effects of corrective reading on the reading …...behavioral disorders, 31 (3), 265–283 may 2006...
TRANSCRIPT
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
65
Effe
cts
of C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng o
n th
e R
eadi
ng A
bilit
ies
and
Cla
ssro
om B
ehav
iors
of M
iddl
e Sc
hool
Stu
dent
s W
ith
Rea
ding
Defi
cit
s an
d C
halle
ngin
g B
ehav
ior
Am
y S.
Lin
go, E
d.D
.U
nive
rsity
of L
ouis
ville
Deb
orah
Bot
t Sla
ton,
Ph.
D.
Uni
vers
ity o
f Ken
tuck
y
Kri
stin
e Jo
livet
te, P
h.D
.G
eorg
ia S
tate
Uni
vers
ity
AB
STR
AC
T: A
mul
tiple
pro
be d
esig
n w
as e
mpl
oyed
for
thi
s st
udy
to a
sses
s th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of t
he
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
(En
gelm
ann
et a
l., 1
999)
on
stud
ents
’ re
adin
g fl u
ency
and
beh
avio
r du
ring
read
ing-
rela
ted
inst
ruct
ion.
Dire
ct o
bser
vatio
ns a
sses
sed
the
effe
ct o
n st
uden
ts’ b
ehav
ior
in
both
gen
eral
and
spe
cial
edu
catio
n cl
assr
oom
s. R
eadi
ng fl
uenc
y m
easu
res
wer
e in
clud
ed o
n w
ithin
-pr
ogra
m p
assa
ges
and
grad
e-le
vel
text
ora
l re
adin
gs. T
he s
tudy
rev
eale
d re
adin
g ga
ins
for
with
in-
prog
ram
and
gen
eral
izat
ion
pass
ages
. Bot
h st
uden
ts a
nd t
each
ers
indi
cate
d po
sitiv
e pe
rcep
tions
of
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
.
Failu
re to
be
succ
essf
ul b
oth
acad
emic
ally
an
d so
cial
ly
in
scho
ol
is
char
acte
rist
ic
for
stud
ents
w
ith
emot
iona
l an
d be
havi
oral
di
sord
ers
(EB
D),
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s, a
nd
lear
ning
di
ffi cu
lties
(L
D)
(Fol
ey
&
Epst
ein,
19
92;
Vau
ghn,
Zar
agoz
a, H
ogan
, &
Wal
ker,
1993
). Th
ese
stud
ents
are
far
mor
e lik
ely
to
be d
efi c
ient
in
basi
c ac
adem
ic s
kills
tha
n ar
e th
eir
peer
s w
ithou
t di
sabi
litie
s.
In
fact
, th
e ac
adem
ic d
iffi c
ultie
s fa
ced
by s
tude
nts
with
EB
D
and
LD
ofte
n re
sult
in
scho
ol
failu
re
(Kau
ffman
, 19
97;
Wal
ker,
Col
vin,
& R
amse
y,
1995
). Fo
r exa
mpl
e, e
stim
ates
of t
he p
reva
lenc
e of
aca
dem
ic d
iffi c
ultie
s, e
spec
ially
read
ing
and
arith
met
ic d
efi c
its, o
f stu
dent
s w
ith E
BD
ran
ge
from
33%
to
81%
(R
uhl
& B
erlin
ghof
f, 19
92).
It is
cle
ar t
hat
mos
t st
uden
ts w
ith c
halle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
also
hav
e so
me
type
of
acad
emic
di
ffi cu
lty a
s w
ell.
Stud
ents
with
EB
D,
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s,
and
lear
ning
di
ffi cu
lties
of
ten
are
excl
uded
fr
om
inst
ruct
ion
beca
use
of
beha
vior
s su
ch
as
nonc
ompl
ianc
e,
aggr
essi
on,
disr
uptio
n,
self-
inju
ry,
and
antis
ocia
l re
spon
ses
(Kni
tzer
, St
einb
erg,
& F
leis
ch,
1990
; U
.S.
Dep
artm
ent
of
Educ
atio
n,
1998
). B
ehav
iors
th
at
are
cons
ider
ed v
iole
nt,
unsa
fe,
and
disr
uptiv
e to
cl
assr
oom
te
ache
rs,
scho
ol
adm
inis
trat
ors,
and
othe
r sc
hool
per
sonn
el a
re t
he o
utco
me
of a
pre
dict
able
cha
in o
f ev
ents
tha
t be
gin
with
ac
adem
ic
failu
re
(Sco
tt,
Nel
son,
&
Li
aups
in,
2001
). So
me
rese
arch
ers
have
su
gges
ted
that
ef
fort
s to
pr
even
t be
havi
or
prob
lem
s sh
ould
inc
lude
pro
mot
ing
effe
ctiv
e ac
adem
ic i
nstr
uctio
n fo
r th
ose
stud
ents
who
ex
hibi
t ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
(Car
r, Ta
ylor
, &
Rob
inso
n, 1
991;
Mag
uin
& L
oebe
r, 19
96).
Evid
ence
su
ppor
ts
earl
y id
entifi
cat
ion
and
inte
rven
tion
rela
ted
to
acad
emic
le
arni
ng
prob
lem
s, w
hich
red
uces
the
lik
elih
ood
that
st
uden
ts w
ill e
ngag
e in
dis
rupt
ive
clas
sroo
m
beha
vior
in
the
futu
re (
Mag
uin
& L
oebe
r). T
he
link
betw
een
poor
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent a
nd
type
s of
beh
avio
r th
at t
hrea
ten
scho
ol s
afet
y,
how
ever
, lar
gely
has
bee
n ig
nore
d.M
agui
n an
d Lo
eber
’s (1
996)
met
a-an
alys
is
on
the
acad
emic
an
d be
havi
or
conn
ectio
n id
entifi
ed
thre
e st
rong
rel
atio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
acad
emic
fai
lure
and
cha
lleng
ing
beha
vior
or
delin
quen
cy. F
irst
, poo
r aca
dem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce
is r
elat
ed t
o th
e on
set,
freq
uenc
y, p
ersi
sten
ce,
and
seri
ousn
ess
of
delin
quen
t of
fend
ing,
w
here
as
high
er
acad
emic
pe
rfor
man
ce
is
asso
ciat
ed w
ith r
efra
inin
g or
des
istin
g fr
om
offe
ndin
g.
Seco
nd,
cogn
itive
de
fi cits
an
d at
tent
ion
prob
lem
s ar
e as
soci
ated
with
poo
r
BD
_31(
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ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
acad
emic
pe
rfor
man
ce
and
delin
quen
cy.
Thir
d,
inte
rven
tions
th
at
impr
ove
acad
emic
pe
rfor
man
ce a
re a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith a
red
uctio
n in
th
e pr
eval
ence
of
de
linqu
ency
. Th
ese
fi ndi
ngs
supp
ort
the
link
betw
een
acad
emic
ac
hiev
emen
t and
soc
ial b
ehav
iors
.In
sc
hool
s,
stud
ents
w
ith
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s an
d le
arni
ng d
iffi c
ultie
s ar
e ty
pica
lly
less
aca
dem
ical
ly p
rofi c
ient
tha
n th
eir
peer
s fo
r se
vera
l re
ason
s. F
irst
, st
uden
ts i
dent
ifi ed
as
hav
ing
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s or
aca
dem
ic
defi c
its i
n th
e cl
assr
oom
are
mor
e lik
ely
to
expe
rien
ce n
egat
ive
or p
uniti
ve i
nter
actio
ns
with
thei
r tea
cher
s, re
gard
less
of t
heir
beh
avio
r (D
enny
, Ep
stei
n, &
Ros
e, 1
992;
Gun
ter,
Jack
, D
ePae
pe,
Ree
d, &
Har
riso
n, 1
994)
. Se
cond
, st
uden
ts
with
ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
and
lear
ning
diffi
cul
ties
also
rec
eive
less
aca
dem
ic
enga
ged
time
with
thei
r te
ache
rs th
an s
tude
nts
with
out
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s (Jo
hns,
200
0).
Fina
lly,
teac
hers
’ in
stru
ctio
n is
mor
e lim
ited
and
char
acte
rize
d by
eas
ier
task
s fo
r st
uden
ts
exhi
bitin
g be
havi
or
prob
lem
s an
d le
arni
ng
diffi
culti
es th
an fo
r stu
dent
s w
ho d
o no
t exh
ibit
such
beh
avio
rs (C
arr
et a
l., 1
991)
.Th
e in
tera
ctio
ns
betw
een
teac
hers
an
d st
uden
ts i
n th
e cl
assr
oom
con
trib
ute
to t
he
poor
ac
adem
ic
perf
orm
ance
of
st
uden
ts
alre
ady
expe
rien
cing
ac
adem
ic
and
soci
al
prob
lem
s.
Gun
ter,
Den
ny,
Jack
, Sh
ores
, &
N
elso
n (1
993)
des
crib
ed a
cyc
le o
f ne
gativ
e re
info
rcem
ent
to i
llust
rate
the
tea
cher
-stu
dent
in
stru
ctio
nal
inte
ract
ions
in
cl
assr
oom
s fo
r st
uden
ts
with
EB
D
and
sim
ilar
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s.
Gun
ter
and
colle
ague
s de
fi ned
ne
gativ
e re
info
rcem
ent
as
the
“rem
oval
of
av
ersi
ve s
timul
i co
ntin
gent
on
the
emis
sion
of
a re
spon
se w
hich
has
the
effe
ct o
f in
crea
sing
th
e fu
ture
pr
obab
ility
of
th
at
resp
onse
” (p
. 26
6).
The
inte
ract
ions
bet
wee
n st
uden
ts a
nd
teac
hers
fo
llow
th
is
cycl
e:
the
disr
uptiv
e be
havi
ors
of s
tude
nts
are
nega
tivel
y re
info
rced
by
the
rem
oval
of a
cade
mic
task
dem
ands
, and
th
e te
ache
rs’
actio
ns a
re n
egat
ivel
y re
info
rced
by
the
rem
oval
of
the
disr
uptiv
e be
havi
ors.
Th
ese
fact
ors
of i
neffe
ctiv
e te
achi
ng p
ract
ices
an
d di
scip
linar
y re
mov
al o
f st
uden
ts f
rom
the
in
stru
ctio
nal e
nvir
onm
ent l
ead
to th
e ac
adem
ic
failu
re fo
r st
uden
ts w
ith c
halle
ngin
g be
havi
ors.
St
uden
ts
who
ar
e ex
clud
ed
from
ac
adem
ic
inst
ruct
ion
for
disr
uptiv
e be
havi
or e
xper
ienc
e gr
eate
r aca
dem
ic d
iffi c
ulty
, whi
ch in
turn
lead
s to
gre
ater
fru
stra
tion
with
the
aca
dem
ic t
asks
pr
esen
ted.
Thi
s se
ts th
e oc
casi
on fo
r the
stu
dent
to
pre
sent
add
ition
al b
ehav
iora
l ch
alle
nges
in
the
clas
sroo
m, w
hich
lead
s to
furt
her e
xclu
sion
fr
om c
lass
room
ins
truc
tion.
The
refo
re,
effo
rts
need
to fo
cus o
n ef
fect
ive
inst
ruct
iona
l pra
ctic
es
for
stud
ents
with
cha
lleng
ing
beha
vior
s an
d le
arni
ng d
iffi c
ultie
s.Ty
pica
lly,
rese
arch
ers
focu
s on
the
soc
ial
outc
omes
of
st
uden
ts
with
ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
and
fail
to r
ecog
nize
the
aca
dem
ic
defi c
its
that
co
ntri
bute
to
th
e pr
oble
m
beha
vior
(G
unte
r et
al.,
199
3).
Unt
il re
cent
ly,
the
prof
essi
onal
lite
ratu
re c
onta
ined
min
imal
re
sear
ch
on
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
sp
ecifi
c ac
adem
ic i
nter
vent
ions
for
stu
dent
s w
ho h
ave
conc
omita
nt
acad
emic
an
d so
cial
pr
oble
m
beha
vior
. A
cade
mic
fa
ilure
, pa
rtic
ular
ly
in
read
ing,
is a
maj
or p
redi
ctor
of f
ailu
re o
r suc
cess
in
sch
ool.
Col
eman
and
Vau
ghn
(200
0) s
tate
d th
at “
alth
ough
chi
ldre
n w
ith e
mot
iona
l an
d be
havi
oral
di
sord
ers
dem
onst
rate
si
gnifi
cant
di
ffi cu
lties
in
re
adin
g,
little
re
sear
ch
has
addr
esse
d th
e ef
fi cac
y of
rea
ding
inte
rven
tions
fo
r th
is p
opul
atio
n” (p
. 93)
.R
eadi
ng i
nstr
uctio
n is
a c
ritic
al f
acto
r in
th
e ed
ucat
ion
of
stud
ents
w
ith
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
, le
arni
ng p
robl
ems,
or
both
. It
has
been
wel
l est
ablis
hed
by re
sear
cher
s tha
t fai
lure
in
read
ing
is a
maj
or p
redi
ctor
of l
arge
r fai
lure
s th
roug
hout
life
as
wel
l as
in
scho
ol (
Car
nine
, Si
lber
t, &
Kam
eenu
i, 19
97;
Epst
ein,
Kin
der,
&
Bur
suck
, 198
9; K
auffm
an, 1
997;
Wal
ker
et a
l.,
1995
). R
esea
rche
rs a
lso
have
doc
umen
ted
that
st
uden
ts w
ith c
halle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
are
mor
e lik
ely
to h
ave
read
ing
prob
lem
s th
an th
eir p
eers
(C
outin
ho, 1
986;
Eps
tein
et a
l., 1
989)
. Effe
ctiv
e an
d ef
fi cie
nt r
eadi
ng i
nstr
uctio
n is
im
port
ant
to a
ll st
uden
ts,
but
it is
esp
ecia
lly i
mpo
rtan
t to
stu
dent
s w
ho h
ave
diffi
culty
with
rea
ding
. O
ne m
etho
d fo
r im
prov
ing
stud
ent
read
ing
perf
orm
ance
is D
irec
t Ins
truc
tion
(DI).
DI i
s an
exp
licit,
inte
nsiv
e, te
ache
r-di
rect
ed
met
hod
of t
each
ing
that
was
dev
elop
ed b
y En
gelm
ann
and
colle
ague
s in
19
64.
Sinc
e th
en,
mor
e th
an
60
inst
ruct
iona
l pr
ogra
ms
feat
urin
g D
I ha
ve
been
pr
opos
ed
and
stud
ied.
O
ne
such
pr
ogra
m
is
the
SRA
C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
(E
ngel
man
n et
al
., 19
99).
All
DI
prog
ram
s in
corp
orat
e a
com
mon
ins
truc
tiona
l de
sign
and
a g
roup
of
pres
enta
tion
tech
niqu
es t
o ac
com
mod
ate
and
ensu
re c
onsi
sten
cy a
mon
g le
sson
pre
sent
atio
ns
by t
each
ers
in v
ario
us c
lass
room
set
tings
and
w
ith a
var
iety
of l
earn
ers
(Ada
ms
& E
ngel
man
n,
1996
; Whi
te, 1
988)
. Se
vera
l m
eta-
anal
yses
of
D
I pr
ogra
ms
impl
emen
ted
with
stud
ents
in sp
ecia
l edu
catio
n se
tting
s ha
ve b
een
cond
ucte
d. W
hite
(19
88)
exam
ined
25
stud
ies
that
com
pare
d D
I w
ith
som
e ot
her
inte
rven
tion
for
stud
ents
w
ith
disa
bilit
ies,
and
the
resu
lts in
dica
ted
that
non
e of
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avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
67
the
stud
ies
stat
istic
ally
favo
red
the
com
pari
son
inte
rven
tion
over
DI.
Whi
te c
oncl
uded
that
the
posi
tive
resu
lts w
ere
not “
limite
d to
a p
artic
ular
ag
e ra
nge,
or
hand
icap
ping
con
ditio
n or
ski
ll ar
ea”
(p.
372)
. H
is
stat
emen
t su
ppor
ts
the
impl
emen
tatio
n of
DI
with
stu
dent
s w
ith m
ild
to s
ever
e di
sabi
litie
s. A
dam
s an
d En
gelm
ann
(199
6) e
xam
ined
34
stud
ies
that
use
d D
I as
the
inte
rven
tion
and
foun
d th
at 3
2 of
the
34 s
tudi
es
had
posi
tive
outc
omes
rela
ted
to D
I. In
fact
, the
ov
eral
l ave
rage
effe
ct s
ize
per s
tudy
was
gre
ater
th
an 0
.87
with
an
over
all a
vera
ge e
ffect
siz
e of
0.
82 f
or s
tude
nts
with
out
disa
bilit
ies
and
0.90
fo
r st
uden
ts w
ith d
isab
ilitie
s. O
vera
ll, s
tude
nts
who
re
ceiv
ed
DI
cons
iste
ntly
ou
tper
form
ed
stud
ents
in
co
mpa
rativ
e gr
oups
, an
d th
e D
I te
chni
ques
w
ere
effe
ctiv
e in
fa
cilit
atin
g ac
adem
ic
succ
ess
for
stud
ents
of
al
l ag
es,
abili
ties,
and
bac
kgro
unds
. O
ne
spec
ifi c
DI
prog
ram
, C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
(Eng
elm
ann,
19
88),
has
rece
ived
so
me
atte
ntio
n in
the
lite
ratu
re.
For
exam
ple,
Th
omps
on
(199
2)
com
pare
d th
e ef
fect
s of
th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng D
ecod
ing
B p
rogr
am
with
w
hole
la
ngua
ge
and
trad
ition
al
basa
l re
adin
g in
stru
ctio
n. S
tude
nts
in t
he C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng g
roup
had
low
er i
ntel
ligen
ce s
core
s an
d so
cioe
cono
mic
sta
tus
than
stu
dent
s in
the
com
pari
son
grou
ps.
Res
ults
sug
gest
tha
t on
ly
stud
ents
in
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
gro
up h
ad
incr
ease
d pe
rcen
tile
rank
ings
on
the
post
test
of
th
e W
oodc
ock
John
son
Rea
ding
te
st.
In
addi
tion,
stu
dent
s in
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
gr
oup
aver
aged
a g
ain
of 2
1 w
ords
per
min
ute
in r
eadi
ng fl
uen
cy c
ompa
red
to 1
3 w
ords
per
m
inut
e fo
r th
e tr
aditi
onal
gro
up a
nd 7
wor
ds
per
min
ute
for
the
who
le la
ngua
ge g
roup
.G
ross
en (
1997
) su
mm
ariz
ed r
esea
rch
on
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
as
us
ed
by T
horn
e (1
978)
, A
rthu
r (1
988)
, and
LaC
ava’
s st
udy
(as
cite
d in
Gro
ssen
, 19
97).
Thir
teen
stu
dent
s w
ith s
ever
e be
havi
or
diso
rder
s in
Tho
rne’
s st
udy
mad
e ac
cura
cy a
nd
com
preh
ensi
on g
ains
bas
ed o
n 35
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
les
sons
; 25
stu
dent
s w
ith e
mot
iona
l di
stur
banc
e in
La
Cav
a’s
stud
y al
so
mad
e si
mila
r gai
ns; a
nd th
e se
vent
h an
d ei
ghth
gra
de
stud
ents
in A
rthu
r’s s
tudy
wer
e re
adin
g at
gra
de
leve
l af
ter
1 ye
ar o
f th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
, an
d ac
cura
cy a
nd c
ompr
ehen
sion
in
crea
sed
4.31
m
onth
s fo
r ev
ery
mon
th
of
inst
ruct
ion.
In
anot
her
stud
y,
Mal
mgr
en
and
Leon
e (2
000)
exa
min
ed th
e ac
adem
ic a
chie
vem
ent o
f 45
inca
rcer
ated
you
th 1
3 to
19
year
s ol
d us
ing
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
(En
gelm
ann,
19
88).
Twen
ty w
ere
rece
ivin
g sp
ecia
l edu
catio
n
serv
ices
and
10
wer
e di
agno
sed
as E
BD
. Th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am w
as c
ondu
cted
ov
er
a 6-
wee
k pe
riod
fo
r 2
hour
s an
d 50
m
inut
es p
er d
ay f
or 5
day
s a
wee
k. R
esul
ts o
f th
e po
stte
st i
ndic
ated
a s
tatis
tical
ly s
igni
fi can
t di
ffere
nce
in t
he r
ate,
acc
urac
y, a
nd p
assa
ge
subt
ests
whe
n co
mpa
red
to p
rete
st d
ata.
Dat
a fr
om
the
com
preh
ensi
on
subt
ests
w
ere
not
sign
ifi ca
ntly
di
ffere
nt.
Mal
mgr
en
and
Leon
e st
ate
that
“th
e re
sults
...
dem
onst
rate
tha
t it
is
poss
ible
to
sign
ifi ca
ntly
im
prov
e re
adin
g sk
ills
for
low
-ach
ievi
ng j
uven
ile d
elin
quen
ts w
ith a
re
lativ
ely
brie
f int
erve
ntio
n” (p
. 245
).Th
e ra
tiona
le
for
this
st
udy
is
four
fold
: Fi
rst,
rese
arch
sup
port
s us
ing
DI
as a
mea
ns
of
impr
ovin
g re
adin
g ac
hiev
emen
t fo
r st
uden
ts
with
ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
and
read
ing
diffi
culti
es
(Ada
ms
&
Enge
lman
n,
1996
; G
ross
en,
1997
; M
alm
gren
&
Le
one,
20
00;
Whi
te,
1988
). Th
e re
sults
of
this
fut
ure
rese
arch
will
exp
and
the
liter
atur
e on
effe
ctiv
e re
adin
g in
terv
entio
ns fo
r st
uden
ts w
ith r
eadi
ng
prob
lem
s an
d st
uden
ts w
ho e
xhib
it ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
or in
sch
ool s
ettin
gs.
Seco
nd,
ther
e is
a
need
fo
r ad
ditio
nal
rese
arch
re
gard
ing
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
sp
ecifi
c ac
adem
ic i
nter
vent
ions
with
stu
dent
s w
ith
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s.
Trad
ition
ally
, th
e ed
ucat
ion
for
stud
ents
with
cha
lleng
ing
beha
vior
s ha
s fo
cuse
d m
ore
on c
ontr
ollin
g an
d de
crea
sing
inap
prop
riat
e so
cial
beh
avio
rs th
an
on
prov
idin
g ef
fect
ive
acad
emic
in
stru
ctio
n (C
olem
an
&
Vau
ghn,
20
00).
Res
earc
h ha
s pr
ovid
ed
evid
ence
th
at
stud
ents
w
ith
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s do
ex
hibi
t re
adin
g pr
oble
ms.
Rec
ently
, res
earc
hers
hav
e be
gun
to
focu
s on
spe
cifi c
ins
truc
tiona
l st
rate
gies
tha
t ar
e ef
fect
ive
in im
prov
ing
read
ing
perf
orm
ance
of
st
uden
ts
with
ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
(Bab
yak,
Koo
rlan
d, &
Mat
hes,
200
0; C
olem
an
& V
augh
n).
This
stu
dy w
ill c
ontr
ibut
e to
the
lit
erat
ure
base
by
focu
sing
on
the
effe
cts
of
acad
emic
int
erve
ntio
ns a
nd t
he e
ffect
of
such
in
terv
entio
ns o
n st
uden
t cla
ssro
om b
ehav
ior.
Thir
d,
ther
e is
a
need
to
re
sear
ch
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
the
mos
t re
cent
edi
tion
of t
he
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
(Eng
elm
ann
et a
l.,
1999
) on
the
rea
ding
ach
ieve
men
t of
stu
dent
s w
ith re
adin
g di
ffi cu
lties
. Cur
rent
ly, a
ll pu
blis
hed
stud
ies
(Ada
ms
& E
ngel
man
n, 1
996;
Mal
mgr
en
& L
eone
, 200
0; T
hom
pson
, 199
2) u
se th
e 19
88
vers
ion.
Fou
rth,
the
infl u
ence
of t
he C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am o
n th
e fl u
ency
of g
rade
-lev
el
mat
eria
ls a
lso
is a
n ar
ea fo
r re
sear
ch. S
tude
nts
with
cha
lleng
ing
beha
vior
ofte
n ar
e ed
ucat
ed, a
t le
ast s
ome
port
ion
of th
e sc
hool
day
, in
gene
ral
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s.
In
thes
e cl
assr
oom
s,
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
267
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
267
6/6/
06
1:20
:07
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:07
PM
268
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
stud
ents
are
pre
sent
ed w
ith g
rade
-lev
el re
adin
g m
ater
ial t
hat t
hey
are
expe
cted
to d
ecod
e an
d co
mpr
ehen
d. I
f st
uden
ts a
re t
o be
suc
cess
ful
in th
e ge
nera
l edu
catio
n se
tting
, the
n ef
fect
ive
read
ing
inte
rven
tions
m
ust
be
impl
emen
ted
to
help
th
em
read
gr
ade-
leve
l m
ater
ial.
Futu
re r
esea
rch
is n
eede
d to
det
erm
ine
if th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am c
an a
ssis
t stu
dent
s in
rea
ding
gra
de-l
evel
pas
sage
s.Th
e re
sear
ch q
uest
ions
gui
ding
thi
s st
udy
are
as f
ollo
ws:
a)
Wha
t ar
e th
e ef
fect
s of
the
C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
on
th
e or
al
read
ing
fl uen
cy
of
stud
ents
w
ith
read
ing
defi c
its a
nd c
halle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
on w
ithin
-pr
ogra
m p
assa
ges?
b)
Wha
t ar
e th
e ef
fect
s of
th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am o
n th
e or
al
read
ing
fl uen
cy f
or t
hese
stu
dent
s on
gra
de-
leve
l ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
? c)
W
hat
are
the
effe
cts
of t
he C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am
on
the
soci
al
beha
vior
s of
th
ese
stud
ents
as
com
pare
d to
the
ir p
eers
dur
ing
read
ing-
rela
ted
inst
ruct
ion
in b
oth
spec
ial
and
gene
ral
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s? a
nd d
) Wha
t is t
he so
cial
va
lidity
of
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
as
asse
ssed
by
thes
e st
uden
ts a
nd t
heir
spe
cial
ed
ucat
ion
teac
hers
?
Met
hod
Part
icip
ants
Stud
ents
. Se
ven
ethn
ical
ly d
iver
se m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s fr
om t
wo
spec
ial
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed
in
the
stud
y.
Tabl
e
1 re
port
s in
form
atio
n on
ea
ch
part
icip
ant’s
ag
e, d
isab
ility
cat
egor
y, r
eadi
ng a
sses
smen
t, so
cioe
cono
mic
st
atus
, ge
nder
, et
hnic
ity,
inst
ruct
iona
l re
adin
g le
vel,
and
beha
vior
al
prob
lem
s. S
tude
nts
sele
cted
for
par
ticip
atio
n re
ceiv
ed
read
ing
inst
ruct
ion
with
in
the
reso
urce
cl
assr
oom
, ha
d re
adin
g ob
ject
ives
an
d be
havi
oral
obj
ectiv
es o
n th
eir
indi
vidu
al
educ
atio
n pl
an (
IEP)
, w
ere
diag
nose
d w
ith a
m
ild d
isab
ility
(i.e
., EB
D,
LD,
or O
HI
[oth
er
heal
th i
mpa
irm
ent),
and
had
fre
quen
t, se
vere
, an
d in
tens
ive
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s du
ring
re
adin
g in
stru
ctio
n. O
vera
ll, t
hese
six
th a
nd
seve
nth
grad
e st
uden
ts
wer
e re
adin
g 2
to
4 ye
ars
belo
w t
hat
of t
heir
pee
rs a
nd d
aily
di
spla
yed
aggr
essi
ve,
nonc
ompl
iant
, an
d di
srup
tive
beha
vior
s du
ring
rea
ding
inst
ruct
ion
and
read
ing-
rela
ted
activ
ities
. In
ad
ditio
n,
in
revi
ewin
g th
e of
fi ce
disc
iplin
e re
ferr
al
info
rmat
ion
of t
he p
artic
ipan
ts,
they
had
12
to 4
9 re
ferr
als
for
the
curr
ent
scho
ol y
ear
as
com
pare
d to
the
3 or
few
er re
ferr
als f
or st
uden
ts
with
out a
nd w
ith o
ther
dis
abili
ties.
Seve
n ge
nera
l ed
ucat
ion
stud
ents
se
rved
as
co
mpa
riso
ns
duri
ng
beha
vior
al
obse
rvat
ions
w
ithin
th
e ge
nera
l ed
ucat
ion
clas
sroo
ms.
Th
ese
stud
ents
w
ere
sele
cted
ba
sed
on
teac
her
reco
mm
enda
tion.
Th
e te
ache
rs
reco
mm
ende
d th
ree
stud
ents
w
ho
they
tho
ught
exh
ibite
d av
erag
e or
exp
ecte
d be
havi
or fo
r st
uden
ts w
ithou
t dis
abili
ties
in th
e ge
nera
l edu
catio
n cl
assr
oom
. For
eac
h ge
nera
l ed
ucat
ion
clas
sroo
m a
nd f
rom
the
nom
inat
ed
gene
ral
educ
atio
n st
uden
ts,
one
stud
ent
was
TAB
LE 1
Stud
ent
Dem
ogra
phic
s
St
anda
rdiz
ed R
eadi
ng
Age
/
Rac
e/
Free
/Red
uced
G
rade
-Equ
ival
ent
Rea
ding
B
ehav
iora
lSt
uden
t G
ende
r G
rade
Et
hnic
ity
Lunc
h D
isab
ility
1 IQ
2 Sc
ore3
Ass
essm
ent4
Prob
lem
s5
Evan
13
.5/M
ale
7th
His
pani
c Ye
s LD
84
2.
1 20
6 10
John
13
.10/
Mal
e 7t
h A
fric
an-A
mer
. N
o O
HI
99
4.9
268
8, 9
Bill
14
.2/M
ale
7th
Afr
ican
-Am
er.
Yes
OH
I 85
2.
7 33
6 9
Dav
id
12.1
0/M
ale
7th
Afr
ican
-Am
er.
No
EBD
73
2.
4 39
0 9
Tam
my
12.1
/Fem
ale
6th
Afr
ican
-Am
er.
Yes
OH
I 81
3.
0 43
5 10
Ant
hony
11
.6/M
ale
6th
Afr
ican
-Am
er.
Yes
OH
I 86
4.
0 42
6 9,
10
Will
12
.5/M
ale
6th
Afr
ican
-Am
er.
Yes
EBD
87
1.
9 B
R6
8, 9
, 10
1 LD
, lea
rnin
g di
sabi
lity;
OH
I, ot
her
heal
th im
pair
men
t; EB
D, e
mot
iona
l and
beh
avio
ral d
isor
der.
2 Wes
chle
r In
telli
genc
e Sc
ale
for
Chi
ldre
n-III
(WIS
C-I
II) F
ull-
scal
e IQ
Sco
re.
3 Woo
dcoc
k R
eadi
ng M
aste
ry T
est-
Rev
ised
Nor
mat
ive
Upd
ate
(Woo
dcoc
k, 2
000)
Bas
ic S
kills
Clu
ster
Sco
re.
4 Sch
olas
tic R
eadi
ng In
vent
ory
(Sch
olas
tic In
c., 2
000)
. 5 8
, agg
ress
ion;
9, n
onco
mpl
ianc
e; 1
0, d
isru
ptiv
e.6 B
egin
ning
rea
der.
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
268
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
268
6/6/
06
1:20
:11
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:11
PM
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
69
rand
omly
sel
ecte
d fr
om t
he l
ist
to s
erve
as
the
com
pari
son
stud
ent d
urin
g sp
ecifi
c be
havi
oral
ob
serv
atio
ns.
Teac
hers
. Tw
o sp
ecia
l ed
ucat
ion
teac
hers
pa
rtic
ipat
ed i
n th
e st
udy
by i
mpl
emen
ting
the
inte
rven
tion
in t
he r
esou
rce
clas
sroo
ms.
Bot
h he
ld s
tate
cer
tifi c
atio
n fo
r K–1
2 in
lear
ning
and
be
havi
oral
dis
orde
rs a
nd e
ach
had
at l
east
2
year
s of
tea
chin
g ex
peri
ence
. Th
ese
teac
hers
re
ceiv
ed 3
hou
rs o
f tr
aini
ng i
n im
plem
entin
g th
e in
terv
entio
n (i.
e.,
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pr
ogra
m)
befo
re
begi
nnin
g th
e st
udy.
Th
e tr
aini
ng c
onsi
sted
of
a ve
rbal
des
crip
tion
of
the
prog
ram
, a d
emon
stra
tion
and
role
-pla
y of
th
e pr
ogra
m,
and
a de
taile
d ve
rbal
and
vis
ual
desc
ript
ion
and
role
-pla
y of
eac
h in
stru
ctio
nal
step
of
the
prog
ram
. A
fter
the
trai
ning
, th
e te
ache
rs
dem
onst
rate
d 10
0%
accu
racy
in
im
plem
entin
g al
l ste
ps o
f the
pro
gram
.
Sett
ing
We
used
an
urba
n, s
outh
east
ern
publ
ic
mid
dle
scho
ol
with
tw
o sp
ecia
l ed
ucat
ion
reso
urce
cl
assr
oom
s se
rvin
g st
uden
ts
with
em
otio
nal
and
beha
vior
al
diso
rder
s an
d le
arni
ng
disa
bilit
ies
in
this
st
udy.
Se
ssio
ns
wer
e co
nduc
ted
duri
ng
regu
larl
y sc
hedu
led
read
ing
and
lang
uage
art
per
iods
as
clos
e to
a
daily
bas
is a
s po
ssib
le.
Each
ses
sion
las
ted
appr
oxim
atel
y 45
min
utes
and
was
con
duct
ed
over
abo
ut a
3-m
onth
per
iod.
The
res
ourc
e cl
assr
oom
was
use
d fo
r in
terv
entio
n se
ssio
ns
and
for
beha
vior
al o
bser
vatio
ns d
urin
g so
cial
st
udie
s an
d sc
ienc
e pe
riod
s. S
ever
al g
ener
al
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s al
so
wer
e us
ed
for
beha
vior
al o
bser
vatio
ns d
urin
g so
cial
stu
dies
, sc
ienc
e, p
ract
ical
livi
ng, t
echn
olog
y ed
ucat
ion,
an
d he
alth
per
iods
.
Mat
eria
ls
Mat
eria
ls i
nclu
ded
both
the
stu
dent
and
te
ache
r fo
rms
from
th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
(E
ngel
man
n et
al
., 19
99),
the
Woo
dcoc
k R
eadi
ng
Mas
tery
Te
st–R
evis
ed
Nor
mat
ive
Upd
ate
(WR
MT-
RN
U) F
orm
s G a
nd H
(W
oodc
ock,
199
8), p
assa
ges
from
the
Rea
ding
M
aste
ry
prog
ram
(E
ngel
man
n et
al
., 19
88),
beha
vior
al o
bser
vatio
n fo
rms,
and
stu
dent
and
te
ache
r qu
estio
nnai
res.
The
stu
dent
s en
tere
d th
e C
orre
ct R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am a
t an
appr
opri
ate
leve
l ba
sed
on
indi
vidu
ally
ad
min
iste
red
plac
emen
t te
sts
from
th
e pr
ogra
m’s
Seri
es
Gui
de.
In
addi
tion,
w
e de
velo
ped
20
gene
raliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es
from
ei
ther
ge
nera
l
educ
atio
n sc
ienc
e or
soc
ial s
tudi
es g
rade
-lev
el
text
s, e
ach
with
app
roxi
mat
ely
250
wor
ds.
Des
ign
Two
repl
icat
ions
of a
mul
tiple
pro
be d
esig
n ac
ross
stu
dent
s (S
koug
e, T
awne
y, &
Gas
t, 19
84)
wer
e us
ed t
o ev
alua
te t
he e
ffect
iven
ess
of t
he
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
. W
e se
lect
ed a
m
ultip
le p
robe
des
ign
for
the
stud
y be
caus
e of
th
e re
peat
ed e
xpos
ure
of st
uden
ts to
the
read
ing
prob
es;
ther
efor
e, p
erio
dic
base
line
mea
sure
s w
ere
adm
inis
tere
d to
pr
even
t re
activ
ity
of
the
read
ing
prob
es.
Expe
rim
enta
l co
ntro
l w
as
esta
blis
hed
whe
n a
chan
ge i
n th
e de
pend
ent
vari
able
occ
urre
d on
ly a
fter t
he im
plem
enta
tion
of t
he C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am i
n a
time-
lagg
ed
fash
ion.
O
nce
a pa
rtic
ipan
t w
as
intr
oduc
ed t
o th
e in
terv
entio
n, w
e co
llect
ed
peri
odic
ba
selin
e da
ta
on
the
rem
aini
ng
part
icip
ants
on
ce
a w
eek
and
imm
edia
tely
be
fore
impl
emen
ting
the
inte
rven
tion.
Inde
pend
ent V
aria
ble
and
Proc
edur
es
The
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
was
the
in
depe
nden
t va
riab
le
and
was
de
sign
ed
to
impr
ove
the
read
ing
abili
ties
of s
tude
nts
in
the
four
th g
rade
or
high
er w
ho c
urre
ntly
rea
d be
low
gr
ade
leve
l. Th
e pr
ogra
m
prog
ress
es
from
bas
ic w
ord
atta
ck s
kills
to
mor
e di
ffi cu
lt so
und
com
bina
tions
and
wor
ds. T
he s
kills
then
ar
e ap
plie
d in
pas
sage
s of
inc
reas
ing
leng
th
and
com
plex
ity.
Whe
n th
e pr
ogra
m i
s us
ed,
the
teac
her
pres
ents
a s
crip
ted
less
on fo
llow
ed
by a
rea
ding
fl u
ency
pro
be f
rom
the
pro
gram
. Ea
ch i
nstr
uctio
nal
less
on l
aste
d ap
prox
imat
ely
45
min
utes
, w
ith
part
icip
ants
ad
vanc
ing
to
the
next
les
son
once
a c
rite
rion
of
mas
tery
w
as a
chie
ved.
If
a pa
rtic
ipan
t di
d no
t m
eet
the
crite
rion
th
en
anot
her
prog
ram
re
adin
g pr
obe
was
adm
inis
tere
d du
ring
the
fol
low
ing
sche
dule
d se
ssio
n.
Bas
elin
e.
Bas
elin
e da
ta
wer
e co
llect
ed
on e
ach
part
icip
ant’s
ora
l re
adin
g fl u
ency
for
C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ges
and
for
grad
e-le
vel
pass
ages
as
wel
l as
soc
ial
beha
vior
in
both
spe
cial
and
gen
eral
edu
catio
n cl
assr
oom
s du
ring
sch
edul
ed r
eadi
ng a
ctiv
ities
. B
asel
ine
cont
inue
d fo
r ea
ch p
artic
ipan
t fo
r a
min
imum
of
thr
ee s
essi
ons
or u
ntil
base
line
data
for
all
mea
sure
s w
ere
stab
le.
All
part
icip
ants
beg
an
base
line
at t
he s
ame
time;
how
ever
, on
ce o
ne
part
icip
ant w
as in
trod
uced
to th
e in
terv
entio
n,
part
icip
ants
in
the
rem
aini
ng t
iers
wer
e gi
ven
peri
odic
rea
ding
pro
bes.
Dur
ing
the
base
line
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
269
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
269
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1:20
:14
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06
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PM
270
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
cond
ition
, eac
h pa
rtic
ipan
t was
pre
sent
ed w
ith
a re
adin
g pa
ssag
e on
his
/her
inst
ruct
iona
l lev
el
(as
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
e pl
acem
ent d
ata
and
from
th
e R
eadi
ng M
aste
ry p
rogr
am)
and
inst
ruct
ed
to r
ead
the
pass
age
oral
ly.
Part
icip
ants
wer
e gi
ven
a co
nsis
tent
, sc
ript
ed s
et o
f di
rect
ions
fr
om t
he t
each
er (
i.e.,
“I a
m g
oing
to
give
you
a
pass
age
to r
ead,
and
I a
m g
oing
to
time
you
for
one
min
ute
to s
ee h
ow m
any
wor
ds y
ou
read
. Pl
ease
rea
d qu
ickl
y, b
ut n
ot s
o fa
st t
hat
you
mak
e m
ista
kes.
Beg
in.”
) In
terv
entio
n.
Inte
rven
tion
data
w
ere
colle
cted
on
th
e sa
me
mea
sure
s as
du
ring
th
e ba
selin
e co
nditi
on.
Each
in
terv
entio
n se
ssio
n be
gan
with
the
tea
cher
im
plem
entin
g a
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
les
son.
A t
ypic
al l
esso
n in
clud
ed t
he f
ollo
win
g: a
) pa
rtic
ipan
ts i
n th
e in
terv
entio
n ph
ase
rece
ived
ins
truc
tion
in t
he
appr
opri
ate
less
on;
b) e
ach
less
on t
ypic
ally
be
gan
with
ins
truc
tion
on w
ord
atta
ck s
kills
, fo
llow
ed
by
wor
d re
adin
g,
stor
y re
adin
g,
indi
vidu
al r
eadi
ng, t
each
er-d
irec
ted
wor
kboo
k ex
erci
ses,
and
inde
pend
ent w
orkb
ook e
xerc
ises
; an
d c)
at t
he e
nd o
f the
less
on, t
he p
artic
ipan
t w
as g
iven
a C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ge to
read
w
ithin
1 m
inut
e an
d th
e te
ache
r use
d th
e sa
me
scri
pted
dir
ectio
ns f
or t
he r
eadi
ng p
assa
ges
as
in th
e ba
selin
e co
nditi
on. I
f the
par
ticip
ant m
et
the
fl uen
cy c
rite
rion
as
stat
ed in
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pr
ogra
m,
then
th
e pa
rtic
ipan
t ad
vanc
ed to
the
next
less
on a
nd re
adin
g pr
obe.
If
the
part
icip
ant
did
not
mee
t th
e fl u
ency
cr
iteri
on,
the
sam
e le
sson
w
as
repe
ated
, an
d th
en a
diff
eren
t bu
t co
mpa
rabl
e re
adin
g pa
ssag
e w
as a
dmin
iste
red.
At
the
conc
lusi
on
of e
ach
read
ing
prob
e, t
he t
each
er p
rovi
ded
feed
back
to
the
part
icip
ant
(e.g
., “Y
ou d
id a
gr
eat
job
toda
y. Y
ou r
ead
80 w
ords
cor
rect
ly
with
2 e
rror
s in
one
min
ute.
”).
Onc
e th
e fi r
st
part
icip
ant
achi
eved
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pr
ogra
m fl
uenc
y cr
iteri
on, t
hen
the
part
icip
ant
in th
e se
cond
tier
beg
an th
e in
terv
entio
n. O
nce
the
seco
nd p
artic
ipan
t ach
ieve
d cr
iteri
on, t
hen
the
thir
d pa
rtic
ipan
t be
gan
the
inte
rven
tion,
an
d so
on.
Gen
eral
izat
ion.
D
urin
g ba
selin
e an
d in
terv
entio
n co
nditi
ons,
pa
rtic
ipan
ts
wer
e pr
ovid
ed w
ith g
rade
-lev
el p
assa
ges
from
the
ge
nera
l edu
catio
n cu
rric
ulum
to re
ad a
loud
afte
r ev
ery
thir
d se
ssio
n. T
he p
artic
ipan
ts r
ecei
ved
the
sam
e se
t of
dir
ectio
ns f
or t
hese
rea
ding
pr
obes
as
for
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s in
bas
elin
e an
d in
terv
entio
n co
nditi
ons.
Dat
a w
ere
colle
cted
on
the
part
icip
ant’s
ora
l rea
ding
fl u
ency
and
err
ors.
The
stud
ent’s
teac
her a
nd th
e fi r
st a
utho
r se
lect
ed th
ese
grad
e-le
vel p
assa
ges
as p
assa
ges
that
the
stud
ent w
ould
be
aske
d to
read
ind
epen
dent
ly l
ater
in
the
scho
ol y
ear
as
part
of t
heir
sci
ence
and
soc
ial s
tudi
es g
ener
al
educ
atio
n cu
rric
ulum
. Th
e se
lect
ed p
assa
ges
wer
e ty
ped
to r
esem
ble
the
font
and
sty
le o
f th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ges.
In
addi
tion,
to
ens
ure
that
eac
h se
lect
ed p
assa
ge w
as o
f eq
uiva
lent
read
ing
diffi
culty
, we
calc
ulat
ed th
e es
timat
ed r
eada
bilit
y gr
ade
leve
l us
ing
Fry’
s (1
968)
pro
cedu
res.
Eac
h ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
age
was
app
roxi
mat
ely
250
wor
ds l
ong,
and
the
m
ean
grad
e le
vels
wer
e 7.
4 fo
r cl
assr
oom
1
(sev
enth
gra
de)
and
6.3
for
clas
sroo
m 2
(si
xth
grad
e).
Dep
ende
nt V
aria
bles
an
d D
ata
Col
lect
ion
We
colle
cted
da
ta
to
mea
sure
se
vera
l ac
adem
ic a
nd s
ocia
l de
pend
ent
vari
able
s in
th
e st
udy.
Aca
dem
ic M
easu
res.
Ora
l rea
ding
fl ue
ncy,
re
adin
g er
rors
, an
d re
adin
g ac
hiev
emen
t da
ta w
ere
mea
sure
d. T
he t
each
ers
colle
cted
ba
selin
e, in
terv
entio
n, a
nd g
ener
aliz
atio
n da
ta
on e
ach
part
icip
ant’s
ora
l rea
ding
fl ue
ncy.
Ora
l re
adin
g fl u
ency
was
defi
ned
as
the
num
ber
of
corr
ect w
ords
rea
d or
ally
per
min
ute.
Tea
cher
s al
so m
easu
red
the
num
ber o
f ora
l rea
ding
err
ors
each
par
ticip
ant m
ade.
An
oral
read
ing
erro
r was
de
fi ned
as:
(a) a
mis
pron
unci
atio
n of
sou
nds
or
wor
ds, (
b) a
sub
stitu
tion
of w
ords
not
incl
uded
in
the
pas
sage
, (c
) an
add
ition
or
inse
rtio
n of
w
ords
not
in th
e te
xt, (
d) a
pau
se lo
nger
than
3
seco
nds,
(e)
a s
kipp
ed s
ound
or
wor
d, a
nd (
f) a
reve
rsal
of
soun
ds o
r w
ords
. If
a pa
rtic
ipan
t m
ade
reve
rsal
s or
pau
sed,
the
teac
her
used
the
follo
win
g pr
oced
ures
and
cod
ing.
Rev
ersa
ls
of w
ords
wer
e co
ded
as o
ne e
rror
for
eac
h w
ord
read
out
of p
lace
(e.g
., “I
am
” in
the
text
re
ad a
s “a
m I
” is
tw
o er
rors
). Fo
llow
ing
a 3
seco
nd p
ause
, the
teac
her
stat
ed th
e w
ord
that
th
e pa
rtic
ipan
t di
d no
t kn
ow.
The
follo
win
g w
ere
not
code
d as
err
ors:
(a)
sel
f-co
rrec
tions
w
ithin
3
seco
nds
and
(b)
a pr
onun
ciat
ion
that
sou
nded
lik
e ho
w t
he p
artic
ipan
t ta
lks
in c
onve
rsat
ion
(e.g
., ar
ticul
atio
n, p
atte
rn,
or
acce
nt).
The
teac
her
reco
rded
the
tota
l num
ber
of
wor
ds
read
co
rrec
tly
(num
ber
of
wor
ds
read
min
us n
umbe
r of
err
ors)
and
the
num
ber
of e
rror
s w
hile
eac
h pa
rtic
ipan
t or
ally
rea
d a
pass
age
with
in 1
min
ute
at th
e co
nclu
sion
of a
C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng l
esso
n. I
n ad
ditio
n, b
efor
e th
e ba
selin
e co
nditi
on a
nd a
t th
e co
nclu
sion
of
th
e in
terv
entio
n,
each
pa
rtic
ipan
t w
as
adm
inis
tere
d th
e W
oodc
ock
Rea
ding
Mas
tery
Te
st-R
evis
ed N
orm
ativ
e U
pdat
e (W
RM
T-R
NU)
Form
G a
nd F
orm
H, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
BD
_31(
3).in
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_31(
3).in
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270
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06
1:20
:18
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:18
PM
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
71
Soci
al M
easu
res.
Dir
ect
obse
rvat
ion
data
on
par
ticip
ant (
both
thos
e w
ith d
isab
ilitie
s an
d co
mpa
riso
n pe
ers)
be
havi
or
wer
e co
llect
ed
duri
ng
base
line
and
inte
rven
tion
cond
ition
s in
bo
th
the
gene
ral
and
spec
ial
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s w
hile
par
ticip
ants
eng
aged
in
oral
re
adin
g or
sile
nt re
adin
g ac
tiviti
es. O
bser
vatio
ns
wer
e co
unte
rbal
ance
d ac
ross
par
ticip
ants
and
w
ere
mad
e fo
r a
max
imum
of 2
5 m
inut
es o
r a
min
imum
of
10 m
inut
es,
3 tim
es p
er 6
sch
ool
days
. D
urin
g th
e ob
serv
atio
ns,
a 30
s p
artia
l-in
terv
al r
ecor
ding
met
hod
was
use
d to
mar
k th
e oc
curr
ence
of a
ppro
pria
te o
r in
appr
opri
ate
beha
vior
of
both
the
tar
get
part
icip
ants
and
co
mpa
riso
n pe
ers.
A
ppro
pria
te
beha
vior
w
as d
efi n
ed a
s be
ing
in t
heir
ass
igne
d ar
ea,
follo
win
g di
rect
ions
with
in 1
0 s
of th
e re
ques
t, an
d be
ing
on ta
sk.
Inap
prop
riat
e be
havi
or w
as
defi n
ed a
s (a
) ou
t of
are
a, a
ny m
ovem
ent
that
w
as o
ut o
f th
e ar
ea w
here
the
par
ticip
ant
was
as
sign
ed b
y th
e te
ache
r; (
b) n
onco
mpl
ianc
e,
failu
re
of
the
part
icip
ant
to
com
ply
with
te
ache
r di
rect
ions
with
in 1
0 s
of a
req
uest
; (c
) of
f ta
sk,
part
icip
ant’s
eye
s no
t di
rect
ed t
o th
e ta
sk a
t han
d or
at t
he s
peak
er fo
r 3 c
onse
cutiv
e se
cond
s or
long
er; a
nd (d
) dis
rupt
ive
beha
vior
, an
y ph
ysic
al c
onta
ct w
ith a
noth
er p
erso
n or
pe
rson
’s pr
oper
ty
or
any
soun
d cr
eate
d by
th
e pa
rtic
ipan
t th
at d
istr
acte
d th
at p
erso
n, a
pe
er,
or t
he t
each
er f
rom
the
pre
sent
tas
k. T
he
perc
enta
ges o
f int
erva
ls o
f app
ropr
iate
beh
avio
r w
ere
grap
hed
for
each
par
ticip
ant.
Soci
al V
alid
ity
The
part
icip
ants
and
teac
hers
com
plet
ed a
so
cial
val
idity
sur
vey
at t
he c
oncl
usio
n of
the
st
udy.
The
par
ticip
ant a
nd te
ache
r ver
sion
s eac
h ha
d 12
que
stio
ns, 9
with
a 3
-poi
nt L
iker
t sca
le
and
a pr
ompt
for
add
ition
al c
omm
ents
and
3
open
-end
ed q
uest
ions
. F
or t
he p
artic
ipan
t ve
rsio
n, w
e us
ed t
he F
rye
read
abili
ty f
orm
ula
to e
nsur
e th
at t
he p
artic
ipan
ts c
ould
rea
d th
e qu
estio
ns.
In a
dditi
on,
part
icip
ant
resp
onse
s w
ere
tape
reco
rded
to a
void
wri
ting
diffi
culti
es.
On
the
teac
her
vers
ion,
we
also
ask
ed fo
r th
eir
opin
ions
con
cern
ing
the
trai
ning
eac
h re
ceiv
ed
on h
ow to
impl
emen
t the
pro
gram
.
Rel
iabi
lity
Proc
edur
al
and
inte
robs
erve
r re
liabi
lity
was
cod
ed f
or a
t le
ast
20%
of
the
sess
ions
. Th
e fi r
st
auth
or
and
trai
ned
staf
f m
easu
red
proc
edur
al r
elia
bilit
y, w
hich
was
cal
cula
ted
usin
g th
e fo
llow
ing
form
ula
(Bill
ingl
sey,
W
hite
, &
Mun
son,
198
0):
num
ber
of t
each
er
beha
vior
s di
vide
d by
the
num
ber
of p
lann
ed
teac
her
beha
vior
s an
d th
e re
sult
mul
tiplie
d by
100
. Fo
r th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts,
relia
bilit
y w
as
asse
ssed
for
24%
of t
he s
essi
ons
for W
ill, 2
7%
for
Tam
my
and
John
, 29
% f
or E
van,
30%
for
A
ntho
ny a
nd B
ill, a
nd 3
7% fo
r D
avid
. Ave
rage
ag
reem
ent
for
proc
edur
al r
elia
bilit
y w
as 9
6%
(ran
ge,
85 t
o 10
0%)
for
Tam
my,
97%
(ra
nge,
83
to
100%
) fo
r Ev
an,
and
100%
for
Ant
hony
, W
ill,
John
, B
ill,
and
Dav
id. T
he s
ame
pers
ons
mea
sure
d in
tero
bser
ver
relia
bilit
y fo
r th
e re
adin
g pr
obes
, w
hich
was
cal
cula
ted
usin
g th
e fo
llow
ing
form
ula:
num
ber o
f cor
rect
wor
ds
and
erro
r agr
eem
ents
div
ided
by
the
num
ber o
f ag
reem
ents
plu
s th
e nu
mbe
r of
dis
agre
emen
ts
and
the
sum
mul
tiplie
d by
100
. Rel
iabi
lity
was
as
sess
ed f
or 3
0% o
f th
e se
ssio
ns f
or B
ill,
35%
fo
r Tam
my,
36%
for
Dav
id, 4
0% fo
r Jo
hn, 4
1%
for
Will
, 42
% f
or E
van,
and
45%
for
Ant
hony
. A
vera
ge a
gree
men
t for
inte
robs
erve
r re
liabi
lity
was
98.
8% (
rang
e, 9
4 to
100
%)
for
Ant
hony
, 99
.3%
(ra
nge,
97
to 1
00%
) fo
r Ev
an,
99.9
%
(ran
ge,
99 t
o 10
0%)
for T
amm
y, a
nd 1
00%
for
W
ill,
John
, B
ill,
and
Dav
id. T
he s
ame
pers
ons
mea
sure
d in
tero
bser
ver r
elia
bilit
y fo
r the
dir
ect
obse
rvat
ions
, an
d th
e po
int-
by-p
oint
for
mul
a w
as u
sed
to c
alcu
late
thi
s re
liabi
lity
(Taw
ney
et a
l., 1
984)
. R
elia
bilit
y w
as a
sses
sed
for
21%
of
the
sess
ions
for T
amm
y, 2
7% fo
r Dav
id, 2
8%
for
Ant
hony
, 33
% f
or W
ill a
nd E
van,
36%
for
B
ill, a
nd 3
8% fo
r Joh
n. A
vera
ge a
gree
men
t was
93
% (r
ange
, 90
to 1
00%
) for
Eva
n, 9
5% (r
ange
, 90
to 1
00%
) for
Ant
hony
, Will
, and
Dav
id, 9
6%
(ran
ge, 9
3 to
100
%) f
or Jo
hn, 9
6% (r
ange
, 90
to
100%
) fo
r B
ill,
and
97%
(ra
nge,
90
to 1
00%
) fo
r Tam
my.
Res
ults
We
sum
mar
ize
the
effe
cts
of th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am se
para
tely
for e
ach
part
icip
ant
in r
elat
ion
to t
heir
rea
ding
fl u
ency
beh
avio
r an
d th
en i
n re
latio
n to
the
ir s
ocia
l be
havi
or,
and
disc
uss
the
soci
al v
alid
ity o
f the
pro
gram
.R
eadi
ng B
ehav
ior.
The
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
the
C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
on
pa
rtic
ipan
t or
al r
eadi
ng fl
uen
cy i
s ill
ustr
ated
in
Figu
res
1 (c
lass
room
1) a
nd 2
(cla
ssro
om 2
) and
des
crib
ed
in T
able
2 (
clas
sroo
ms
1 an
d 2)
. O
ral
fl uen
cy
gene
raliz
atio
n fo
r pa
rtic
ipan
ts i
s ill
ustr
ated
in
Figu
re 3
(cla
ssro
om 1
) and
Fig
ure
4 (c
lass
room
2)
and
des
crib
ed T
able
2. T
able
3 g
ives
pre
- and
po
stte
st r
eadi
ng a
chie
vem
ent
data
(st
anda
rd
scor
es a
nd g
rade
equ
ival
enci
es).
A o
ne-t
aile
d t t
est r
evea
led
a si
gnifi
cant
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
the
pret
est
scor
es (
M =
74.
4286
, SD
= 1
0.75
)
BD
_31(
3).in
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271
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_31(
3).in
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271
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06
1:20
:22
PM
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06
1:20
:22
PM
272
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
Figu
re 1
. Cla
ssro
om 1
: Ora
l rea
ding
fl ue
ncy
on w
ithi
n pr
ogra
m p
assa
ges
wit
h cr
iter
ia.1,
2
0
510
1520
25
510
1520
25
510
1520
25
510
1520
25
20406080100
120 020406080100
120 020406080100
120 020406080100
120
Number of Words Per Minute
Sess
ion
s
Evan
CW
PMEr
rors
Bas
elin
eC
orr
ecti
ve R
ead
ing
Pass
ages
1C
orr
ecti
ve R
ead
ing
Pass
ages
2
Joh
n
Bill
Dav
id
Not
e. 1 C
rite
ria
= 9
0 w
ords
per
min
ute
with
3 o
r fe
wer
err
ors;
2 Cri
teri
a =
95
wor
ds p
er m
inut
e w
ith 3
or
few
er e
rror
s;
dash
ed li
ne m
eans
intr
oduc
tion
of n
ew C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ge.
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
272
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
272
6/6/
06
1:20
:26
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:26
PM
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
73
Figu
re 2
. Cla
ssro
om 2
: Ora
l rea
ding
fl ue
ncy
on w
ithi
n pr
ogra
m p
assa
ges
wit
h cr
iter
ia.1,
2,3
0
510
1520
2530
20406080100
120
140
Number of Words Per Minute
Sess
ion
s
Tam
my C
WP M
Erro
rs
Bas
elin
eC
orr
ecti
ve R
ead
ing
Pas
sage
s C
rite
ria1
,2C
orr
ecti
ve R
ead
ing
Pas
sage
s C
rite
ria3
An
tho
ny
Will
0
510
1520
2530
20406080100
120
140 0
510
1520
2530
20406080100
120
140
Not
e. 1 C
rite
ria
= 9
0 w
ords
per
min
ute
with
3 o
r fe
wer
err
ors
for T
amm
y an
d A
ntho
ny; 2 C
rite
ria
= 5
5 w
ords
per
min
ute
with
3 o
r fe
wer
err
ors
for W
ill; 3 C
rite
ria
= 9
5 w
ords
per
min
ute
with
3 o
r fe
wer
err
ors
for T
amm
y an
d A
ntho
ny; d
ashe
d lin
e m
eans
in
trod
uctio
n of
new
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
.
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
273
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
273
6/6/
06
1:20
:26
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:26
PM
274
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
Figu
re 3
. Cla
ssro
om 1
: Ora
l rea
ding
fl ue
ncy
on g
rade
leve
l pas
sage
s.
0
109
87
65
43
21
20 10304070 60 5090 80100 0
109
87
65
43
21
20 10304070 60 5090 80100 0
109
87
65
43
21
20 10304070 60 5090 80100 0
109
87
65
43
21
20 10304070 60 5090 80100
Number of Words Per Minute
Key
: CW
PM
Evan
Erro
rs
Bas
elin
eG
rad
e Le
vel P
assa
ges
Du
rin
g C
orr
ecti
ve R
ead
ing
Sess
ion
s
Joh
n
Bill
Dav
id
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
274
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
274
6/6/
06
1:20
:27
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:27
PM
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
75
Figu
re 4
. Cla
ssro
om 2
: Ora
l rea
ding
fl ue
ncy
on g
rade
leve
l pas
sage
s.
109
87
65
43
21
Number of Words Per MinuteB
asel
ine
Gra
de
Leve
l Pas
sage
s D
uri
ng
Co
rrec
tive
Rea
din
g
Sess
ion
s
Will
110
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
109
87
65
43
21
An
tho
ny
110
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Key
: CW
PM
Tam
my
Erro
rs
109
87
65
43
21
110
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
275
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
275
6/6/
06
1:20
:27
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:27
PM
276
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
and
post
test
sco
res
(M =
79.
7143
, SD
= 7
.49)
. Th
e ob
tain
ed t
(6)
valu
e of
3.2
745
was
gre
ater
th
an t
he c
ritic
al t
(6)
of 3
.143
for
α1
< .
01,
sugg
estin
g th
at th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
rogr
am
may
hav
e co
ntri
bute
d to
the
impr
oved
rea
ding
ab
ilitie
s of
the
part
icip
ants
. Ev
an. E
van
mad
e re
adin
g fl u
ency
gai
ns o
n ea
ch
pass
age
pres
ente
d du
ring
in
terv
entio
n an
d co
mpl
eted
11
le
sson
s (2
1 in
terv
entio
n se
ssio
ns).
Dur
ing
base
line
for
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s, h
is re
adin
g ra
te ra
nged
from
76
cor
rect
wor
ds p
er m
inut
e (c
wpm
) w
ith 1
0 er
rors
to
90 c
wpm
with
7 e
rror
s. H
is r
eadi
ng
rate
dur
ing
inte
rven
tion
for
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pa
ssag
es r
ange
d fr
om 5
8 cw
pm w
ith 6
err
ors
to 1
17 c
wpm
with
0 e
rror
s. D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r gen
eral
izat
ion
pass
ages
, Eva
n’s
read
ing
rate
ra
nged
fro
m 3
5 cw
pm w
ith 1
2 er
rors
to
45
cwpm
with
16
erro
rs.
His
rea
ding
rat
e du
ring
in
terv
entio
n fo
r gen
eral
izat
ion
pass
ages
rang
ed
from
53
cwpm
with
4 e
rror
s to
80
cwpm
w
ith 4
err
ors.
Bot
h Ev
an’s
stan
dard
and
gra
de
equi
vale
nt
scor
es
incr
ease
d on
th
e po
stte
st
WR
MT-
R.
John
. Jo
hn m
ade
read
ing
fl uen
cy g
ains
on
each
pa
ssag
e pr
esen
ted
duri
ng
inte
rven
tion
and
com
plet
ed
11
less
ons
(11
inte
rven
tion
sess
ions
). D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
pass
ages
, hi
s re
adin
g ra
te
rang
ed
from
73
cwpm
with
1 e
rror
to 9
0 cw
pm w
ith 4
er
rors
. H
is r
eadi
ng r
ate
duri
ng i
nter
vent
ion
for
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s ra
nged
fro
m 9
2 cw
pm w
ith 3
err
ors
to 1
14 c
wpm
with
1 e
rror
. D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
, Jo
hn’s
read
ing
rate
ran
ged
from
71
cwpm
with
4
erro
rs to
79
cwpm
with
4 e
rror
s. H
is r
eadi
ng
rate
du
ring
in
terv
entio
n fo
r ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
ran
ged
from
88
cwpm
with
2 e
rror
s to
93
cwpm
with
1 e
rror
. Bot
h Jo
hn’s
stan
dard
an
d gr
ade
equi
vale
nt s
core
s in
crea
sed
on t
he
post
test
WR
MT-
R.
Bill
. B
ill m
ade
min
imal
rea
ding
fl u
ency
ga
ins
on
each
pa
ssag
e pr
esen
ted
duri
ng
inte
rven
tion
and
com
plet
ed
six
less
ons
(six
TAB
LE 2
Cla
ssro
oms
1 an
d 2:
Mea
n N
umbe
r of
Cor
rect
Wor
ds p
er M
inut
e an
d Er
rors
on
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
Pas
sage
s an
d G
ener
aliz
atio
n Pa
ssag
es
Bas
elin
e M
ean1 /
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Mea
n2 In
terv
enti
on M
ean1 /
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Mea
n2
Stud
ent
Cor
rect
Er
rors
C
orre
ct
Erro
rs
Cla
ssro
om 1
Ev
an
81.7
/39
8.3/
13.3
88
.6/6
8.4
1.9/
3.9
Jo
hn
81.5
/75.
3 2.
8/4.
3 10
5.1/
90.4
1.
1/1.
8
Bill
97
.3/7
4.7
7/13
.3
115.
7/93
.7
2.2/
5
Dav
id
91/3
8.7
4.3/
14
102/
53
2/8
Cla
ssro
om 2
Ta
mm
y 11
2.4/
68
5.2/
16
121.
5/87
.3
1.7/
10.4
A
ntho
ny
73.6
/47
3.7/
7.7`
10
0.2/
69.5
1.
6/5
W
ill
45.4
/13
6/12
.3
68.5
/39
1.3/
73
1 Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s.2 G
rade
-lev
el p
assa
ges
from
gen
eral
edu
catio
n cu
rric
ulum
. TAB
LE 3
Stan
dard
Sco
res
and
Gra
de E
quiv
alen
ts o
n th
e W
oodc
ock
Rea
ding
Mas
tery
Tes
t—R
evis
ed N
orm
ativ
e U
pdat
e
Sta
ndar
d Sc
ores
G
rade
Equ
ival
ents
Num
ber
of C
RSt
uden
t Pr
etes
t Po
stte
st
Dif
fere
nce
Pret
est
Post
test
D
iffe
renc
e Le
sson
s C
ompl
eted
Evan
65
74
+
9 2.
3 3.
0 +
0.7
12Jo
hn
84
87
+3
4.7
5.3
+0.
6 12
Bill
68
73
+
5 2.
7 3.
3
+0.
6 7
Dav
id
71
75
+4
2.6
3.2
+2.
6 6
Tam
my
80
87
+7
3.0
4.2
+1.
2 20
Ant
hony
91
89
-2
4.
4 4.
2 -0
.2
14W
ill
62
73
+11
1.
8 2.
8 +
1.0
11
BD
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06
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:27
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06
1:20
:27
PM
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
77
inte
rven
tion
sess
ions
). D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ges,
his
rea
ding
rat
e ra
nged
fro
m 9
4 cw
pm w
ith 8
err
ors
to 1
01
cwpm
with
7 e
rror
s. H
is r
eadi
ng r
ate
duri
ng
inte
rven
tion
for
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s ra
nged
fro
m 1
03 c
wpm
with
2 e
rror
s to
126
cw
pm
with
2
erro
rs.
Dur
ing
base
line
for
gene
raliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es,
Bill
’s re
adin
g ra
te
rang
ed f
rom
60
cwpm
with
16
erro
rs t
o 86
cw
pm w
ith 1
4 er
rors
. H
is r
eadi
ng r
ate
duri
ng
inte
rven
tion
for g
ener
aliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es ra
nged
fr
om 9
3 cw
pm w
ith 5
err
ors
to 9
4 cw
pm w
ith 4
er
rors
. Bot
h B
ill’s
stan
dard
and
gra
de e
quiv
alen
t sc
ores
incr
ease
d on
the
post
test
WR
MT-
R.
Dav
id.
Dav
id
mad
e m
oder
ate
read
ing
fl uen
cy
gain
s on
ea
ch
pass
age
pres
ente
d du
ring
inte
rven
tion
and
com
plet
ed fi
ve le
sson
s (fi
ve
inte
rven
tion
sess
ions
). D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ges,
his
rea
ding
ra
te r
ange
d fr
om 8
5 cw
pm w
ith 7
err
ors
to
99
cwpm
w
ith
4 er
rors
. H
is
read
ing
rate
du
ring
in
terv
entio
n fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
pass
ages
ran
ged
from
90
cwpm
with
3 e
rror
s to
106
cw
pm w
ith 2
err
ors.
Dur
ing
base
line
for
gene
raliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es,
Dav
id’s
read
ing
rate
rang
ed fr
om 3
6 cw
pm w
ith 1
2 er
rors
to 4
2 cw
pm w
ith 1
4 er
rors
. H
is r
eadi
ng r
ate
duri
ng
inte
rven
tion
for g
ener
aliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es ra
nged
fr
om 4
1 cw
pm w
ith 1
5 er
rors
to 6
0 cw
pm w
ith
5 er
rors
. B
oth
Dav
id’s
stan
dard
an
d gr
ade
equi
vale
nt
scor
es
incr
ease
d on
th
e po
stte
st
WR
MT-
R.
Tam
my.
Ta
mm
y m
ade
min
imal
re
adin
g fl u
ency
ga
ins
on
each
pa
ssag
e pr
esen
ted
duri
ng i
nter
vent
ion
and
com
plet
ed 1
9 le
sson
s (1
9 in
terv
entio
n le
sson
s).
Dur
ing
base
line
for
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s, h
er r
eadi
ng
rate
ran
ged
from
98
cwpm
with
7 e
rror
s to
13
3 cw
pm w
ith 5
err
ors.
Her
rea
ding
rat
e du
ring
in
terv
entio
n fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
pass
ages
ran
ged
from
98
cwpm
with
1 e
rror
to
144
cw
pm w
ith 3
err
ors.
Dur
ing
base
line
for
gene
raliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es,
Tam
my’
s re
adin
g ra
te r
ange
d fr
om 5
0 cw
pm w
ith 2
1 er
rors
to
86 c
wpm
with
12
erro
rs.
Her
rea
ding
rat
e du
ring
inte
rven
tion
for
gene
raliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es
rang
ed f
rom
71
cwpm
with
16
erro
rs t
o 10
3 cw
pm w
ith 1
2 er
rors
. B
oth
Tam
my’
s st
anda
rd
and
grad
e eq
uiva
lent
sco
res
incr
ease
d on
the
po
stte
st W
RM
T-R
. A
ntho
ny.
Ant
hony
mad
e re
adin
g fl u
ency
ga
ins
on
each
pa
ssag
e pr
esen
ted
duri
ng
inte
rven
tion
and
com
plet
ed
13
less
ons
(13
inte
rven
tion
sess
ions
). D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ges,
his
rea
ding
rat
e ra
nged
fro
m 6
4 cw
pm w
ith 3
err
ors
to 8
8 cw
pm w
ith 4
err
ors.
His
rea
ding
rat
e du
ring
inte
rven
tion
for
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s ra
nged
fro
m 9
4 cw
pm w
ith 0
err
ors
to 1
20
cwpm
w
ith
3 er
rors
. D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
, A
ntho
ny’s
read
ing
rate
ran
ged
from
39
cwpm
with
11
erro
rs t
o 63
cw
pm w
ith 6
err
ors.
His
read
ing
rate
dur
ing
inte
rven
tion
for g
ener
aliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es ra
nged
fr
om 5
8 cw
pm w
ith 9
err
ors
to 7
9 cw
pm w
ith
3 er
rors
. B
oth
Ant
hony
’s st
anda
rd a
nd g
rade
eq
uiva
lent
sco
res
decr
ease
d on
the
pos
ttest
W
RM
T-R
.W
ill.
Will
mad
e re
adin
g fl u
ency
gai
ns o
n ea
ch p
assa
ge p
rese
nted
dur
ing
inte
rven
tion
and
com
plet
ed 1
1 le
sson
s (13
inte
rven
tion
sess
ions
). H
e pl
aced
at
a lo
wer
ins
truc
tiona
l le
vel
than
hi
s pe
ers.
D
urin
g ba
selin
e fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ges,
his
read
ing
rate
rang
ed fr
om
44 c
wpm
with
8 e
rror
s to
47
cwpm
with
5
erro
rs.
His
rea
ding
rat
e du
ring
int
erve
ntio
n fo
r C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng p
assa
ges
rang
ed f
rom
51
cwpm
with
3 e
rror
s to
97
cwpm
with
0 e
rror
s.
Dur
ing
base
line
for
gene
raliz
atio
n pa
ssag
es,
Will
’s re
adin
g ra
te ra
nged
from
8 c
wpm
with
12
erro
rs t
o 16
cw
pm w
ith 1
2 er
rors
. H
is r
eadi
ng
rate
du
ring
in
terv
entio
n fo
r ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
ran
ged
from
19
cwpm
with
12
erro
rs
to 5
2 cw
pm w
ith 5
err
ors.
Bot
h W
ill’s
stan
dard
an
d gr
ade
equi
vale
nt s
core
s in
crea
sed
on t
he
post
test
WR
MT-
R.
Soci
al B
ehav
ior.
Fig
ures
5 (
clas
sroo
m 1
) an
d 6
(cla
ssro
om
2)
illus
trat
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts’
beha
vior
al
data
. O
vera
ll,
the
appr
opri
ate
soci
al
beha
vior
s fo
r th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts
and
com
pari
son
peer
s w
ere
vari
able
ac
ross
th
e sp
ecia
l an
d ge
nera
l ed
ucat
ion
setti
ngs
duri
ng
read
ing-
rela
ted
activ
ities
. G
ener
ally
, Jo
hn,
Bill
, D
avid
, an
d W
ill
disp
laye
d de
crea
sing
pe
rcen
tage
s of
ap
prop
riat
e be
havi
or
acro
ss
both
th
e sp
ecia
l an
d ge
nera
l ed
ucat
ion
setti
ngs
duri
ng
the
inte
rven
tion
cond
ition
s,
whe
reas
Eva
n di
spla
yed
over
all
incr
ease
s in
ap
prop
riat
e be
havi
or d
urin
g th
e in
terv
entio
n in
bot
h se
tting
s. T
amm
y’s
beha
vior
was
the
m
ost
vari
able
, an
d sh
e di
spla
yed
over
all
incr
ease
s in
her
app
ropr
iate
beh
avio
rs i
n th
e ge
nera
l ed
ucat
ion
setti
ng a
s co
mpa
red
to t
he
spec
ial
educ
atio
n se
tting
w
here
as
Ant
hony
di
spla
yed
the
inve
rse.
No
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
the
part
icip
ant’s
soc
ial
beha
vior
and
tha
t of
th
eir
peer
s co
uld
be m
ade
with
the
obs
erve
d in
terv
als.
Soci
al V
alid
ity.
Six
part
icip
ants
ind
icat
ed
that
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
hel
ped
impr
ove
thei
r re
adin
g ab
ilitie
s an
d th
at t
hey
liked
th
e re
adin
g pa
ssag
es;
how
ever
, fo
ur
did
not
know
if
they
wou
ld l
ike
to u
se t
he
prog
ram
aga
in.
Bot
h te
ache
rs i
ndic
ated
tha
t
BD
_31(
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277
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
277
6/6/
06
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:30
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:30
PM
278
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
Figu
re 5
. Cla
ssro
om 1
: App
ropr
iate
stu
dent
beh
avio
rs in
sp
ecia
l and
gen
eral
edu
cati
on c
lass
room
s.1,
2
Not
e. 1 S
PED
, spe
cial
edu
catio
n cl
assr
oom
s; 2 G
EN, g
ener
al e
duca
tion
clas
sroo
ms.
0
12
34
56
79
810
1112
1314
20 10304070 60 5090 80100
Percentage of Intervals of Appropriate Behavior
Key
: Evan
-SPE
D1
Peer
-SPE
D
Evan
-GEN
2
Peer
-GEN
Bas
elin
eIn
terv
enti
on
0
12
34
56
79
810
1112
1314
20 10304070 60 5090 80100
Key
: Joh
n-S
PED
1
Peer
-SPE
D
Joh
n-G
EN2
Peer
-GEN
0
12
34
56
79
810
1112
1314
20 10304070 60 5090 80100
Key
: Dav
id-S
PED
1
Peer
-SPE
D
Dav
id-G
EN2
Peer
-GEN
0
12
34*
5*6
79
8
*
1110
*12
1314
20 10304070 60 5090 80100
Key
: Bill
-SPE
D1
Peer
-SPE
D
Bill
-GEN
2
Peer
-GEN
Safe
Sess
ion
s
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
278
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
278
6/6/
06
1:20
:34
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:34
PM
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
79
Figu
re 6
. Cla
ssro
om 2
: App
ropr
iate
stu
dent
beh
avio
rs in
sp
ecia
l and
gen
eral
edu
cati
on c
lass
room
s.1,
2
0
510
1520
25
20 10304070 60 5090 80100
Percentage of Intervals of Appropriate Behavior
Key
: Tam
my-
SPED
1
Peer
-SPE
D
Tam
my-
GEN
2
Peer
-GEN
Bas
elin
eIn
terv
enti
on
0
510
1520
25
20 10304070 60 5090 80100 0
510
1520
25
20 10304070 60 5090 80100
Sess
ion
s
Safe
Sub
stit
ute
Tea
cher
* Key
: An
tho
ny-
SPED
1
Peer
-SPE
D
An
tho
ny-
GEN
2
Peer
-GEN
Safe
Sub
stit
ute
Tea
cher
* Key
: Will
-SPE
D1
Peer
-SPE
D
Will
-GEN
2
Peer
-GEN
Safe
Sub
stit
ute
Tea
cher
*
**
*
*
*
Not
e. 1 S
PED
, spe
cial
edu
catio
n cl
assr
oom
s; 2 G
EN, g
ener
al e
duca
tion
clas
sroo
ms.
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
279
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
279
6/6/
06
1:20
:35
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:35
PM
280
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pro
gram
im
prov
ed t
he
read
ing
abili
ties
of
thei
r st
uden
ts,
that
th
ey
wou
ld
cont
inue
to
im
plem
ent
the
prog
ram
, an
d th
at t
hey
felt
prep
ared
to
impl
emen
t th
e pr
ogra
m.
Dis
cuss
ion
This
st
udy
exam
ined
th
e ef
fect
s of
th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
on
th
e re
adin
g ab
ility
an
d cl
assr
oom
be
havi
ors
of
seve
n et
hnic
ally
div
erse
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts
with
se
vere
an
d in
tens
ive
chal
leng
ing
beha
vior
s an
d re
adin
g di
ffi cu
lties
. The
fi n
ding
s fr
om t
his
stud
y ad
d to
the
res
earc
h ba
se t
hat
supp
orts
th
e be
nefi t
s of
D
irec
t In
stru
ctio
n on
th
e re
adin
g pe
rfor
man
ces
of s
tude
nts
with
mild
di
sabi
litie
s (L
aCav
a, 1
992;
Mal
mgr
en &
Leo
ne,
2000
; Th
orne
, 19
78).
This
stu
dy e
xten
ded
the
Mal
mgr
en a
nd L
eone
stu
dy i
n te
rms
of a
ge
of
part
icip
ants
, se
tting
, an
d th
e us
e of
th
e m
ost
rece
nt e
ditio
n of
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pr
ogra
m.
In a
dditi
on,
the
resu
lts s
ugge
st t
hat
the
new
est
vers
ion
of t
he C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
pos
itive
ly a
ffect
ed t
he s
tude
nts’
ora
l re
adin
g fl u
ency
. The
fi n
ding
s lin
ked
to r
eadi
ng
perf
orm
ance
of
bo
th
the
inst
ruct
iona
l-le
vel
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
s an
d ge
nera
lizat
ion
grad
e-le
vel p
assa
ges,
and
par
ticip
ant b
ehav
iors
du
ring
re
adin
g in
stru
ctio
n,
are
sum
mar
ized
be
low
w
ith
stud
y lim
itatio
ns
and
futu
re
dire
ctio
ns fo
llow
ing.
Part
icip
ant
Rea
ding
Per
form
ance
We
had
seve
ral
posi
tive
fi ndi
ngs
rela
ted
to
part
icip
ant
read
ing
perf
orm
ance
. Fi
rst,
all
part
icip
ants
’ cw
pm
inte
rven
tion
mea
ns
exce
eded
th
e cw
pm
base
line
mea
ns.
Five
pa
rtic
ipan
ts d
emon
stra
ted
thes
e ga
ins
duri
ng
the
fi rst
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
pas
sage
read
dur
ing
the
inte
rven
tion
cond
ition
. A
ntho
ny h
ad t
he
high
est
gain
in
mea
n cw
pm,
from
bas
elin
e (7
3.6)
to in
terv
entio
n (1
00.2
), w
here
as E
van
had
the
low
est
gain
in
mea
n cw
pm,
from
bas
elin
e (8
1.7)
to
inte
rven
tion
(88.
6).
In a
dditi
on,
all
part
icip
ants
ha
d a
redu
ctio
n in
th
e m
ean
num
ber
of e
rror
s fr
om b
asel
ine
to in
terv
entio
n,
ther
eby
mai
ntai
ning
hig
h ra
tes
of a
ccur
acy
as
thei
r re
adin
g ra
tes
incr
ease
d. T
hese
fi n
ding
s su
ppor
t the
impo
rtan
ce o
f mai
ntai
ning
rea
ding
ac
cura
cy w
hile
incr
easi
ng re
adin
g ra
te (C
arni
ne
et a
l., 1
997)
.Se
cond
, ea
ch
part
icip
ant
also
sh
owed
su
bsta
ntia
l evi
denc
e of
tran
sfer
of fl
uen
cy g
ains
to
the
gra
de-l
evel
gen
eral
izat
ion
pass
ages
. A
ll
part
icip
ants
dem
onst
rate
d an
inc
reas
e in
the
m
ean
cwpm
and
a r
educ
tion
in t
he n
umbe
r of
er
rors
fr
om
base
line
to
inte
rven
tion.
Fo
r ex
ampl
e,
Evan
ha
d th
e hi
ghes
t ga
in
acro
ss
cond
ition
s w
ith a
mea
n 39
cw
pm i
n ba
selin
e to
68.
4 cw
pm i
n in
terv
entio
n an
d D
avid
had
th
e lo
wes
t ga
in a
cros
s co
nditi
ons
with
a m
ean
of 3
8.7
cwpm
in
base
line
to 5
3 cw
pm i
n th
e in
terv
entio
n.Th
ird,
six
of
the
seve
n pa
rtic
ipan
ts’
over
all
read
ing
abili
ty i
ncre
ased
as
indi
cate
d on
the
W
oodc
ock
John
son
Rea
ding
M
aste
ry
Test
. St
atis
tical
ly
sign
ifi ca
nt
pret
est
to
post
test
ga
ins
wer
e ob
serv
ed f
or t
he c
ombi
ned
grou
p.
For
exam
ple,
Dav
id i
ncre
ased
fro
m a
gra
de
equi
vale
ncy
of 2
.6 t
o 3.
2 af
ter
6 C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng le
sson
s, a
nd W
ill in
crea
sed
from
a 1
.8
to a
2.8
afte
r 11
les
sons
. M
ost
of t
he s
tude
nts
mad
e gr
ade-
equi
vale
ncy
gain
s ov
er
a sh
ort
peri
od
of
time
whe
n co
mpl
etin
g a
limite
d nu
mbe
r of l
esso
ns, w
hich
als
o w
as fo
und
in th
e M
alm
gren
and
Leo
ne (2
000)
stu
dy.
Four
th,
fi ve
of
the
seve
n st
uden
ts
met
re
adin
g cr
iteri
a to
mov
e to
the
nex
t C
orre
ct
Rea
ding
le
sson
w
ith
a si
ngle
in
terv
entio
n le
sson
. B
oth
Evan
and
Will
nee
ded
mul
tiple
in
terv
entio
n se
ssio
ns t
o re
ach
the
crite
rion
for
si
x le
sson
s an
d on
e le
sson
, res
pect
ivel
y.
Part
icip
ant
Beh
avio
r Pe
rfor
man
ce
The
resu
lts o
f th
is s
tudy
did
not
est
ablis
h a
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
impr
oved
ora
l re
adin
g fl u
ency
an
d a
redu
ctio
n of
in
appr
opri
ate
beha
vior
fo
r th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts.
Non
e of
th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts
dem
onst
rate
d im
prov
emen
t in
th
eir
soci
al b
ehav
ior
duri
ng t
he i
nter
vent
ion
cond
ition
whe
n en
gage
d in
rea
ding
act
iviti
es
outs
ide
the
Cor
rect
ive
Rea
ding
se
ssio
ns.
The
vari
abili
ty
in
the
part
icip
ants
’ so
cial
be
havi
or m
ay b
e du
e to
sev
eral
fac
tors
. Fi
rst,
the
task
dem
ands
acr
oss
the
setti
ngs
vari
ed;
ther
efor
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts e
ngag
ed i
n ap
prop
riat
e or
ina
ppro
pria
te b
ehav
ior
larg
ely
depe
nden
t on
w
hat
dem
ands
w
ere
in
plac
e.
Seco
nd,
teac
her
beha
vior
s va
ried
acr
oss
the
diffe
rent
se
tting
s ob
serv
ed,
with
the
spe
cifi c
infl
uen
ce
of s
uch
teac
her
beha
vior
s on
stu
dent
beh
avio
r re
mai
ning
unk
now
n. T
hird
, ea
ch p
artic
ipan
t de
mon
stra
ted
min
imal
tre
atm
ent
effe
cts,
and
th
ese
effe
cts
may
ac
coun
t fo
r th
e la
ck
of
posi
tive
infl u
ence
on
stud
ent
soci
al b
ehav
iors
du
ring
oth
er r
eadi
ng-r
elat
ed a
ctiv
ities
.
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
280
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
280
6/6/
06
1:20
:35
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:35
PM
Beh
avio
ral D
isor
ders
, 31
(3),
265–
283
May
200
6 / 2
81
Lim
itat
ions
and
Fut
ure
Dir
ecti
ons
Seve
ral
limita
tions
of
this
stu
dy w
arra
nt
men
tion
and
coul
d be
impr
oved
on
with
futu
re
rese
arch
. Fi
rst,
the
part
icip
ants
had
a w
ide
rang
e of
rea
ding
abi
litie
s. T
hus,
som
e m
oved
m
ore
rapi
dly
thro
ugh
the
less
ons
than
oth
ers.
Fo
r ex
ampl
e, E
van
requ
ired
mor
e in
stru
ctio
n to
m
eet
crite
ria
than
ot
her
part
icip
ants
. If
othe
r pa
rtic
ipan
ts w
ere
in h
is r
eadi
ng g
roup
, th
en t
heir
pro
gres
s w
ould
hav
e be
en s
low
ed.
Futu
re r
esea
rch
may
wan
t to
grou
p st
uden
ts o
f si
mila
r re
adin
g fl u
ency
lev
els;
how
ever
, th
is
is a
cha
lleng
e gi
ven
the
wid
e ra
nge
of a
bilit
y le
vels
am
ong
stud
ents
in
spec
ial
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s.Se
cond
, ea
ch
part
icip
ant’s
ba
ckgr
ound
an
d pr
efer
ence
of
read
ing
mat
eria
l m
ay h
ave
infl u
ence
d th
e da
ta
from
th
e gr
ade-
leve
l ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
. Th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts’
read
ing
diffi
culti
es
(see
Ta
ble
1 fo
r re
adin
g sc
ores
) an
d su
bseq
uent
ab
ility
to
in
depe
nden
tly a
nd a
ccur
atel
y re
ad t
ext
from
gr
ade-
leve
l m
ater
ials
is
an i
mpo
rtan
t is
sue.
In
man
y ca
ses,
stu
dent
s w
ith k
now
n re
adin
g di
ffi cu
lties
are
ask
ed t
o re
ad s
ubje
ct t
exts
in
gene
ral
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s th
at h
ave
not
been
ada
pted
to
mat
ch t
heir
abi
litie
s. S
uch
was
the
case
in th
is s
tudy
whe
re p
artic
ipan
ts in
cl
assr
oom
1 h
ad a
n av
erag
e gr
ade-
equi
vale
nt
scor
e of
3.0
and
cla
ssro
om 2
had
an
aver
age
scor
e of
2.9
whi
le th
e ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
w
ere
four
and
thr
ee g
rade
lev
els
abov
e th
at
of t
he s
tude
nts’
abi
litie
s, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
Fut
ure
rese
arch
may
wan
t to
ass
ess
the
effe
cts
of
clos
er
mat
ches
be
twee
n st
uden
ts’
abili
ty
and
subj
ect
grad
e-le
vel
text
on
oral
rea
ding
fl u
ency
. In
ad
ditio
n,
if pa
rtic
ipan
ts
wer
e in
tere
sted
in
the
subj
ect
mat
ter
of t
he p
assa
ge
or
had
posi
tive
hist
orie
s in
th
ese
gene
ral
educ
atio
n cl
assr
oom
s, t
heir
per
form
ance
may
ha
ve b
een
affe
cted
. Sev
eral
of t
he p
artic
ipan
ts
verb
ally
pro
test
ed t
heir
lac
k of
cho
ice
once
ex
pose
d to
a g
ener
aliz
atio
n pa
ssag
e. F
utur
e re
sear
ch c
ould
foc
us o
n pr
ovid
ing
stud
ents
w
ith c
halle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
with
a c
hoic
e of
ge
nera
lizat
ion
pass
ages
. G
ivin
g ch
oice
s to
st
uden
ts
with
ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
ors
duri
ng
acad
emic
act
iviti
es h
as r
esul
ted
in i
ncre
ased
ac
adem
ic e
ngag
emen
t an
d ac
cura
cy a
s w
ell
as
decr
ease
d in
appr
opri
ate
beha
vior
(e
.g.,
Cla
rke
et a
l., 1
995;
Jol
ivet
te,
Weh
by,
Can
ale,
&
Mas
sey,
200
1).
Thir
d,
the
num
ber
of
beha
vior
al
obse
rvat
ions
co
nduc
ted
acro
ss
part
icip
ants
an
d se
tting
s (g
ener
al e
duca
tion
vers
us s
peci
al
educ
atio
n) w
as u
nequ
al,
for
seve
ral
reas
ons.
Firs
t, ni
ne d
ays
of p
lann
ed o
bser
vatio
ns w
ere
canc
elle
d be
caus
e of
sc
hool
ca
ncel
latio
ns.
Seco
nd, a
bsen
ces
of p
artic
ipan
ts fo
r un
know
n re
ason
s (e
.g.,
Dav
id w
as a
bsen
t for
2 w
eeks
at
the
end
of th
e st
udy)
and
in-s
choo
l sus
pens
ions
(e
.g.,
Bill
and
Will
wer
e su
spen
ded
for
3 da
ys,
Tam
my
and
Ant
hony
for
1 da
y) w
ere
freq
uent
. Fu
ture
re
sear
ch
shou
ld
be
cond
ucte
d w
ith
stud
ents
with
min
imal
his
tori
es o
f ab
senc
es
and
in-s
choo
l su
spen
sion
s.
Seco
nd,
som
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts
rece
ived
m
ore
inst
ruct
ion
in
gene
ral
educ
atio
n se
tting
s th
an
in
spec
ial
educ
atio
n se
tting
s, a
nd v
ice
vers
a, a
ccor
ding
to
th
eir
IEPs
. Fo
r ex
ampl
e,
som
e of
th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts r
ecei
ved
only
rea
ding
ins
truc
tion
from
the
spec
ial e
duca
tion
teac
her,
whi
le o
ther
pa
rtic
ipan
ts
rece
ived
al
l se
rvic
es
from
th
e sp
ecia
l edu
catio
n te
ache
r exc
ept f
or a
rt, m
usic
, an
d P.
E., w
here
read
ing
activ
ities
wer
e lim
ited.
Fu
ture
re
sear
ch
coul
d in
clud
e pr
epla
nned
re
adin
g ac
tiviti
es i
n th
ese
setti
ngs
to e
nsur
e op
port
uniti
es f
or o
bser
vatio
ns. T
hird
, th
e tim
e of
day
in
whi
ch r
eadi
ng w
as s
ched
uled
may
ha
ve in
fl uen
ced
obse
rvat
ion
oppo
rtun
ities
. For
ex
ampl
e, i
f re
adin
g ac
tiviti
es w
ere
sche
dule
d fo
r th
e la
st p
ortio
n of
the
day
, it
was
mor
e lik
ely
that
an
obse
rvat
ion
wou
ld b
e ca
ncel
led
beca
use
of p
artic
ipan
t in
appr
opri
ate
beha
vior
ea
rlie
r in
the
day.
Fut
ure
rese
arch
may
wan
t to
coun
terb
alan
ce th
e tim
e of
day
obs
erva
tions
are
to
be
cond
ucte
d or
to s
ched
ule
obse
rvat
ions
at
the
begi
nnin
g of
or
in th
e m
iddl
e of
the
day.
If
stud
ents
with
aca
dem
ic a
nd b
ehav
iora
l ch
alle
nges
are
to b
reak
the
patte
rn o
f out
com
e da
ta
they
cu
rren
tly
pres
ent
(Kni
tzer
et
al
., 19
90;
U.S
. D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n, 2
001)
, th
ey m
ust
be g
iven
the
aca
dem
ic a
nd s
ocia
l sk
ills
nece
ssar
y to
pre
pare
the
m f
or s
ucce
ss
in a
nd o
ut o
f sc
hool
. Thi
s st
udy
and
prev
ious
lit
erat
ure
supp
ort
the
use
of
appr
opri
ate
acad
emic
cu
rric
ula
such
as
th
e C
orre
ctiv
e R
eadi
ng
prog
ram
, al
ongs
ide
appr
opri
ate
teac
her
beha
vior
, in
im
prov
ing
the
oral
re
adin
g fl u
ency
of
stud
ents
with
beh
avio
ral
chal
leng
es a
nd r
eadi
ng d
iffi c
ultie
s. A
lthou
gh
rese
arch
sho
ws
that
DI
met
hods
pro
vide
the
be
st c
hanc
e of
suc
cess
for
the
se s
tude
nts,
it
is e
ssen
tial
for
stud
ents
who
may
be
at r
isk
for
acad
emic
or
soci
al f
ailu
re t
o be
pro
vide
d w
ith
empi
rica
lly
base
d in
stru
ctio
n (S
erna
, N
iels
on,
Lam
bros
, &
For
ness
, 20
00).
Futu
re
rese
arch
th
at
exte
nds
the
curr
ent
liter
atur
e ba
se a
nd a
ddre
sses
the
limita
tions
of t
his
stud
y is
w
arra
nted
to
in
vest
igat
e bo
th
acad
emic
an
d so
cial
int
erve
ntio
ns a
nd t
heir
effe
cts
on
addr
essi
ng th
e co
mpl
ex n
eeds
of s
tude
nts
with
ch
alle
ngin
g be
havi
or a
nd r
eadi
ng d
iffi c
ultie
s.
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
281
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
281
6/6/
06
1:20
:38
PM
6/6/
06
1:20
:38
PM
282
/ M
ay 2
006
B
ehav
iora
l Dis
orde
rs, 3
1 (3
), 26
5–28
3
REF
EREN
CES
Ada
ms,
G. L
., &
Eng
elm
ann,
S. (
1996
). R
esea
rch
on
Dire
ct I
nstr
uctio
n: 2
5 ye
ars
beyo
nd D
ISTA
R.
Seat
tle, W
A: E
duca
tiona
l Ach
ieve
men
t Sys
tem
s.A
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BD
_31(
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BD
_31(
3).in
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06
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06
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Beh
avio
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May
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83
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ircl
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eric
an G
uida
nce
Serv
ice,
In
c.
AU
THO
RS’
NO
TES
Plea
se d
irec
t all
corr
espo
nden
ce to
Am
y Li
ngo,
A
ssis
tant
Pr
ofes
sor,
Dep
artm
ent
of T
each
ing
and
Lear
ning
, C
olle
ge
of
Educ
atio
n an
d H
uman
Dev
elop
men
t, U
nive
rsity
of L
ouis
ville
, Lo
uisv
ille,
KY
402
92.
Phon
e: (
502)
852
-643
1;
E-m
ail:
amy.
lingo
@lo
uisv
ille.
edu
MA
NU
SCR
IPT
Initi
al A
ccep
tanc
e: 1
2/06
/05
Fina
l Acc
epta
nce:
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23/0
6
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
283
BD
_31(
3).in
dd
283
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06
1:20
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