This implies that male subjects achieved
highest in their mean ranks and standard deviations of the ranks, followed by female
low subjects who achieved the least.
The fourth hypothesis, therefore, the result of the analysis of the fourth
hypothesis on table 4.4(a) revealed that there is no significant difference in attitude
change among the ability levels of the (high, average and low) of experimental group.
As it is showed in Mann Whitney U. Critical 200 P- value of 0.841 is greater than the
0.05 level of tolerance. As the null hypothesis states that, there is a significant
difference in attitude among high, average and low ability sub-groups taught using
Science Process Skills Approach and their counterparts taught using lecture method.
This hypothesis is hereby accepted and retained. This showed that there is a
significant difference in their attitude towards student’s teacher, influence and science
process skills instructional strategy. The science process approach because of its
unique and distinguishing feature of developing in children, a set of science process
skills will be helpful in this respect.
99
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the summary of the findings from this study are presented. The
conclusions from the findings, recommendations arising from the study are discussed.
5.2 Summary
The study was conducted to find out the effects of Science Process Skills
Approach on academic performance and attitude of integrated science students with
varied abilities. The study was carried out to find the effects of science process skills
instructional strategy:-
If the academic performance of Integrated Science Students could be enhanced
especially those in low and average ability groups.
If there would be difference between attitude exhibited by integrated science
students of the various ability groups before and after instruction.
The samples for the study were Junior Secondary Three (JSS) Students of
Eight Classes from Four Schools, two schools each from Potiskum and Fika Local
Government Areas and two schools from Fika Local Government Area that made up
the Potiskum Educational Zone. Two of the schools were Government Day Junior
Secondary School Kara and Government Day Junior Secondary School Gadaka, these
schools were used as the experimental group. As were taught using the science
process skills instructional strategy.
The control groups were Government Day Junior Secondary School Mamudo
and Government Day Junior Secondary School Gashaka and the subjects were taught
using traditional lecture method. The integrated science concepts that were taught are:
energy conversion
methods of feeding in plants and animals
100
Four null hypotheses were tested in order to answer the stated research questions, 40
multiple choice items of achievement test was adapted by the researcher from Inyang
(1988) and Usman (2000) and were validated by experts of PhD status in Science
Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The facility and discrimination indices
were also determined. Likewise Test of Practical Skills (TOPS) was used for pretest
which was made of short answers and ten multiple choice items. And 30 in item
integrated science questionnaire (ATISQ) adapted from James (2000) and Lawal
(2009) was used for the study to find out experimental and control groups before and
after instruction.
The study adopted a pretest-posttest design with the experimental and control
groups divided into ability groups (high, average and low) and students within each
group were put into sub-groups to allow them for instruction. The treatment for the
study involved:
teaching the experiential groups concepts in science process skills
instructional strategies.
teaching same concepts in integrated science using traditional lecture method.
After the treatment, which lasted for two weeks, the post test was conducted,
achievement test were administered to both experimental and control groups, attitude
of students towards integrated science questionnaire (ATISQ) was administered to the
subjects of both male and female experimental group before and after treatment. The
data collected from attitude of students towards integrated science questionnaire
(ATISQ) were analyzed using Kruskal Wallis test statistical tool to test hypotheses 3
and Mann Whiteny U-Test for hypothesis 4. The confidence level of P< 0.5 was
adopted for retaining or rejecting the hypothesis.
The study investigated the Effects of Science Process Skills Approach on
Academic Performance and attitude of integrated science students with varied
101
abilities. The performance levels was Obtained in three groups using science process
instructional strategy. It also investigated the effects of attitude of students towards
integrated science using questionnaire at junior secondary school level and gender-
related differences on different ability levels of students and their academic
performance in integrated science concepts when exposed to science process skills
instructional strategy.
The schools used were all co-educational comprising both male and female
subjects. All the 504 students participated in the study. Attitude Towards Integrated
Science Questionnaire (ATISQ). Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT)
instrument was used at two different levels. (i) Pretest, (ii) Posttest. The pretest was
designed to determine the equivalence of subjects before the treatment, and second
the posttest after treatment to determine the level of performance of the subjects in
various ability sub-groups.
The instruments Test of Practical Skills (TOPS) and Integrated Science
Achievement Test (ISAT) consist of short answer and multiple choice for (TOPS).
ISAT consists of forty multiple choice items with reliability coefficient of 0.96 for
TOPS and 0.69 for (ISAT) respectively.
5.3 Conclusion
From the result of this study, the following conclusions were drawn:
Science process skills instructional strategy can be used effectively to improve
the performances of integrated science students and their overall achievements
in integrated science concepts which can be illustrated by using practical
activities like hands on and mind on activities.
102
The science process skills instructional strategy that was employed in
teaching, has slight significant effects on the students’ academic performance.
But need to be re-emphasized in the Nigerian Secondary School Curriculum.
The subjects of the experimental group in the three ability groups performed
significantly better than their counterparts in control groups in the first
hypothesis. This shows that science process skills instructional strategy
provides more effective in the learning of integrated science concepts and
students in all the ability groups have benefited more from learning the science
process skills instructional strategy.
The results of the study also shows that subjects of experimental ability levels
benefited more from learning in science process skills instructional strategy
than in the Science Process Skills Approach.
The result of the study shows that, science process skills instructional strategy
is gender friendly. These males and females that were in the experimental
group performed higher in their mean scores.
5.4 Recommendations
Curriculum planners should examine further effects of wider scope in science
process skills instructional strategy and consider its suitability for the teaching
of integrated science concepts, since it partially improves academic
performance.
Organizations such as Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN), the
National Educational Research and Development Centre (NERDC) should
organize seminars, workshops and conferences on science process skills
instructional strategy for integrated science teachers at Junior Secondary
school levels. This will enhance their skills and performance.
103
The science process skills instructional strategy should be incorporated in
integrated science teacher training curriculum in order to produce teachers
who are able to handle science process skills instructional mode of teaching
effectively.
The federal and state ministries of Education should provide adequate funds to
sponsor Integrated Science Teachers to go on training in science process skills
instructional strategy required to improve academic achievement of students.
5.5 Limitation of the study
Further studies would have to be done to consider all the available school
types and a wider sample before generalization can be made on a wider
coverage.
The conclusion reached about the effectiveness of science process skills
instructional strategy in this study, is only limited to some concepts in
Integrated Science.
The students and research assistants used for this study were not too familiar
with science process skills instructional strategy. A lot of explanations were
done on it before commencement of the exercise.
Test for practical skills (TOPS) used for assigning the subjects into ability sub-
groups instead of using teacher made test may have some effects on the result.
104
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APPENDIX A
TEST OF PRACTICAL SKILLS (TOPS) PRE-TEST
An instrument designed to measure science process skills acquisition among
integrated science students
school:………………………………group ………………………………
No:……………………………………
Instruction: attempt all questions
a. section a: short answers
b. Section b: multiple choice questions.
c. There are 10 multiple choice questions in all one of the option in every
question is correct.
Carry out the following experiment:
Collect a clean, dry test tube.
Place the tube in a rack
Put one spatula measure of the power in to the tube.
Add five drops of water.
1. (A) Which of the observations below (A to F) would you say are true?
Write the letters on your answer sheet (there may be more than one true statement).
A. The test tube gets hot.
B. The test tube is made of glass.
C. The powder does not change.
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D. The spatula is made of metal.
E. The powder turns blue.
F. The dropper bottle contains hot water. (2 marks.)
(B) What do you think are the most important scientific observations in these
experiments? There may be one or more than one. Write your choice from
letter A to F on your answer sheet. (2 marks).
(C) What conclusion can be made about this experiment? Choose one (only) from
the list below (P to S)
P. The colour of the powder changes when any liquid is added
Q. Only water changes the colour of the powder.
R. Water reacts with the powder to form a new, coloured substance.
S. Water is blue, so this is why the colour changes.
Please return the tube, unwashed, to the front bench. (1 mark)
2. A) Seeds and fruits are sometimes specially adapted to help them to get
away
from the parent plant.
Look at seeds 1, 2 and 3 and for each one choose one of the methods (A to E) below:
Also on your answer sheet describe what leads you to your conclusion:
A. Blown by the wind.
B. Carried by water
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C. Seed pods explode.
D. Eaten by animals
E. Stock to animal’s fur.
B) The pictures A to E show the development of a frog from a tadpole. They are
not in the correct order. Arrange them in order of youngest to oldest.
Diagram 3
(Note: they are not all drawn to the same scale)
3.
a) Measure the length of line A in cm (e.g. 9.6cm) (1 mark)
b) Measure the length of line B in cm. (1 mark)
c) What is the length of line B in mm? (1 mark)
d) Measure he thickness of a pole of 100 sheets of paper (in mm). (1 mark)
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e) What is the thickness of one sheet of paper. (1 mark)
4. As accurately as you can, find the volume inside the bottle (its capacity).
a) Write down the volume (capacity). (1 mark)
b) Write down the units of volume. (1 mark)
c) Name the apparatus you used. (1 mark)
d) Describe the method you used to find this volume. (2 marks)
5.
a) Measure the length, width and depth of the block (to the nearest cm) and write
your answers on the answer sheet. (2 marks)
b) Work out the volume of the block. (1 mark)
Write down the volume and units on your answer sheet.
Find the volume of the lump of Plasticine. (1 mark)
c) Describe the method you used to find this volume.(1 mark)
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6. Look at the bricks you have been given.
a) Write down at least two things that all bricks have in common (similarities).
(2 marks)
b) Write down at least two differences between groups of bricks. (2 marks).
c) Write the suitable heading on the table. (1 mark)
SECTION B:
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. A teabag was placed in each glass of water 2 minutes.
Why is the tea in glass two (2) darker than the tea in glass 1?
1 2
a) There is more water in glass 1.
b) Glass 1 is larger than glass 2.
c) The water temperature in glass 2 is higher than the water temperature
in glass 1.
d) The amount of time the heating were in the water is different.
2. Which of the sentences best describes the drawing?
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a) A house with a round wider.
b) A rectangle with a triangle on top and half circle on the left.
c) A triangle with a rectangle and a half circle on the right.
d) A rectangle with a triangle and a half circle on the right.
3. A wormery was filled with soil and 15 earthworms put into it. After one week
five worms were dead. Without jumping into conclusions, what can we definitely say
about this experiment?
a. The soil was too dry.
b. The wormery was kept near a radiator.
c. There was no enough food.
d. More worms survived than deal.
4. Two friends were arguing about their cars which of the statement below
cannot be proved by scientifically. Can be proved by taking measurement.
a. My car is header than yours.
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b. My car is faster than yours.
c. My car is better than yours.
d. My car uses less petrol than yours.
5. Measure 250cm3 of water using a measuring cylinder. Carefully drop a small
piece of stone (provided) into the measuring cylinder. What do you observe?
a. The volume of water is reduced.
b. The pieces of stone get dissolved.
c. The level of the water rises.
d. The colour disappears completely the first time you dilute it.
6. How long is the block of wood shown in the diagram below?
a. 10cm
b. 20cm
c. 25cm d. 35cm
7. A bean seed was planted in a dry soil, and placed in a dark cupboard. After 5
days the seed did not germinate. Another seed was planted in a dry soil, watered and
placed in the same dark cupboard. After 5 days, it germinated. What
conclusion/inference can you draw for this experiment?
a. That light is needed for germination.
b. That dry soil is needed for germination.
c. That water is needed for germination.
d. The humidity is needed for germination.
8. Below is a diagram of a piece of metal rod with an irregular shape.
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To measure the actual length of the rod it is always advisable to use:
a. A wooden ruler.
b. A metal ruler.
c. Measuring tape.
d. A bent wooden ruler.
9. Assuming that you are in a room with only one window, floor tiles and a chair
inside it and you are asked to measure the size of the room. Which of the following
choice don’t have any other thing except you?
a. Your foot length.
b. Floor tiles.
c. Chair length.
d. Window length.
10. A science class wanted to test a variables or factors that might affect plan
height. The following is a list of variables they felt could be tested.
(i) Amount of light (ii) Amount of moisture (iii) Soil types and (iv) change in
temperature, which of the following could be a possible hypothesis for the class
experiment?
a. An increase in temperature will cause an increase in plant height.
b. A plant left in the light will be greener than a plant left in the dark.
c. In increase in sunlight causes an increase in the amount of moisture
lost by the plant.
d. A plant in sandy soil loses more water than plant in clay soil.
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APPENDIX B:
TEST OF PRACTICAL SKILLS (TOPS)
MARKING SCHEME
SECTION A:
1) A = A B D E
B = A B
C = R
2) A) Seed, feature (1 mark for seed, 1 mark for feature)
1 = A, wings.
2 = E, hooks.
3 = A, Parachute or hairs or Light.
B) Order = C E B D A
3) a. 5cm ± 1 mm
b. 6.9cm ± 1mm
c. 74mm
d. ________ ± 1mm
e. Answer (d) ÷ 100 =
4) a. ______ ± 5ml
b. ml or cm3
c. Measuring Cylinder.
d. Clearly described method (Using measuring Cylinder three times, then total
volume).
5) a. X ---------------- X ---------------- X ------------------ dimension
b. X -------------- cm3 or ml.
c. 15 – 20
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d. Clearly described method, to include water displaced equal volume of
Plasticine, or an equivalent description.
6. a. Any three from plastic, Logo/Building bricks, same with or depth, have
students on top. (2 marks)
b. Any three from different colour, Length or size, number of students.
(2 marks)
c. Colour large small. (1 mark).
SECTION B: ONE MARK FOR EACH QUESTION.
1) (C) The water temperature in glass 2 is higher than the water temperature in
glass 1.
2) (B) A rectangle with triangle on top.
3) (D) More worms survived than dead.
4) (C) My car is better than yours.
5) (C) The level of the water rises.
6) (C) 25cm
7) (C) Water is needed for germination of seeds.
8) (C) Measuring tape.
9) (D) Window length.
10) An increase in temperature will cause an increase in plant height.
131
APPENDIX (C)
Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT) in
Instructions to Research Assistants
A) Allow students to read through the instructions on the cover page of the test
booklet. Read aloud instruction No. D to the students while the later read silently.
B) After reading the test instructions, allow students to ask questions (if any)
before the test begins and discourage questions during the test.
C) Allow the student’s time to attempt all the questions before submitting their
question papers and Answer Sheets.
D) Note clearly, the average time taken by the students to complete the test.
E) Ensure the collection of all question papers given out to help ensure the
security of he test and the availability of the tests booklets for use at other centres.
F) Collect all question papers together with the Answer Sheets at the end of the
test.
i) Instructions Stated on question papers to Students.
The question papers carried the following instructions.
A) Do not Turn to the Question until you are told to do so.
B) This test question contains 40 multiple-choice items (questions) based on the
junior secondary school (J.S.S III) integrated science course. It has a special
identification number which is indicated on every page of the test booklet. Enter this
number on your Answer Sheet in the space for Test Form.
C) Each item on the test has four responses (answers) lettered A-D one of which
is the correct answer. Choose the correct answer to each item and shade in pencil on
your Answer Sheet the space against the letter which corresponds to your answer. Be
sure to record your answer in appropriate position.
Your score on the test will depend on the number of correct responses.
132
D) Consider the following practice exercise on the procedure to be followed in
answering the questions.
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of All living things
A. Respiration
B. Movement
C. Nutrition
D. Photosynthesis A B C D
e) Do not write on any of the pages in the test booklet.
Use papers for rough work. After answering all the questions submit the question
papers together with your Answer Sheet to your teacher.
f) You are free to ask questions now. No questions will be welcome during the test.
Integrated science achievement test (ISAT)
School -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Group no------------------------------------sec:---------------------------------
time allowed: 1 hour
Instruction: shade the answer sheet provided
1. Water is a compound of two elements…………and…………
a) Oxygen and Sodium
b) Hydrogen and Oxygen
c) Gas and hydrogen
d) Hydrogen and Nitrogen
2. Which is a gas produced by animals and used by plants?
a) Nitrogen
b) Carbon monoxide
c) Oxide
d) Carbon dioxide
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3. The skin is a sense organ because it…..
a) Helps to detect the mass of an object.
b) Can be used to detect a chemical substance.
c) Helps to tell how hot or cold something is
d) Burns when a hot object touches it.
4. What component of an electric circuit is shown in fig 2
Fig. 2
a) Bolt
b) Fuse
c) Switch
d) Battery
5. Which among these items contains traditional appliances in our home only?
a) Thermometer, mortar and pestle
b) Telephone, electric fan
c) Mortar, pestle and hoe
d) Electric fan, hoe
6. Water in a kettle received some energy to make it boil. The energy is………
a) Heat energy
b) Light energy
c) Movement energy
d) Chemical energy
7. What kind of energy is the model car in the diagram above is gaining?
a) Potential energy
b) Kinetic energy
134
Fig. 2
c) Electrical energy
d) Chemical energy
8. The type of energy a rolling marble possess is…………….
a) Electrical
b) Chemical
c) Kinetic
d) potential
9. in order to a body absorb maximum heat, it should be-----------
a) Highly polished
b) Painted
c) Painted black
d) Painted yellow
10. The absorption of heat energy by an object will result in the following
except……………………………
a) Increase in temperature
b) Increase in size
c) Change of state
d) Increased in mass of the object.
11. The temperature of a normal healthy person in the Fahrenheit as marked on
the clinical thermometer is----------
a) 37.00F
b) 89.40F
c) 98.40F
d) 100.00F
135
12. An instrument for direct measurement of the density of a liquid is called----
a) Mano-meter
b) Density meter
c) Hydrometer
d) Hygrometer
13. Which of these animals may not be found in savannah grassland area?
a) Monkeys
b) Birds
c) Crocodiles
d) Snakes
14. A simple cell converts chemical energy to------------
a) Heat energy
b) Kinetic energy
c) Sound energy
d) Electrical energy
15. What energy changes takes place when the battery lights up the bulb?
a) Electrical - light - chemical
b) Light - electrical - potential
c) Heat - movement - heat and light
d) Chemical - electrical - heat and light
16. Whenever a fly moves across your eye, you blink this is an example of ----
a) Reflex action
b) Tropism
c) Tactic action
d) Voluntary action
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17. Which part of an electric circuit is shown here on the diagram?
a) Bulb
b) Fuse
c) Switch
d) Battery
18. Why is a fuse necessary in the plug of an electric iron, fan or cooker? It helps to……
a) Show that the plug is working
b) Cut off current than it gets too much.
c) Regulate the electricity supply
d) Show how current is being used.
19. Which of these is an insulator of heat?
a) Brass
b) Copper
c) Plastic
d) Aluminium
20. A body of mass 200kg is moving with a constant velocity 5 m/s. Calculate the
kinetic energy of the body?
a) 2,500J
b) 1,000J
c) 500J
d) 250j
21. Which of the following sets gives a collection of weather instruments only?
a) Thermometer, barometer, hygrometer
b) Hygrometer, manometer, photometer
c) Anenometer, thermometer, screw- guage
d) Wind name, barometer, and ammeter.
Fig 3
137
22. An instrument used to measure temperature is called---------
a) Potometer
b) Manometer
c) Thermometer
d) Barometer
23. Which of the following constitute the four kinds of taste?
a) Sweet, bitter, sour, salt
b) Sweet, acid, bitter, salt
c) Salt, milky, meaty, salt
d) Sour, sweet, meaty, salt.
24) You like hairy toys, in shops hairy and smooth toys are look alike and you
wish to be sure of your choice. What sense organ would you to detect?
a) Hearing
b) Taste
c) Sight
d) Touch
25) The part of the inner ear which is concerned with hearing is found in the…………
a) Temporal bone
b) Semi-circular canals
c) Cochea
d) Succulus
26. What part of the eye takes signals from the eye to the brain?
a) Cornea
b) Retina
c) Lens
d) Optic nerve
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27. Which of the following does not give the correct energy conversion?
a) Telephone month piece: sound energy = electrical energy
b) Striking a match stick: chemical energy – sound energy
c) Telephone ear piece: electrical energy – sound energy
d) Electric bell: electrical energy ------------sound energy
28. Which of these energy conversions takes place during a telephone
conversation?
a) Electrical - sound - electrical
b) Sound - electrical - sound
c) Chemical - sound - Electrical
d) Sound - magnetic - sound
29. A main electricity can cause a more servere shock than a touch battery. Why?
a) Battery voltage is very common
b) A mains socket is usually exposed
c) Main voltage is higher than the battery voltage
d) A main socket is easier to touch
30. Which of these is a good conductor of heat?
a) Wood
b) Copper
c) Plastic
d) Polystystyrene
31. A vacuum flask keeps a hot drinking because it……………………
a) Radiates heat out
b) Stops heat escaping
c) Stops light getting in
d) Keep heating the drink
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32. Another name for potential energy is …………………………
a) Kinetic energy
b) Stored energy
c) Applied energy d) Movement energy
33. You are interested in finding out the type of vegetation behind your school.
What sense would you use?
a) Hearing
b) Taste
c) Sight
d) Touch
34. Why the skin on your finger tip is more sensitive to touch than the skin on
your arm? Because…………………………
a) The skin on the finger is lighter
b) There are no hairs on the finger tip
c) The arm is bony
d) The finger tip has more nerve ends.
35. The formula OH- represents an anion
a) An ion
b) A hydroxide ion
c) Hydroxyl ion
d) All of the above
36. Which of the following statements about the human eye is not correct?
a) The image of an object seen by the eye is printed on the retina
b) Short sightedness is a defect which occurs when the eye ball is longer
than normal.
c) The size of the pupil diminishes in the dark, and increases in bright light
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d) Some refraction occurs at the cornea, which is transparent.
37. Which of the following groups of materials contains only good conductors of heat?
a) Iron, silver, copper, aluminium
b) Wood, silver, water, copper
c) Glass, paper, iron, copper
d) Cement, iron, glass, rubber
38. Which of the following sets of materials gives equal amount of heat
conductors and non- conductors?
a) Cotton, copper, iron, aluminium
b) Wool, cotton, cork, iron
c) Copper, cork, cotton, aluminum
d) Zinc, copper, iron, mercury
39. In which of the following medium is the transmission of sound waves
travelled fastest?
a) Air
b) Water
c) Vuccum
d) Wood
40. Which of these represents a discharge of atmospheric electricity?
a) Lighting
b) Snow
c) Thunder
d) Hail
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APPENDIX (D)
Marking schemes in Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT)
1. (B) Energy can be change from one form to another
2. (D) Carbon dioxide
3. (C) Helps to tell how hot or cold something is
4. (B) Fuse
5. (C) Mortar, pestle and hoe
6. (A) Heat energy
7. (C) Kinetic energy
8. (B) Kinetic energy
9. (C) Painted black
10. (D) Increased in mass of the object
11. (B) 89.40F
12. (C) Hydrometer
13. (C) Crocodiles
14. (D) Electrical energy
15. (D) Chemical Electrical heat and light energy
16. (A) Reflex Action
17. (A) Bulb
18. (B) Cut off current than it gets too much
19. (C) Plastic
20. (A) 2,500J
21 (A) Thermometer, Barometer, Hygrometer
22 (C) Thermometer
23. (A) Sweet, Bitter, Sour, Salt
24. (D) Touch
142
25. (B) Semi-Circular canals
26. (B) Retina
27. (A) Telephone mouth piece, Sound energy electrical energy
28. (D) Sound Electrical Sound
29. (C) main voltage in high than the battery
30. (B) Copper
31. (B) stop heating escaping
32. (B) Stored energy
33. (C) Sight
34. (D) The finger tip has more nerve ends
35. (C) Hydroxyl ion
36. (C) The size of the pupil diminishes in the dark and increases in bright light
37. (A) Iron, Silver, copper, Aluminium
38. (C) Copper, Cork, Cotton Aluminium
39. (A) Air
40 (A) Lightning
143
APPENDIX (E)
Integrated Science Achievement Test (Isat) answer sheet in Potiskum Educational Zone of Yobe State
STUDENTS NO:…………………………………………….……………………….. NAME (Surname First)………….Age…………………Sex……………………………… School…………………………………………………………………….
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APPENDIX F
Letter of introduction
The Principal ---------------------------
---------------------------
----------------------------
Sir/Madam,
The bearer, Bitrus Ijai GADZAMA MED.EDU/10410/07/08 is a Post-Graduate
Student of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in the Department of Education (Science
Education Section) currently undertaking a research on the Effect of Science Process
Skills Approach on Academic Performance and Attitude among Integrated Science
Students’ with varied Abilities in Potiskum Educational Zone of Yobe State.
You may therefore wish to give him all the necessary assistance he may require.
Thank you.
Student Supervisor I Supervisor II
(Rev) Dr. S.S Obeka Dr. (Mrs.) M.A
Lakpini
Head of Section
Prof. J.S. Mari
145
APPENDIX G
Altitude of Students towards Integrated Science Questionnaire (ATISQ)
To the students, You are requested to answer this questionnaire as correctly and
honestly as you can.
SECTION A
Name of
school………………………………………………………………………………
Serial
Number……………………………………………….Age………………………
Group………………………………………………………………………………
Male [ ] Female [ ]
SECTION B
Please you are to tick the most appropriate of the following alternatives. Strongly Agree [SA], Agree [A], Disagree [D] and Strongly Disagree [SD] Items Positive(+)
or Negative(-)
SA A D SD
1. I enjoy doing integrated science experiments. +
2. I do not like working with others during integrated science classes.
-
3. My teacher has been interested in my progress in integrated science.
+
4. The use of integrated science during integrated science lessons distracts students’ attention from learning.
-
5. I am genuinely interested in learning integrated science concepts.
+
6. I do not feel I have good understanding of integrated science concepts.
-
7. Taking integrated science is a waste of time - 8. I am sure that I can learn integrated science + 9. I don’t feel I can learn integrated science. - 10. I learn more by participating in integrated science
lessons than if the teacher had covered the
+
146
syllabus. 11. The use of lecture method can improve the
learning of integrated science concepts. -
12. Activity oriented lessons are suitable in helping students to achieve better in integrated science.
+
13. Students learn integrated better when they interact with teachers in the process of integrated science learning.
+
14. Talking and discussing with other students is not helpful in learning integrated science.
-
15. The use of methods and working in groups can help me score better marks in integrated science.
+
16. I can get good grades in integrated science. + 17. Integrated science is more thrilling and more
fascinating than other subjects.
+
18. I look forward to more integrated science lessons after each integrated science lesson.
+
19. I enjoy reading integrated science notes every day +
20. I study integrated science just because it is a compulsory subject for us.
-
21. Integrated science is boring subject. - 22. I enjoy learning integrated science in our class.
+
23. Integrated science assignments help me to understand integrated science better.
+
24. Teaching and learning of integrated in traditional way make me hate integrated science.
-
25. Integrated science will not be important to me in my life’s work.
-
26. There are so many integrated science concepts to learn and so I get confused.
-
27. I am not really sure of that I have learnt anything in integrated science.
-
28. Integrated science is not important for my life. -
29. I know I can do well in integrated science + 30. Integrated science specialists are less friendly than
other people. -
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APPENDIX H
The distribution of items according to dimensional scales of attitude of students
towards integrated science questionnaire (ATISQ)
A student’s attitude to enjoyment of learning integrated science
B students’ attitude to career interest in integrated science
C students’ attitude to cooperative studies
D students’ attitude to the use of group learning
E student’s attitude to leisure interest in integrated science
148
Appendix (IA)
Science Process Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP)
Lessons on Science Process Skills in Science for JSS Students
Adopted from James, P.H and Karen L. Lancer
1. JSS III
2. Overview: Process skills in science are very important in the formal presentation of
science to students. There is a strong belief that students who are properly introduced
to science through process skills will find useful throughout life. While it is possible
to easily forget science content learnt, process skills tend to remain with many
individuals for a relative longer period.
The event consists of a series of integrated science tasks that involve the use of
one or more process skills. Science process skills are classified as basic science and
integrated skills. These skills can be accessed by applying them to a series of
laboratory activities.
3. Purpose: The purpose of this lesson is to present eight out of many science process
skills to students. The eight process skills are observing, measuring, inferring,
interpreting data, classifying, predicting, communicating and experimenting.
4. Objectives: Students will be able to:
(1) Explain what is meant by Process Skills
(2) Relate the process skills to method of energy conversion and feeding in plants
and
animals.
(3) Describe how process skills can be used in everyday living.
149
Resources Materials A collection of common objects in the school environment and
in the community. The following item could be include:
(1) Torch light, Dry Cell Battery, Electric bell, Electronic Pressing ,
Iron,Telephone Machine and Students activity Sheets.
(2) Simple bar magnets
(3) Candles
(4) Animal Skull
(5) Plants, fruits, and seeds.
Basic Science Process Skills:
(A) Observational Skills
The ability to:
i. Measure the volume, capacity of volume, measure the length and measuring
devices.
ii. Use senses effectively.
iii. Estimate.
iv. Select relevant observations.
v. Use apparatus which enhances senses (e.g microscope).
vi. Measure accurately, using appropriate units.
vii. Using your senses to gather information about an object or event. It is a
description of what was actually perceived. This information is considered qualitative
data.
(B) Measurement
The ability to:
i. Identifying the capacity, range, and increments of measuring devices as a ruler,
graduated protractor, caliper, cylinder, pipette, syringe, or thermometer.
150
ii. Identifying length, temperature, volume, and mass to the capacity of the
instrument.
iii. Converting units within the metric system.
iv. Reading the meniscus when measuring liquids in a cylinder.
v. using stand measures or estimations to describe specific dimensions of an object or
event. This information is considered quantitative data.
(C) Inferring
The ability to:
i. Formulating assumptions based upon observations.
ii. Distinguishing between observations and inferences.
iii. Using observations and inferences to identify testable questions or problems.
Interpretation of data
The ability to:
i. make sound generalization from a set of data.
ii. identify the cause and effect relationship.
iii. Provide reasonable justification for any generalization made.
iv. Draw as many plausible inferences as are permitted by a given data set.
v. Test an inference by collecting more data and
vi. Recognize which data lend support to an inference.
(D) Classifying Skills
The ability to:
i. Group things by pupils’ own criteria..
ii. Recognize similarities and differences.
iii. Use a key to identify things (living and non-living).
151
iv. Construct a key.
v. Group data in a variety of ways (e.g graphs and tables).
vi. Understand the limitations of a classification system.
vii. Grouping or ordering objects or events into categories based upon characteristics
or defined criteria.
(E) Predicting
The ability to:
i. Predicting the result for a proposed lab test or setup.
ii. Selecting predictions based upon previously observed patterns.
iii. Providing rationale for predictions
iv. Guessing the most likely outcome of a future event based upon a pattern of
evidence.
(F) Communicating Skills
The ability to:
i. Communicate orally.
ii. Communicate in writing or by diagrams.
iii. Draw and interpret graphs.
iv. Draw and interpret tables of data.
v. Set out work clearly and simply (including cross-sectional diagrams).
vi. Apply mathematical processes.
vii. Use scientific language (and units).
viii. Use scientific symbols and abbreviations.
ix. Listen to others.
x. Follow instructions (written, oral and diagrammatic).
152
xi. Obtain information from a variety of sources (books and video).
xii. Appreciate the derivation of works.
xiii. Using words, symbols, or graphics to describe an object, action or event.
(G) Experimenting Skills
The ability to:
i. Select the best and safest technique.
ii. Choose and assemble suitable apparatus.
iii. Device simple experiments to obtain information.
iv. Understand the use of a control experiment.
v. Predict and apply knowledge to unfamiliar situations.
vi. Formulate (and test) hypotheses.
vii. Draw valid conclusions based on abbreviations.
viii. Adopt a methodical sequence in practical work.
ix. Organize apparatus on working space.
x. Appreciate the limitations of apparatus.
xi. Appreciate the causes and effects of experimental error.
xii. Take action to lesson experimental error and overcome problems in practical
work.
153
APPENDIX (IB)
Lesson plan for experimental groups
Lesson Plan One (1)
Mode of teaching - Science Process Skills Instructional l Package (SPSIP)
Lesson topic - Energy Conversion
Time: Double Period (80 minutes)
Class: JSIII
Sex: Mixed
Average Age: 13 – 16 years old
Topic: Forms of Energy
Instructional Materials: Candle, Battery, Flash Light Bulb, a radio, tape
recorder, Box of Matches and Touch Light
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
a. define energy
b. list at least 5 types of energy.
c. explain the sources of energy mentioned above.
d. identify energy conversion from one form to another
e. perform some simple experiments on energy
conversion.
f. acquire certain Science Process Skills Approach
which may include; observing, measuring,
inferring, interpreting data, classifying,
predicting, communicating, experimenting,
formulating questions hypothesis and control
variables.
154
Previous Knowledge: Students have been applying energy in one form to
another for their day - to - day activities e.g. Torchlight,
Candle, match stick, electric fan etc
Introduction: The teacher will ask the students the following
questions
1. Mention at least five instruments/appliances in your house.
2. Explain the functions of any two of the appliances presentation of the lesson.
The students will be divided into 10 groups of 12
students each to carry out the following activities,
(see the activity sheet after this lesson note)
Step i: Activity: sheet 1 will be provided to the students as:-
Activity: sheet 1.1 forms of energy.
The students will be instructed to carry out the activities
as provided.
Step ii: Activity 2 Energy conversion.
Students will be instructed to carry out the activities
provided in the activity sheets
Step iii: Discussion and writing find result.
The students of each group will write their report and
submit to their group for discussion as follows:
Group discussion 5 minutes
Class discussion 10 minutes
Writing individual report 20 minutes
Activity 1: Time 40 minutes
155
Energy is the ability to do work or capacity of doing
work. For example a moving car can work because it
has energy. A man talks, move because he has energy.
This energy comes in different forms.
Activity 1: Forms of energy.
There are various forms of energy some of which
are chemical energy, light energy, electrical energy,
heat, sound and potential energy. Observe and classify
the following objects and state the types of energies they
posses (classifying).
Objects Types of Energy Posses
1. Match stick
2. Torchlight
3. Dry cell Battery
4- A hanging mango
5. Electric pressing iron
6. Telephone
7. Electric bell
a) Mention other types of materials apart from those stated above
with type of energy they possess.
b) What do you think is the major primary source of all forms of
energy?
c) The energy animals used for their day – to day activities come
from_______energy.
d) The energy used when starting a motor cycle is called ___energy.
e) A moving bicycle is using _____________________energy
156
f) When a child is trying to jump from the top of high table the
child possess____ energy.
Students’ Activity 2
Activity 2: Time 40 minutes
Topic: Energy conversion.
As you have learnt from your previous lesson energy exist
in various forms. This energy formation can be converted to
one
form to another.
Activity 2.1 Changing potential energy to kinetic energy
Consider these questions: A mango falls from the branch to
the ground as shown in fig. 2.1 below. What energy had it
before it left the branch?
Fig 2.1 A falling Mango
What energy had it just before it hits the ground? What has
become of this energy when it hits the ground? Trace the
energy conversion of the above
questions. By filling in correct type of energy below:-
Energy Energy Energy
Place a piece of stone on a table and gently push the stone so
that it falls to the ground. Trace the energy conversion that
takes place
Energy Energy Energy
Activity 3.1 Chemical Energy to Electrical Energy to Light and Heat Energy
157
A. You are provided with the following materials
A dry cell battery
A flexible wire
A flash light bulb
B. Connect the flexible wire with the battery provided
and connect themagain to a flash light bulb as in fig.
3.1 what can you observe ?(observing)
Fig 3.1. A simple circuit
Trace the energy conversion that takes place in the above
experiment as follows
Energy Energy Energy Energy
Give two examples of two activities of your own that can
produce the type of energy conversion stated above (1)
(2)
Give an example of this type of energy conversion of your own
Activity 4.3: Kinetic to Sound energy
Think of man beating a drum, what happens?
Trace the energy conversion taking place
Energy Energy Energy
Activity 4.4: Changing Kinetic Energy to Sound Energy
158
You are provided with an empty can (e.g empty tin of
bournvita etc) and iron nails. Put the iron nails inside the can
and shake. What can you predict? (Predicting)
Evaluation: The teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the students the
following questions
a) What is energy?
b) List at least five types of energy you know.
c) Briefly explain five sources of energy mentioned in (b)
above.
d) Identify energy conversion from one form to another.
e) Explain how you can perform some simple
demonstration on energy conversion.
Trace the energy conversion taking place.
Energy Energy Energy
Give an example of this type of energy conversion on your own?
Conclusion: The teacher will conclude the lesson by explaining to the
students briefly in the today’s lesson. That is what they have
learnt such as what energy is, the types of energy, the sources
and their use in our day-to-day activities. The teacher will tell
them that the next lesson will be on energy conversion or
changing energy from one form to another.
158
159
LESSON PLAN 2: (For experimental group)
Lesson Plan:
Mode of teaching: - Science Process Skills Instructional Package
(SPSIP)
Lesson topic: - Energy Conversion
Time: Double Period (80 minutes)
Sex: Mixed
Average Age: 13 – 16 years old
Topic: Application of energy conversion.
Instructional Materials: Dry cell battery, Radio set, Bicycle, electric
pressing iron, tape recorder, television set,
telephone machine, Electric fan, electric heater
etc.
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able
to:
a) trace the types of energy conversion taken
place in the appliances provided
b) explain the importance of energy to life to our
day - to - day activities
c) give at least five examples of other energy
conversion application apart from those used in
this lesson.
Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt about types of energy
conversion in the previous lesson
Introduction: The teacher will ask the students the following
questions
160
a) Mention at least five types of energy?
b) Explain energy conversion that takes place in
any of the materials of your choice
c) State the importance of energy conversion
application to our day to day activities?
Presentation of the lesson: The lesson will be presented by given the students
some activity sheets in their various group as follows
(See the students' activity sheets after lesson note)
Step1: Activity 5.1: Application of the energy conversion. The bicycle will
be provided for students to demonstrate how to rid it
and to see how energy can be conserved from one form
to another.
The students will be provided with activity sheets and
they will be instructed to carry out activity in the sheet
provided.
Step ii: Activity 5.1 Application of the energy conversion: Domestic
appliances.
Students will be instructed to carry out the activities
provided in the activity sheets.
Step iii: Discussion and writing final report session.
The students from each group will submit their
results in each activity to their group for discussion as
follows:
a. Group discussion 5 minutes
b. Class discussion 10 minutes.
c. Writing individual final result. 10 minutes
161
Students’ activity sheet
Activity 6.1: Time: 40 minutes.
Activity on Energy conversion
The energy conversion you learnt, have very
important uses in our environment. Therefore, it can be
applied in various domestic uses in our homes, offices,
roads e t.c.
Activity 6.2: The bicycle
A boy riding a bicycle is converting one form of
energy to another. Can you fill in the energy
conversion taken place?
Chemical energy Energy Energy
If the bicycle has a dynamo attached to it, the head
lamp of the bicycle is lit as the pedals are turned. Trace
the energy taken place in the process.
Energy Energy Energy
Activity 6.3: Application of energy conversion
Think of the following instruments and classify the
energy conversion that take place in them. (classifying).
Evaluation: The teacher will evaluate the lesson by asking students
the following questions:
a. Explain the energy conversion taken place in a moving
bicycle
b. Explain the importance of energy to life to our day
to day activities.
c. Give at least five examples of other energy conversion 161
162
application apart from those used in this lesson.
i) Pressing iron
ii) Radio set
iii) Tape recorder
iv) Television set
v) A telephone
vi) Kerosene cooking stone
vii) Electric cooking stove
viii) An electric heater
ix) An electric fan
x) Can you think of other appliances similar to the
above
a. Instruments?
i. List at least two of such materials,
ii. Trace the energy conversion in them.
Conclusion: The lesson will be concluded by briefly summarizing what the
students have learnt in this lesson, for example application of
energy conversion in a moving bicycle and application of
energy conversion to our domestic appliances.
Lesson Plan 3: Group Experimental
Mode of Teaching - Science Process Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP)
Lesson 3 Unit 1
Unit title: Feeding in animals and plants.
Time: Double Period (80 minutes)
Sex: Mixed
163
Average Age: 13 – 16 years old
Topic: Method of feeding in animals
Instructional Materials: Specimens teeth, students' activity sheets, meter and rule
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
a. mention 4 types of teeth found in animals'
mouthparts as mammals?
b. identify each types of teeth with their
functions?
c define the word dentition?
d. describe what dental formula is?
e state at least 3 types of feeding in mammals?
Previous Knowledge: Students have been using their teeth during
and are familiar with what their teeth are.
Introduction: The teacher introduces the lesson by asking the
students the following questions.
a) Describe the action of your teeth when you are
taking a piece of yam into your mouth?
b) Describe how a cow feed on the grasses?
Presentation of the Lesson:
After dividing the students into groups of 12
students each, the lesson will be presented using the
following activity sheets. (See the student’s activity
sheet, after this lesson note)
Step i: Activity 6.1
Adaptation of mouth part for feeding
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The students will be instructed to carry out activities
on the sheet. Their answers will be submitted to the
group for discussion. The students will be asking to
measure the length of their pairs of premolars and
molars with the use of a metre ruler. Taking proper care
of personal hygiene should be maintained.
Step ii: Activity 6.2
Dental formula
The students will be provided with activity sheet 6.2.
They will be instructed to carry out the activities on the
sheets. The students answer will be submitted to the
group for discussion.
Step iii: Discussion and writing of the report session
The result of the students submitted to each group
will be discussed as follows;
Group discussion 5 minutes
Class discussion 10 minutes Writing individual final result
Conclusion: The lesson will be summarized as follows in this
lesson: the dentition, the dental formula, types of
feeding in mammals will be discussed. The next lesson
will be on type of feeding in insects.
Students Activity sheet: 6 Method of feeding in Animals
Activity 6.1 Adaptation of mouth parts for feeding
Certain parts of the bodies of animals are specially
suited for feeding. Consider your mouth and your jaws.
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In the mouth you have teeth. Without them you would
find it very difficult to eat the kind of food you do such
as meat and hard fruits.
Exercise: Observe the mouth parts of your neighbour and look
at the type of teeth found there? Put your observation on
your activity sheets. (Communicating)
Are all the teeth the-same?
The front teeth are called Incisors. Draw the type of
teeth.
The next teeth to the incisors are called Canines. Draw
this type of tooth.
Next to the canine come the Premolars. Draw the
structure of a premolar tooth.
Further back, still you have the Molars. Draw the
structure of the molar tooth.
Count the number of each types of teeth observed on the
upper jaw. (Communicating)
Types of teeth Number in the upper jaw incisors
Incisors ------------
Canines ------------
Premolars ------------
Molars ------------
Total ------------
To have the complete set of teeth you are to multiply
the total number of teeth above by two. What number
will you get from an adult person altogether?
(Formulating Questions and hypothesis)
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The number and arrangement of teeth is called the
Dentition.
Activity 6.2 Dental formula: 30 minutes
To save a lot of writing, when describing the dentition of
mammals, we are describing the dentition of mammals,
we represent the number of teeth that an animal has and
their types by what is called a Dental formula.
Complete the following activities on the dental formula
of an adult man.
Alphabet Name of tooth No on each Jaw No of half side
I
C Canine 2 1
P
M
Total
When you observe the teeth of your neighbour, you
will see that the right hand side should be the same as
he left. We only write down the formula for one side.
This applied to both the upper and lower jaw as
observed in the above exercise
Activity 6.3
Use the above table and write down the dental formula
of an adult man
i 2 C 1 P 2 M 3
2, 1, 2, 3
Activity 6.4
The cat has the following dental formula
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i 3 C 1 P 3 M 1
3, 1, 2, 1
What is the total number of teeth found in the above dental
formula?
An animal that feeds on flesh is
alled……………………………..
A cow has the following dental formula
i 0 C 0 P 3 M 3
0, 1, 3 3
Interpret the dental formula above (Interpretation of data)
Why is it that the cow has more premolars than the cat?
What kind of food does cow feed mainly on?
Formulating Questions and Hypothesis
List the name of the other 2 animals that feed like cow.
(1) (2)
Evaluation: The teacher will evaluate the lesson by asking
students the following questions:
a) mention 4 types of teeth discussed within the
lesson?
b) name and state the functions of each type of
teeth.
c) what is dentition and give an example of dental
formula?
d) describe what dental formula means and give
example of dental formula?
e) state at least 3 types of feeding in mammals?
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What is herbivore? (Used the type of food mainly eaten
by cow to answer this question)
Compare your mode of feeding with that of
carnivores, herbivores and
Explain the type of food you feed on? What can you infer?
(Inferring)
This mode of feeding is called? ………………………
Give example of an animal that feed like you?
Conclusion: The lesson was summarized as follows in this lesson, the
dentition, the dental formula; types of feeding in animals
were discussed. The next lesson will be on types of
feeding in insects.
Lesson plan 4: Group Experimental
Mode of teaching - Science Process Skills Instructional Package
(SPSIP)
Subject: Integrated Science
Unit title: Feeding in animal and plants
Lesson 4 Unit 2
Time: Double Period (80 minutes)
Class: JSS III
Sex: Mixed
Average Age: 13 – 16 years old
Topic: Methods of feeding in insects,
Instructional Materials: Specimen of grasshopper. Housefly, Glass jar,
Sugar, students' activity sheets and hand lens.
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169
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
a) describe the method of feeding of grasshopper
b) name the structure of the mouth parts of
grasshopper
c) describe the method of feeding in housefly
d) compare the structure of the mouth of
housefly with that of grasshopper
Previous Knowledge: The students have learnt about method of
feeding in mammals in their previous
lesson e.g. man, cow, cat.
Introduction: The teacher introduces the lesson by asking
the students the following questions.
1. What do you understand by dentition?
2. Describe the mode of feeding in a cow?
Presentation of the Lesson: The lesson was presented after grouping the
students into 10 groups of 12 students each as
follows
step i: Activity 6.5 Method of feeding in insect
The students will be instructed to carry out
the activities on the activity sheets provided
and submit answers to their groups fro
discussion (see student's activity sheets after this
lesson plan )
step ii: Activity 6.6 The mouth parts of grasshopper
Like the above procedure in step I students will
be provided with activity sheets 6.6 they will be
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instructed to carry out the activities in the
activity sheets and submit their results to their
group for discussion.
(See students' activity sheet after this lesson note)
Step iii: Activity 6.7: The mouth parts of housefly.
Activity sheets 6.8 will be provided to
students to carry out some exercises. Their
results will be submitted to their groups for
discussion.
Step iv: Discussion and writing final report session
The result of the activities conducted will be
discussed as follows:
Group discussion 5 minutes
Class discussion 10 minutes
Writing individual final report 20 minutes
Activity 6.5 Time: 40 minutes
Methods of feeding in insects
Unlike the bigger animals, insects feed by biting
and sucking.
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Activity 6.6 Give example of the sucking insects?
(1) (2)
Give examples of two biting insects?
(1) (2)
Observe the mouth-parts of a grasshopper from
the specimen given to you by the use of hand
lens. Carefully label the following parts A, B, C,
D, E, F above.
From the observation give the reason why
grasshopper can feed by biting, list two insects
that feed by biting method.
(1) (2)
Give an example of any damage that can be
caused by grasshoppers in Nigeria.
Activity 6.7: Method of feeding of the housefly
Housefly cannot feed on solid food, it always
feeds on liquids. This type of feeding is called
sucking or lapping.
Give 3 examples of sucking or lapping
insects. Observe the specimen of a housefly
given to you with the aids of hand lens;
E
D
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describe how the proboscis looks like. Explain
how the proboscis is adapted for sucking?
Activity 6.8 Catch a housefly and keep it in a jar for a day
without food. Cover the bottle with wire
gauze so as to allow air to enter the jar. Then,
put a little sugar in the jar and watch the insect
carefully.
Report your observation briefly in your activity
sheets.
Evaluation: The teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the
students the following questions.
1. describe the method of feeding of
grasshopper.
2. name the structure of the month parts of
the grasshopper?
3. describe the method of feeding in house fly?
4. compare the structure of the mouth of
housefly with that of grasshopper?
Conclusion: The teacher conclude the lesson by briefly
summarizing the lesson taught, such as
methods of feeding in insects, the mouth parts
of a grasshopper and its method of feeding. The
structures of the mouth parts and the method
of feeding by housefly, the next lesson will be
how plants make their own food.
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Lesson plan 5:
Group: Experimental
Mode of Teaching - Science Process Skills Instructional package.
(SPSIP)
Subject: Integrated Science
Lesson (5) Unit 3
Unit title: Feeding in animal and plants.
Time: Double Period (80 minutes)
Class: JSS III
Sex: Mixed
Average Age: 13 – 16 years old
Topic: How plants make their food.
Instructional materials: Students' activity sheets
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able
to:
1. Define photosynthesis
2 State at least 3 factors necessary for
photosynthesis to take place.
3. Mention the importance of
photosynthesis to life in general.
4. Conduct a simple experiment to detect
the presence of starch in a plant.
Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt about how feeding takes
place in Animals. E.g mammals, insects, etc
Introduction: The teacher will introduce the lesson by
asking the students the following questions:
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a. Herbivores are animals that feed on
what type of food substance
Examples of such animals are?…………………
b. Mention at least two types of insects
and state the type of food they feed on?
………………………
The teacher will tell the students that the lesson
for today is on how plants make their food.
Presentation of the lesson: After grouping the students into 10, consisting
of 12 students to carrying out the following
activities
Step I Activity 6.9 How plants make their food.
Students of each group will be provided with
activity sheet 6.8 to carry out the activities
stated. The answers will be provided by the
students and submitted to various groups for
discussion. (See students' activity sheets after
this lesson note).
Step II: Activity 7.0 Testing plants storage organ for starch
Activity sheet 7.0 will be provided to the students. They will be
instructed to carry out the exercises and provide
the answers. The answers will be submitted to
groups for discussion.
Step III: Discussion -and -Writing-final-report result.
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The answers submitted from the various
groups will be discussed as follows.
Group discussions 5 minutes
Class discussion 10 minutes
Writing individual final report 20 minutes
Students Activity sheet 7.
Time: 40 minutes
How plants make their food?
No animal can make its own food from simple
materials occurring around it. For example, man
cannot make his food from air and water. Yet
plants are able to do this very remarkable thing.
They can make their own food from gases which
occur in the air. The process where plants
manufacture their food by the use of sunlight
with presence of carbon dioxide is called
photosynthesis.
Exercise: Read the following description carefully.
Complete the equation by filing in the spaces with the
missing words or symbols.
We can describe what happens in the photosynthesis by
using symbols to represent the compounds involved.
The starting substances (reactants) are carbon dioxide
(COs) and. water (H20). The products are oxygen
(O2) and glucose (CeH12Oe). The catalyst is
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chlorophyll and energy is provided by sun. We can
summaries the reaction as follows:
? + H20 Chlorophyll C6Hi206 +Missing words
or symbol light, 6CO2, 602
The glucose produced in photosynthesis can be built up
into starch, which is stored in the plant organisms etc.
Activity 7.1 Testing plants storage organ for starch.
In this activity you, will need iodine solution and
small piece of yam, cassava, potatoes and some beans.
Add few drops of iodine solution to small pieces of
plant material and record your observation. Can you
offer explanation for the result?
Evaluation: The teacher will evaluate the lesson by asking the
students the following questions:
a) What is photosynthesis?
b) Mention 3 factors necessary for photosynthesis to
photosynthesis to take place?
c) State the importance of photosynthesis to life?
d) mention the importance of photosynthesis to life
in general?
e) Conduct a simple demonstration to show the
presence of starch in a plant?
Conclusion: The teacher will concludes the lesson by briefly
summarizing the lesson such as; the process of
photosynthesis and the experiment to test
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presence of starch in a plant storage organ.
(Experimenting)
Lesson Plan 6:
Group: Experimental
Mode of teaching - Science Process Skills Instructional Package (SPSIP)
Subject: Integrated Science
Lesson 6 Unit 4
Unit title: Feeding in animals and plants.
Time: Double Period (80 minutes)
Class: JSS III
Sex: Mixed
Average Age: 13 – 16 years old
Topic: Chlorophyll as a factor involved in
photosynthesis.
Instructional Materials: Iodine solution, Green leaf, Variegated leaf
White tile, Test tubes, 90% ethanol and
dropper, Students' activity sheets.
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
(a) List at least 3 conditions necessary for
photosynthesis to take place.
(b) Conduct a simple experiment to test for
the presence of chlorophyll in a leaf.
(c) List at least 5 materials used to detect the
presence of chlorophyll in a leaf.
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Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt about photosynthesis and
how to test the presence of starch in plant
organ such as yam and cassava.
Introduction: The teacher will introduce the lesson by asking
the students the following questions:
(a) What is photosynthesis?
(b) Describe a simple experiment on now to
detect the presence of starch in a
plant storage organ?
(c ) The teacher will explain to the students
the lesson topic, which is chlorophyll as
one of the factors, involved in
photosynthesis.
Presentation of the lesson after dividing the
students into 10 groups of 12 students each, the
lesson will be presented as follows:
Step i: Activity 8
Chlorophyll - As factor involved in photosynthesis
Students will be provided with activity 8 work
sheet. They will be instructed to carry out
activities stated.
Step ii: Discussion and writing final report session
The answers will be submitted to their various
groups and will be discussed as follows:
Group discussion 5 minutes
Class discussion 10 minutes
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Writing individual final report 20 minutes
Evaluation: The teacher will evaluate the lesson by asking
the students the following questions:
(a) Mention at least 3 factors needed for
photosynthesis to take place?
(b) Briefly explain how you will conduct a
simple experiment to test for presence of
chlorophyll?
(c )List at least 5 materials to be used in
testing for the presence of chlorophyll in green
leaf?
Conclusion: The lesson will be concluded by briefly
summarizing the lesson conducted such as, the
factors involved in photosynthesis. The next lesson
will be on testing leaf for starch.
Students Activity Sheet 10
Activity 10
Time: 40 minutes
Activity 10.1 Factors involved in photosynthesis- Chlorophyll
You need some variegated leaves (e.g from the
cotton) and the material to-testing starch ( such as
test tube, boiling water bath, 90% ethanol,
dropper. ; white tile, iodine solution, and green
leaves).
Cut pieces from the different coloured part of the
leaf. 179
180
Test the different coloured section of the leaf for
starch.
Test for the presence of starch in the green leaf
what do you observe?
How can you explain these observations? What
hypothesis can you draw from the observation?
181
APPENDIX (J)
Lesson Plan For The Control Group (Lecture method)
Lesson plan one
Method of teaching Science = Lecture method
Subject; Integrated Science
Lesson I
Group: Control (Lecture Method)
Class JSS III
Unit Title: Energy conversions
Time: Double period (80 minutes)
Topic: Forms of energy
Instructional Materials: Candle, Battery, Flashlight bulb, A radio,
Tape recorder, Electric motor, A match box
and Torchlight.
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to
a) define what energy is?
b) list five forms of energy
c) explain the sources of energy
mentioned above.
d) identify energy conversion from one
form to another
e) perform some simple demonstration on
energy conversion.
Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt what energy is
Introduction: The teacher will ask the students the following
questions: 181
182
(a) Define the word energy?
(b) Rub your palm together for a minute
what happens?
Presentation: The teacher presented the lesson as follows:
Step I: The teacher explains that, energy is so
important in every thing we do. A body that
has energy can do work. For example the
moving car use energy, animal moving from
one place to another uses energy, electric fan
radio, television set, falling moving mango, all
these require the use of energy before they can
work. There are various forms of energy. We
have chemical energy kinetic energy, potential
energy, electrical energy, light energy and
sound energy. The primary source of this
energy is from sunlight. For example, the
energy transfers from sunlight to the plants
through the process of photosynthesis and to
animals through feeding from the plant. This
form of energy can be converted in to one
form to another.
Step II: The teacher will explain to the students the
examples of the energy stated above as
follows:
Chemical energy: Example form fuel, e.g petroleum, kerosene,
food, gas, battery etc.
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Kinetic energy: Moving objects such as electric fan (also called
mechanical energy), a moving car, an airplane,
a moving animal etc.
Potential energy: The body at rest when it is set to carry out
certain functions e.g a fruit that is to fall from
a tree. Also an animal that is set to run or
lump are said to have possessed potential
energy.
Electrical energy: From electricity, battery. This is in form of
currents.
Light energy: From burning of some fuels. E.g wood,
petroleum,
kerosene, candle etc.
Heat energy: From contact between two surfaces (e.g friction)
and movement of body in an object.
Sound energy: From playing of musical instruments such
as drum, guitar, piano, clapping of hands.
Also from the voice box of animals e.g man,
dog etc.
Step iii: The teacher gave the students materials such
as candle, battery, firewood, radio, telephone
head, flash light bulb, electric fan. a torchlight,
and group them according to the type of energy
they produce. For example
184
Materials - Types of energy
Match stick - Chemical energy, heat, light etc.
Candle - Chemical, heat, light
Battery Chemical (it can form other types
depending on the instrument of
operation used e.g. when we connect
wire and flash light bulb we have light
energy and heat energy.
Telephone ear piece - Sound energy
Telephone mouth piece - Electrical energy
Torch light - Light and heat energy
Firewood - Chemical heat, light
Radio - Sound, kinetic and light
step iv: The teacher asked the students to mention
other sources of energy apart from those
stated above and the types of energies they
possesses.
Evaluation: The teacher ask the students the following
questions
a) What is Energy?
b) List at least five types of energy that you know.
c) Briefly explain five sources of energy
mentioned (b) above
d) Identify energy conversion from one
form to another
e) Explain how you can perform some
185
simple demonstration on energy
conversion.
Conclusion: The teacher will conclude the lesson by
explaining to the students briefly in the today's
lesson. That is, what they have learnt such as
what energy is, the types of energy, the
sources and their use in our day - to -day
activities. The teacher will tell them that the
next lesson will be on energy conversion or
changing energy from one form to the other.
Lesson Plan two
Method of teaching: Lecture method
Subject: Integrated Science
Lesson 2 Unit 2
Group: Control
Sex: Mixed
Class: JSS III No.
Unit title: Energy conversion
Time: Double period (80 minutes)
Topic: Changing energy from one form to another.
Instructional Materials: Dry ceil battery, match stick, candle, Telephone
machine, flexible wire, flashing bulb, Radio,
tape recorder, electric fan stapling machine, a
torchlight etc.
186
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able
to: Explain how energy can be transferred into
one form to the other.
a) Trace the types of energy conversion
taken place in the appliances provided.
b) Explain the importance of energy to
life to our day-to-day activities.
c) Give at least five examples of other
energy conversion application apart
from those used in the lesson.
Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt about types of energy
and their sources. E. g chemical energy from
the food we eat etc.
Introduction: The teacher asks the students the following
questions:
1) Name at least 5 types of energy
2) Give an example of the sources of the
energy mentioned in lesson one above
Presentation: The teacher will present the lesson based on the
followings steps.
Step i: The teacher will ask the students to mention
various types of energy and an example of their
sources as follows:
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Types of Energy Possible Sources
Chemical Match stick, food.etc.
Electrical Battery, electricity etc
Potential Fruit animals and rest.
Kinetic Fan, motor car etc
Light Battery, fuel, electricity etc.
Sound Radio, telephone, tape recorder
Heat Fuel, battery, electricity etc,
Step ii: The teacher discussed the energy transformation as follows:
Changing Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy
When an object rests at a point some height above the
ground, we say that the object has Potential Energy. This
is because the object is capable of doing work if free,
Work must have been done on the objects in taking it
to this position. This work done is stored in the object
as potential energy. As the object is free if falls towards
the ground because of the gravitational pull on it while
falling.
At each point in its motions, it has both potential
energy decreasing and the kinetic energy increasing.
This means that the potential energy is being
converted to kinetic energy during the motion
downward. Just before it hits the ground, all its original
potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
Consider these questions (1) a mango falls from the
branch to the ground what energy had it when left the
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branch? What energy had it just before it hits the
ground? What energy had become of this energy when
it hits the ground? A gun is fired and the bullet from it
hits a bird which falls to the ground. What energy
changes took place from the moment of firing the gun
to the moment the bird hits the ground?
If you have answered these questions correctly, you will
find that in each example: you have started off with one
form of energy and ended up with another forms.
Step iii: The teacher will explain the other types of energy
conversion to the try, students as follows:
Rub your palms together for about two minutes what do
you notice? What happens was that your palm used
kinetic energy and convert it to heat energy Also when
you put in an empty tin is shaken it will produce sound,
this is another conversion from kinetic energy to
sound energy. Another example of energy
conversion is as follows:
A dry cell battery possesses chemical energy this
chemical energy can be converted into electrical energy
as the energy passes through flexible wire it is now been
converted into light energy and heat energy when
connected with flash light bulb. Also the dry call battery
is connected through the flexible wire and the positive
part and the negative part of the wire were connected
with dry cell battery light and heats are produced, this
189
is another example of energy transformation. The two
examples can be summarized as:
The first one Chemical Electrical light & heat
energy.
The Second one Chemical Electrical light & heat
energy.
Heat energy to light can be replaced as follows:
When we heat any solid and it becomes red hot, it
glows. Fire wood and metals often glows when they
are heated. An example of energy conversion from
heat to light energy is Heat energy light
energy.
Step iv: The teacher explained to the students that energy
conversion can be done into so many steps from one
form to another. Examples are as follows:
1. A stone can be strike on iron bar the product
will be heat and light. The energy
transformation is therefore as follows:
Mechanical (Kinetic) Sound Heat Light
energy
2. Another example is that of electrical energy
to mechanical and sound energy. This can
be explained by the use of electric bell and
telephone machine. This could be traced as
follows:
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Electrical energy (from electricity current)
Kinetic energy f from movement of striking bell) the sound
(from the product bell) i.e Electrical energy Kinetic energy
Sound energy Pressing Iron.
An electric pressing iron converts electrical energy to heat,
which is used to press clothes. It consists of coil of wire
(filament), a plane metal surface, a switch and bimetallic
strip. When current passes through the heating coil in the
iron, electrical energy is converted into heat energy and the
temperature of the iron rises when the iron reaches the
temperature set by the switch, the bimetal strip is bent and
this switches off the current as the contact points are now
separated. When the pressing iron cools, the strip uncurls,
contact is again made current flow once and heat the filament.
The teacher ask the students to trace the energy conversion in
another home appliances such as radio = Electrical Kinetic
Sound energy
Radio (with battery) Chemical Electrical kinetic
Sound and heat energy Television = Electrical light
sound kinetic energy and heat energy Electrical
sound heat kinetic
Evaluation: The teacher will ask the students the following questions:
a) Trace the types of energy conversion taken place in
the appliances provided.
b) Explain the importance of energy to life to our day-
to-day activities. 190
191
c) Give at least five examples of other energy conversion
application apart from those used in the lesson.
d) Trace the energy conversion that take place in the
following:
i) Rubbing of finger on a table
ii) A moving vehicle (e.g. lorry)
iii) Cooking of food (using firewood)
e) Give 2 examples of home appliances that energy
conversion takes place and explain how that happens in
each.
Conclusion: The lesson will be concluded by the teacher by briefly
summarizing what the students have learnt in this
lesson such as
a. Energy transformations.
b. Examples of energy transformation
c. application of energy transformation to our day -to –day
activities
d. Students will be assigned to read more about energy
conversion in the NISP and other relevant text-books.
Assignment: Students will be ask to list more materials that can be
used for this conversion of energy apart from four stated
in this lesson.
Lesson note 3 for control group
Method of teaching: Lecture method.
Subject: Integrated science
Lesson 3: Unit 1
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Group- Control
Class: J SS III
Sex: Mixed
Unit title: Feeding in animals and plants.
Topic: Method of feeding in Animals.
Time: Double period (80 Minutes)
Instructional materials:
1. Specimen of animals skulls, such as sheep, dog
etc.
2. Also specimens of different types of teeth in incisors,
canines, premolars and molars.
3. Pictures of some animals.
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
a) Mention 4 types of teeth found in animals’
mouthparts as mammals.
b) Identify each types of teeth with their functions.
c) Define the word dentition?
d) Describe what dental formula is?
e) State at least 3 types of feeding in mammals.
Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt what energy is, and
sources of the energy.
Introduction: The teacher introduces the lesson to the students as
follows:
You have learnt that feeding is one of the characteristics
of living things.
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You also learnt that living things (Animals and Plants)
feed in order to get energy to carry out their daily
activities and also grow. In this lesson you will learn
about:
1) The adaptation of mouthparts for feeding.
2) The dentition of mammals.
3) Animal’s food and method of feeding.
Presentation:
Step i: The lesson will be presented to the students by the teacher a follows:
Adaptation of mouthparts for feeding
The teacher explains to the students that parts of animals that
are adapted to these types of feeding are as follows:
Certain parts of the bodies of animals are specially suited for
feeding. Consider your mouth and your jaws. In your mouth you
have teeth. Without them you would find it difficult to eat the
kind of food you do such as meat and hard fruits.
All animals feeding on solid foods have teeth, with which they
tear or grind their food before swallowing it. The number
and arrangement of teeth is called dentition of the animal,
the muscles of the jaw and check, the tongue and the lips are
also connected with feeding. The dentition of an animal is
designed to suit the kind of food, which the animal eats.
Animals can be divided into three groups according to the
kind of food they eat these are the herbivores (or plants
eaters) the carnivores (or flesh eaters), and the omnivores
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(which eat both flesh and plants). The teacher asks the
students to write down the names of three animals in each
group.
Step ii: Structure of the tooth.
The teacher will explain to the students the structure of the
tooth as follows:
The front teeth are Incisors. If you think of a line dividing
the jaw into two parts, a right part and left part there are two
incisors on each side of the line in the upper jaw and two on
each side in lower jaw in other words, you should have
eight incisors altogether, four above and four below. See
diagram 411 below
Fig 4.1: The Lower Jaw Dentition in Animals
Next to the incisors come the canine teeth. Why are they
called canine? (The teacher will expect the answer from the
students before telling them the answers.
You have one canine tooth on each side in the top jaw and
the same number below, giving you four canines altogether
(see fig. 4.1 above) the Incisors and the canines are for biting
and cutting.
Molars
Pre-Molars
Canine
Incisor
195
Next to the canines comes the premolar. These look very
different from the incisors or canines. They have broad
surface and are much bigger than two of these on each side
of the jaw, above and below, making eight altogether the
further still you have the molars themselves. These are
bigger still. The premolars and molars are used for
chewing and crushing. It is the molar that often called a
wisdom tooth possibly because it does not appear until you
are old enough to have become wise! An adult should have
three molars on each side top and bottom of the jaw. How
many teeth should an adult have altogether? To save a lot of
writing when describing dentition of mammal, we
represent the number of teeth that an animal has, and their
types by what is called a dental formula. In this I stand for
Incisors, C stands for canine, P stands for Premolar and M
for Molars. The dental formula for an adult man is thus:
i 2 C 1 P 2 M 3
2, 1, 2, 3
As the right hand side should be the same as the left, we
only write down the formula for one side. The top and
bottom numbers show the number of teeth of the different
types in the top and bottom jaws. From the formula, you can
see that an adult man should have 8 teeth on top right jaw
(2 + 1 + 2 + 3) and 8 on the bottom right, and as the left hand
side is just the same, he should have a total of 16 on the left -
hand side given the total of 32 teeth.
196
Step iii: Animal foods and methods of feeding
The teacher will explain the types of feeding method of some
animals as follows:
a carnivores: These categories of animals are flesh eaters.
The family Members includes: the cat, lions, leopard, dog etc.
The cat has a dental formula of i 3 C 1 P 3 M 1 3, 1, 2 1
Note how they differ from yours
The incisors are small and chisel - shaped. The canines are
enlarging into fangs and the cheek teeth (premolar and molars)
have their crown extended into ridges running along the line of
the jaw. The ridges are sharp and are used like a pair of scissors.
The cat kills its prey with its sharp canines, cuts the flesh
into pieces with incisors like motion of its jaw and
swallows it. Carnivores generally feed by tearing their
food; this is the way a dog feeds. Does it chew its food
before swallowing it?
Step iv: Other types of feeding method will be explained to the
students as follows:
Herbivores: These are types of animal that feed on plants materials such as
vegetable and many grass. They do not feed on flesh at all
examples are sheep, cow, goat etc. In this lesson, we shall take a
cow as an example which has this dental formula
i 0 C 0 P 3 M 3
0, 1, 3, 3,
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The cow has more teeth in its lower jaw. There are no incisors in the
lower jaw this type of dentition is adapted for grass eating the premolars and
molars are well adapted for grinding the grasses.
Ominivores: These are groups of animals that feed on both plant and" animal
products. You already know what dental formula is and have
seen that it is well design to enable you to feed on variety of
foods. You can bite and chew bones or hard foods can be broken
with the strong incisors. Grinding of food into fine particles is made
very easy with the help of the molars and the side movement of the
jaw. Example of animals' that feed with this method is man,
monkey, pig etc. Unlike the cow and sheep, human beings have
the same number of teeth in the upper and lower jaws.
Evaluation: The teacher will ask the students the following questions?
1. Mention 4 types of teeth discussed within the lesson?
2. Name and state the functions of each type of teeth?
3. What is dentition and give an example of dental formula?
4. Describe what dental formula means and give example of
dental formula.
5. State at least 3 types of feeding in mammals?
6. Identify the importance of feeding in animals.
Conclusion: The lesson was concluded as follows. In this lesson, you have
learnt about the adaptation of mouth parts for feeding and
different methods of feeding in animals such as carnivore e.g
cat, herbivores e.g cow. You have seen different types of teeth
with their functions and formula. In the next lesson, we
198
shall study the feeding method in insects, so read this in your
note before the lesson.
Assignment: The teacher will ask the students to list three types of feeding
methods learnt and give example of animals in each group apart
from those stated in this lesson.
Lesson note 4: Control group
Method of Teaching: Lecture Method
Subject Integrated Science.
Lesson 4 Unit 2
Group Control
Class Jss III.
Sex: Mixed
Average age: 13-16 years old
Time: Double period (80 minutes)
Topic: Method of feeding of insects
Instructional Materials: A grasshopper or cockroach housefly, hand lens,
Glass jar, Sugar cane etc.
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of-the lesson, the students will be able to:
Explain method of feeding in insects such as housefly,
grasshopper, and caterpillar
a) Describe the method of feeding of grasshopper.
b) Name the structure of the mouthparts of
grasshopper.
c) Describe the method of feeding in housefly.
d) Compute the structure of the mouth of housefly
with that of grasshopper.
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Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt about feeding methods in
mammals e.g. cow, man, cat etc.
Introduction: The teacher will ask the students the following questions
a) List the three-types of feeding in mammal?
b) Mention types of teeth you know? i.e.
incisors, canine, premolars and molars,
Presentation: The lesson will be presented by the teacher as follows:
Step i: Feeding method in Insects.
The teacher started the teaching by explaining the
feeding methods in insects as follows:
Unlike bigger animals, insects feed by biting and sucking.
Biting (or chewing) insects include the grasshopper, the
locust and the caterpillar (the lower stage of the moth or
butterfly) amongst, of course many others. These are
insects which you will easily find on a farm or in your
garden. You can watch a grasshopper feeding if you
approach it very quietly. The mouth parts of a
grasshopper are so constructed to help it feed by biting
leaf blade.
There are a large number of different types of
insects that feed by sucking or "lapping”. Some of
them are beneficial to mankind; others are harmfu1
mosquitoes feed by sucking of blood. It has been known
for long time that certain kinds of mosquitoes transmit
malaria germs for example anopheles mosquitoes, other
200
common sucking ' or lapping insect are housefly,
bees, wasps, and butterflies.
For example, Housefly is harmful because it is so
easily carries disease germ: from one place to another
for example, dysentery is one of such disease.
Step ii: Method of feeding of housefly.
A housefly cannot feed on solid food, it always feeds
on liquids. So it has to convert solid food to liquid
before it can use it. When settles on food, it extend its
mouth part (called the proboscis) on to the food. It sends
salivary gland down the proboscis and to the food, and
the saliva immediately started to digest the food and
turn it into a liquid. The liquid food in them sucked up
by the proboscis into the esophagus and then into the
stomach.
Step iii: Method of Feeding of a Grasshopper
Grasshopper uses the parts of its mouth such as
labium, maxilla, mandible, and labrum for cutting and
chewing process. The cutting process is similar to that
of a pair of scissors, that's why it can feed on solid
soft substances like leaves etc.
Grasshopper can cause consideration loss to the
farmer. A locust will eat its own weight of vegetable
in a day, and when you remember that a swarm of
locust may well number over thousands million,
you can imagine what a tremendous amount of harm 200
201
they do. Infact, famines have been caused by them.
Observe the mouth parts of grasshopper, draw and
label in your note book.
Evaluation: The teacher will ask the students the following questions:
a) describe the method of feeding of
grasshopper?
b) name the structure of the mouth parts.
c) describe the method of feeding in housefly?
d) compare the structure of the mouth of
housefly with that of grasshopper?
e) mention one way in which insects use their
mouth parts in transmitting some common
diseases
Conclusion: The teacher will conclude the lesson by given brief
explanation of this lesson as follows. Today’s you
(students) have learn about types of feeding in insects, in
the next lesson we shall be discussing how plants make
their foods.
Assignment: The teacher will give the students the assignment as
follows: List as many insects you know as possible and
classify them under their mode of feeding.
Lesson notes 5 for control groups
Method of teaching: Lecture method.
Subject: Integrated science
Lesson 5 Unit 8
202
Group Control
Class JSS III
Sex: Mixed
Average age: 13-16 years old
Unit title: Feeding in plants and animals.
Time: Double period (80 Minutes)
Topic: Method of feeding in plants.
Instructional Materials: Potted plant, Green leaves, variegated leaves,
Roots, Iodine solution etc.
Behavioural Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
a) what is photosynthesis?
b) State at least 3 factors necessary for
photosynthesis to take place?
c) describe a simple demonstration on how
to detect the presence of starch in a plant
storage organ?
d) conduct a simple demonstration to show
the presence of starch in a leaf.
e) identify the importance of plants food to
our daily activities.
f) mention various parts of the plants that
can store food.
Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt the mode of feeding in
animals, e.g mammals, carnivore, herbivore
and omnivore and insect such as sucking an,
chewing.
203
Introduction: The teacher introduces the lesson by asking
students the following question:
a) Can animal make its food from simple
materials like air and water around it?
Yet plants are able to do this, they can make their
foods form gases: which occur, in the air we shall
see how this could be done in this lesson.
Presentation: The teacher presents the lesson before the
student as follow:
Step i: How plants make their food.
The teacher explains how plants make their own food as follows:
The process-by which the plant makes starch, is called
Photosynthesis. This simply means building up by means of
light. The word synthesis means building up. Photosynthesis is
the most important chemical reaction in the world. If it did not
take place you would not be here to read and-remember your
lesson on food chain in the previous lesson. Photosynthesis is
the process by which green plants build up carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide and water. The energy for synthesis is obtained
from sunlight which is absorbed by chlorophyll. Oxygen is given
off as a by - product. In land plants the water is absorbed from
the soil by the root system and the carbon dioxide from the air
through the stomata. Photosynthesis goes on principally in the
leaves though any green part of plants can photosynthesize. The
process may be represented by the equation 6C02 + 6H20 +
Sunlight . = C6 H,2 06 + 6O2 . Absorbed by chlorophyll 203
204
Step ii: The teacher will explain to the students how carbon dioxide
is presented in the leaf. When you burn a dried leaf in air it
gives up carbon dioxide, when the gas give off is tested with
lime, it turns milky this indicated the presence of carbon
dioxide in the leaves. The carbon dioxide is formed when
plant is burnt indicates that there must be carbon in it. The gas
that contains carbon is carbon dioxide; it must be the source
of food material for plant. Carbon dioxide must be concerned
with the making of starch in the green plant leaves. This can
be conducted by simple experiment as follows:
Select sunlight plant or balsam plant and on one of the leaves
clip a piece of black paper so that light cannot penetrate to the
whole leaf. Let the plant stand for a day before testing for starch.
Then take the leaf you have partly covered up. Put it in boiling
water and extract the chlorophyll with alcohol. Test the leaf
for starch by adding iodine. The part of leaf containing
starch wilt turn brown from the yellowish colour. This
indicates the presence of starch
Step iii: The teacher explains the parts of the plants concerned with
making food. Obviously, the leaves have a lot to do with
carbon dioxide, which enters leaves through stomata, and it
diffuses through the leaf. Part of the food material for the
plant is supplied by soil. But, of course a plant cannot take
up solid dissolve in water these are taken up by the plants
through the roots. These materials are salts of calcium,
potassium, nitrogen, magnesium, phosphorus and some other
205
elements. They dissolve in rainwater falling on the solid
and are taken into plants through roots hairs. These are fine
hairs, which out from the main root.
There are no holes in the root hair, so how does the solution
of salts from soil get in? This is very important process for
both plants and animals. This root hair acts like “molecule
sieve” letting very tiny particles the size of molecules to pass
through it. Carbon dioxide and water from the soil meet in
the leaf and are formed into starch. For the process to take
place, there must be light energy.
Step iv: Food storage in plants.
The teacher explains the above topic as follows: We have
discussed a very simplified account of what happen when
plant makes starch. Sugar is formed first in the leaf of the
plants and the starch is made from sugar. Sugar and starch are
very similar chemical compounds. They belong both to group
of substance called element such as Carbon, Hydrogen and
oxygen. Can you name a plant which makes a lot of sugar and
does not convert it into starch?
Some plants stored starch (e.g. yam, cassava, etc.) some, plants
stored protein as well as some starch. Protein is nitrogen
containing substance and it is essential for life. Plants obtain
nitrogen from the soil to produce nitrogen. The supply of nitrate
is not always sufficient and the farmers have often to add it to
the soils in inform of fertilizers. Some store oil as in
groundnut etc. plant store their food in special places called
206
storage organ. Any part of the plant can be adopted for the
purpose in the leaf, the root, the stem, and the seeds.
Evaluation: The teacher will evaluate the lesson as follows: the students
will be ask the following questions:
a) mention at least 3 factors needed for the photosynthesis
to take place?
b) briefly explain how you will conduct a simple
demonstration to test for presence of chlorophyll in a
plant leaf?
c) list at least 5 materials to be used testing for the presence
of chlorophyll in a green leaf?
d) identify the parts which food may be stored in plant?
Conclusion: The teacher concludes the lesson by briefly reviewing the
topic of the lesson as follows students to day in this lesson,
you have learnt how plants manufactured their food, also how
to test for starch and, the necessary condition needed for
photosynthesis to take place and the storage organ for food in
plant. You are advice to read more about this in your
various textbooks.
Assignment: Students will be given the following assignments by the
teacher:
1. Observe different foods items at home and classify
them into their various classes?
2. Find out at least two reasons why food is important to
our daily activities?
207
DIX (K)
Pilot Study of the Instruments
S/N Pract. Pretest
Pract. Test retest
Achie. Pretest
Achie. Test retest
Attitude Pretest
Attitude Test retest
1 30 27 20 21 4 4 2 26 26 22 19 3 2 3 23 24 20 22 3 2 4 16 13 22 23 3 3 5 18 18 19 16 3 3 6 23 24 17 21 2 2 7 17 14 22 23 3 3 8 23 23 24 21 3 3 9 21 22 15 19 3 3
10 17 14 22 23 3 2 11 19 19 19 16 3 3 12 26 27 20 15 3 3 13 21 18 22 23 3 3 14 20 20 19 16 3 2 15 27 28 16 24 3 2 16 27 24 21 22 3 3 17 28 28 21 18 3 2 18 16 17 18 21 4 3 19 17 14 20 21 3 2 20 27 27 18 15 3 3 21 18 19 20 19 4 4 22 22 19 19 20 3 2 23 26 26 19 16 3 2 24 21 22 20 17 3 3 25 18 15 16 17 3 3 26 18 18 19 16 2 2 27 19 20 18 22 3 1 28 21 18 18 19 3 3 29 22 22 14 11 3 3 30 22 23 15 20 3 2 31 15 12 11 12 3 3 32 21 21 19 16 3 3 33 21 22 13 15 3 3 34 26 23 19 20 3 2 35 21 21 19 16 3 2 36 18 19 21 22 3 3 37 30 27 22 23 3 3 38 16 16 18 15 4 4 39 19 20 21 18 3 2
208
40 22 19 19 20 3 3 41 22 22 16 13 4 4 42 16 17 22 24 3 2 43 20 17 15 16 3 2 44 17 17 19 16 3 3 45 28 29 20 18 3 3 46 23 20 19 20 2 2 47 12 12 20 17 3 3 48 27 28 21 21 3 3 49 12 9 15 16 3 3 50 27 27 21 18 3 2 51 22 23 22 21 3 3 52 25 22 20 21 3 3 53 19 19 17 14 3 3 54 21 22 15 21 3 2 55 21 18 19 20 3 2 56 20 20 21 18 3 3 57 21 22 22 22 3 2 58 19 16 15 16 4 3 59 25 25 18 15 3 2 60 22 23 19 13 3 3 61 25 22 21 22 4 4 62 32 32 20 17 3 2 63 30 31 18 20 3 2 64 23 20 20 21 3 3 65 21 21 23 20 3 3 66 21 22 17 19 2 2
209
APPENDIX (L)
Table 3.4: Discrimination Indices (DI) for the Integrated Science Achievement Test (ISAT)
Items Discrimination Index (P1-P2) Items Discrimination Index (P1-P2)
1 DCRP 0.95 21 0.67
2 0.70 22 0.67
3 0.70 23 0.70
4 0.68 24 0.61
5 RR 0.71 25 0.70
6 0.70 26 0.64
7 0.61 27 0.70
8 0.70 28 0.67
9 0.67 29 0.70
10 0.68 30 0.64
11 0.70 31 0.67
12 0.67 32 0.65
13 0.67 33 0.62
14 0.62 34 RR 0.71
15 0.65 35 0.64
16 0.68 36 0.67
17 0.67 37 0.65
18 0.70 38 0.68
19 0.70 39 RR 0.71
20 0.67 40 0.70
Key: RR: Revised and Retained,
DCRP: Discarded and Replaced
210
APPENDIX (M)
Table 3.4: Item Facility difficulty (FI) for the Integrated Science Achievement Test
(ISAT)
Items Facility Index (FI) Items Facility Index (FI)
1 DCRP -0.12 21 0.34
2 0.30 22 0.32
3 0.30 23 0.30
4 0.34 24 0.35
5 RR 0.24 25 0.30
6 0.30 26 0.38
7 0.27 27 0.30
8 0.30 28 0.32
9 0.36 29 0.30
10 RR 0.28 30 RR 0.28
11 0.30 31 0.32
12 0.32 32 0.30
13 0.32 33 0.32
14 0.32 34 RR 0.23
15 0.30 35 0.34
16 0.34 36 0.32
17 RR 0.28 37 0.30
18 0.30 38 0.33
19 0.30 39 RR 0.24
20 0.32 40 0.30
Key:
RR: Revised and Retained,
DCRP: Discarded and Replaced
211
APPENDIX (N)
The following were the items selected based on the analysis above the difficulty Index:
1. Items without modification are: 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38 and 40.
2. While items selected with modification are: 5, 7, 10, 17, 25, 30, 34 and 39.
3. The item that was discarded and replaced with other item is number
one (1.) on the list. The theoretically accepted ranges for facility indices is
0.30-0.70 while for discrimination indices is 0.6o-0.85 by Satterly (1986) See
appendix (L and M) for tables 3.3 and 3.4