effect of flooding on distribution and mode of ... · various overlapping processes, and variety of...

Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research (2015) 41, 165–176

HO ST E D BYNational Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries

Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research

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FULL LENGTH ARTICLE

Effect of flooding on distribution and mode

of transportation of Lake Nasser sediments, Egypt

* Corresponding author at: Fresh Water and Lakes Division,

National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), 101 El

Kasr El Eini St., Cairo, Egypt. Tel.: +20 1008616048.

E-mail address: [email protected] (H.I. Farhat).

Peer review under responsibility of National Institute of Oceanography

and Fisheries.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2015.03.0091687-4285 ª 2015 National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries. Hosting by Elsevier B.V.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Hassan I. Farhat *, Salem G. Salem

Geology Lab., National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Cairo, Egypt

Received 18 January 2015; revised 9 March 2015; accepted 9 March 2015

Available online 28 March 2015

KEYWORDS

Bottom sediment;

Lake Nasser;

Mode of transportation;

Flooding

Abstract Sediment samples have been collected from Lake Nasser during drought and flooding

periods to study the effect of flood season on bottom sediment distribution and mode of transporta-

tion. Ten sectors with three sites in each sector were chosen from upstream of Aswan High Dam to

Adindan. The study showed that Lake Nasser sediments are heterogeneous and are mainly silty clay

and clayey silt. Eastern and western sides of the lake include more sand. Depth controlled dis-

tribution of grain size (deeper is finer). Sands increase with the starting of the flood season.

During drought periods suspension was the most predominant mode of transportation; i.e. sedi-

ments transported by a medium of considerable density. During flooding period siltation and sus-

pension were most predominant modes of transportation; i.e. environment with a high energy,

various overlapping processes, and variety of depositional environments. C–M diagram indicates

that sediments during drought periods behaved as pelagic suspension in which sediments settled

from a suspension in stagnant water, rolling; overbank facies suspension and uniform suspension

were of less importance. During the flooding period there was no clear trend for studied sediments

of pelagic suspension; rolling, graded suspension, overbank facies suspension, suspension, and uni-

form suspension were widely distributed.ª 2015 National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries. Hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access

article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Introduction

Many factors control sedimentation in the High Dam Lakesuch as annual effective base level for each flood, distribution

and characteristics of rocky islands, the valley Lake bends, theold river terraces, and the plankton induced deposition, water

discharges especially during flooding periods, sediment loadsand their gradation. During high water level the influence ofthese factors can be exemplified by the large scale sedimentdeposition at the lake entrance, while during a lower water

profile sediments would mainly deposit further downstream(Aboul-Haggag; 1977; El-Manadely et al., 2002). At lakeentrance (Gomi and the Second Cataract (Abca)) silt layer

was 17 and 20 m respectively. Further downstream it was2 m at Adindan and 1 m at Abu-Simbel within Lake Nasser(Aboul-Haggag, 1977; El Dardir, 1984, 1987). 90% of depos-

ited sediment between 1964 and 1998 is within the Sudaneseside of the reservoir (El-Manadely et al., 2002). Hafez (1977)stated that some microorganisms act as filtering organisms in

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166 H.I. Farhat, S.G. Salem

the reservoir which feed on finer materials suspended thendigest the organic content in the fine materials and coagulatethe suspended particles to bigger droplets. These filtering

organisms are believed by Entz and Latif (1974) to be the mainreason for the turbid water not reaching the northern sectionof the reservoir.

Before the construction of the Aswan High Dam the sedi-ments discharged into the Mediterranean Sea, and quantityof these sediments greatly increases at the beginning of Nile

flood. Since 1964, this amount of sediments has been held inthe Aswan High Dam Reservoir (Hurst, 1952). Aswan HighDam acts as a good trap by which; under normal conditions;only the finest fractions of the suspended load are transported

to the downstream. During the flood season 98% of the annualsediment load occurred; (2% in July, 45% in August, 38% inSeptember, 12% in October, and 1.5 in November), Quelennec

and Kruk (1976).Different methods are widely used for determining the

source material of sediments, as well as the environment and

dynamics of their transport and deposition such as: grain-sizedistribution (Mycielska-Dowgiao and Ludwikowska-Kedzia,

Figure 1 A map showing sampling sites of Lake Nasser (General lo

2011; Woronko, 2012; Farhat, 2013), rounding and surfacemorphology of quartz grains in sand and silt (Mycielska-Dowgiao and Woronko, 2004), the petrographical com-

position of the light minerals (Mycielska-Dowgiao, 1995,2007; Woronko et al., 2013), and composition of heavy-min-eral assemblages (Marcinkowski and Mycielska-Dowgiao,

2013). The joint analysis of all previous textural features isthe best method for determining the environment and dynam-ics of their transport and deposition as well as the source mate-

rial of sediments. Each of them provides its own information,which supplements the other data. (Morton et al., 2013;Wachecka-Kotkowska and Lu-dwikowska-Kedzia, 2013).

Distributions of gravel, sand and mud fractions are used as

good indicators for studying of all textural properties of depos-its. Different interpretations of grain size distributions led tonumerous discussions (e.g. Friedman and Sanders, 1978;

Mycielska-Dowgiao, 2007; Flemming, 2007; Hartmann andFlemming, 2007; Szmanda, 2007; Weltje and Prins, 2007;Mycielska-Dowgiao and Ludwikowska Kedzia, 2011). Grain

size depends on several factors such as: transport processes,the sedimentation conditions and transport related features,

cation of Lake Nasser in Egypt is shown in the top left corner).

Effect of flooding on sediments of Lake Nasser 167

all of previous factors are better expressed in the structural fea-tures (Flemming, 2007; Hartmann and Flemming, 2007).

The aim of this study is to show the effect of flood season

on bottom sediments of Lake Nasser, which could help inunderstanding the differences between sediments’ grain sizedistribution and mode of transportation during drought

(DDP) and flooding periods (DFP).

Materials and methods

Area of study

The largest man-made lake in Africa; the High Dam Lake; isformed after the construction of a rock-filled dam on theRiver Nile (17 km south of Aswan, 900 km from Cairo). The

lake extends from the dam itself in the north to the Cataractat Dal, to Sudan in the south. The major portion of the lakelies in Egypt and is known as Lake Nasser and Lake Nubiaon the Sudanese side. Lake Nasser extends between latitudes

22�000–23�580 N and longitudes 31�190–33�190 E (Abou ElElla and El Samman, 2010; Heikal, 2010).

Egypt is classified as a water scarce country, in addition to

an increase in population it is preoccupied with a shortage ofwater resources. The Nile River and Lake Nasser are the prin-cipal arteries of life in Egypt (Flakenmark et al., 1989; Hassan

and Al Rasheedy, 2007). Lake Nasser has a long and narrowshape particularly at its southern part (Lake Nubia), morethan 95% of the Egyptian freshwater budget is coming from

Lake Nasser (El Shemy, 2010).The whole reservoir extends about 496 km, 292 km for

Lake Nasser and 204 km for Lake Nubia. The area of thereservoir at 180 m vertical level is about 6275 km2 of which

Lake Nasser occupies about 5248 km2. The mean depth ofLake Nasser at 160 m vertical level is 21.5 m as compared withabout 25.2 m at 180 m vertical level (Abou El Ella and El

Samman, 2010; El Shemy, 2010).

Geographical and geological settings

Most of the topographic features located in Lake Nasser dateback to the Pliocene, while the present deep gorges and khors

Figure 2 Showing distribution of sand fraction of Lake Nasser sedim

channel, E: eastern bank, W: western bank).

(wadis) together with the relief are probably of the Pleistoceneor Recent age. The channel of old River Nile followed differentdirections starting southward from Wadi Halfa until Aswan

northward. It was divided into Wadi Halfa – Thomas (SW–NE direction) and Thomas – El-Diwan (NW–SE), El-Diwan –Korosko (W–E). North to Korosko, the channel of the old

River Nile followed two directions, (SW–NE) and (SE–NW).Kalabsha High Dam channel followed almost one main trend(S–N) which was controlled by igneous and metamorphic rock

exposures on both sides. Deep canyon with highly slick-sidedis located at El-Madiq area (Issawi, 1968, 1978; Hassan et al.,2010).

The area of Lake Nasser belongs to the so-called Arabo-

Nubian massif. Four main geomorphological and geologicalunits are found which are (1) Aswan Hills extend along theeastern bank of Lake Nasser with rugged topography, (2)

The old Nile valley and the High Dam Reservoir are extendedalong the western edge of Aswan hills. (3) The Nubian Plaincovers most of the low lands west of the old Nile valley.

And (4) The Sinn El–Kaddab Plateau is a vast limestonecapped table land (Issawi, 1968).

Faulting is the most important geologic feature in Lake

Nasser area. The largest faults are Kalabsha and Seiyal faults;trending in E–W direction; with predominant faults in N–Sdirection. NW–SW and NE–SW are subordinate faults. Up-arching is found as a result of uplifting of basement rocks.

Folding is a less predominant structure. Small domes and sev-eral basins were created according to the up-arching of thebasement (Issawi, 1968, 1978; Wycisk, 1987; Morgan, 1990;

Klitzsch and Wycisk, 1999).

Sampling

Sampling was undertaken through a comprehensive programof the National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries(NIOF) (Fresh Water and Lakes Division-FWLD) in order

to study environmental conditions and Fisheries of LakeNasser. The sampling program was done during 2013.

Sediment samples were collected using Ekman grab samplersemi-annually during drought (DDP) and flooding periods

(DFP) during spring and autumn, 2013. Samples were

ents. DDP: Before flood season, DFP: After flood season (M: main

Figure 3 Showing distribution of mud fraction of Lake Nasser sediments. DDP: Before flood season, DFP: After flood season (M: main

channel, E: eastern bank, W: western bank).


collected from ten sectors in the main channel of the lake from

south to north; Adindan, Abu-Simbel, Tushka, Amada,Korosko, El-Madiq, Wadi-Abyd, Kalabsha, Dahmit andupstream of High Dam, respectively. Each sector consists of

three sites; main channel (M) in addition to eastern (E) andwestern (W) banks (Fig. 1).

Analysis

Sediment samples were prepared using the decantation method(Folk, 1980), where grain size analysis was done by the drysieving technique (Folk, 1980). Samples containing more than

5% fine fraction (finer than 4Ø) were analyzed using the pip-ette method described by Krumbien and Pettijohn (1938),Griffiths (1951) and Carver (1971). Sediment textural classes

were deduced according to Folk (1980). The sedimentologicalparameters were derived according to Folk and Ward (1957).The grain size of the sediments is indicated according to the

Udden–Wentworth scale (Udden, 1914; Wentworth, 1922).Sediment modes of transportation were interpreted usingCharacteristic of truncation lines at inflection points of cumula-tive lines and C–M diagram according to Visher (1969),

Bartholdy et al. (2007), Opreanu et al. (2007), Mycielska-Dowgiao and Ludwikowska Kedzia (2011), and Passega(1964). One Way ANOVA statistical analysis was carried out

using Statisticaª program version 8 and correlation analysiswas carried out using SPSSª program version 20.

Results

Grain-size analysis

Grain-size distribution

Both weight-percentage frequency curves and cumulativeweight-percentage frequency curves have been constructed inorder to identify possible trends. Comparison of these curvesfor the sediments of the two seasons indicates that there were

clear trends of Lake Nasser sediments, the main channel sedi-ments consisted mainly from mud fraction with variableamount of sand (fine and very fine sand), whereas the bank

sediments have no clear trend just depending on topographical

features, which may lead to increase gravel to 100% (sites 2Wand 3E BFS). Sand fractions (fine and very fine sand) werewidely distributed at bank sites especially westwards reaching

94.40% at site 1W AFS and 79.10% at site 10E BFS. Clayfraction has a clear trend; increases southward; it reached upto 90.34 and 72.65% at sites 9M DDP and DFP, respectively.Silt fractions increase toward both banks and northward. It

reached to 57.60% at site 2E (DDP), while (DFP) it recorded52.65% at site 6M (Figs. 2 and 3; Tables 1 and 2).

The Main channel (M) sediment textural classes are mainly

silty clay southward DDP, while DFP was sandy mud.Sediments of the bank sites (E & W) were sandy mud andmuddy sand northward DDP, while southward they were silty

clay and clayey silt. DFP they were sandy mud and muddysand.

Results illustrate that depth controlled the distribution of

grain size. Mud increased with increasing depth while sandfractions decreased in the same trend. Mud fractions are corre-lated positively and significantly with depth (r= 0.48*,p= 0.05 (*: significant at 0.05%)), while sand fractions

are correlated negatively and significantly with depth(r = �0.48*, p = 0.05 (*: significant at 0.05%)), but some sitesdeviate from this pattern.

To find out whether the population variances are equal orthere are insignificant differences between the means of severalvariables, statistical tests must be carried out (Dean and Voss,

1999; Walpole et al., 2004; Srivastava et al., 2012). A one-wayANOVA was applied between the grain size fractions (gravel,sand, mud, and clay) and the studied periods (during drought

and flooding periods). Table 3 shows the calculated values.Results indicate that gravel fraction is insignificant with sea-sons (p = 0.52) it may be due to local topography factor.Sand and mud fractions are significant with seasons

(p = 0.0065, and 0.0117 for sand and mud, respectively),which indicate that the distribution of sand and mud fractionswere affected by flood season.

Grain-size parameters

The grain size parameters of Lake Nasser sediments were cal-culated from cumulative curves and given in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 1 Sediment fraction percent and textural classes of Lake Nasser sediment during the drought period.

Station Gravel V.C. Sand C. Sand M. Sand F. Sand V.F. Sand C. Silt M. Silt F. Silt V.F. Silt Gravel San Silt Clay Mud Sediment type

1M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.93 3.35 6.03 2.80 0.00 0.0 26.11 73.89 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

1E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.00 ***

1W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 23.09 31.20 26.56 3.55 1.64 2.23 0.00 54. 33.98 11.73 45.71 Muddy sand

2M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.02 2.85 6.99 6.88 0.00 0.0 27.73 72.27 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

2E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 46.55 4.10 5.89 1.06 0.00 0.0 57.60 42.40 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

2W 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.0 100.00 0.00 0.00 Gravel

3M 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.17 13.41 19.33 14.17 3.13 4.33 9.34 0.00 42. 30.97 26.13 57.09 Sandy mud

3E 95.71 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 ——— ——— ——— ——— 95.71 0.0 ——— ——— 3.29 Muddy gravel

3W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.27 25.42 6.66 5.56 0.67 11.29 0.00 39. 24.17 36.13 60.31 Sandy mud

4M 16.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 19.91 15.34 3.72 3.29 1.42 16.59 19. 23.76 39.73 63.50 Gravelly sandy mud

4E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

4W 30.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.74 18.08 6.71 9.28 0.38 3.68 30.78 26. 20.05 22.35 42.40 Sandy gravelly mud

5M *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

5E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

5W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

6M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.91 1.57 0.47 4.01 0.00 0.0 11.96 88.04 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

6E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.65 2.19 1.81 39.33 0.00 0.0 50.97 49.03 100.00 Mud (Clayey silt)

6W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.44 0.24 37.50 5.88 0.00 0.0 53.06 46.94 100.00 Mud (clayey silt)

7M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.43 3.38 1.64 2.98 0.00 0.0 14.43 85.57 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

7E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.94 6.13 3.29 20.43 0.00 0.0 37.80 62.20 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

7W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.24 8.91 3.96 27.05 0.90 0.00 7.2 40.83 51.94 92.76 Sandy mud

8M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.19 3.04 1.61 2.87 0.70 0.00 14. 8.21 77.60 85.81 Sandy mud

8E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.53 1.73 8.04 5.99 0.00 0.0 20.29 79.71 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

8W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.63 3.94 1.48 5.97 11.40 0.00 9.6 22.80 67.57 90.37 Sandy mud

9M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.41 1.76 1.34 3.15 0.00 0.0 9.66 90.34 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

9E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 12.80 12.14 1.54 7.87 0.00 0.0 34.34 65.66 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

9W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

10M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.59 4.78 7.31 6.60 0.00 0.0 26.28 73.72 100.00 Mud (Silty clay)

10E 1.71 2.30 4.69 15.94 31.93 24.23 7.58 4.30 0.08 0.32 1.71 79. 12.29 6.91 19.20 Muddy gravelly sand

10W 47.00 12.73 11.93 8.51 9.12 7.01 ——— ——— ——— ——— 47.00 49. 0.00 65.66 3.70 Gravelly muddy sand

———: sample with mud fraction less than 5%; ****: Not collected sample; VC: very coarse; C: coarse; M: medium; F: fine; VF: very fi .

Effect

offloodingonsed

iments

ofLakeNasser

169

d

0

29

0

0

0

91

0

69

91

82

0

0

0

0

0

4

19

0

3

0

0

0

10

30

ne

Table 2 Sediment fraction percent and textural classes of Lake Nasser sediment during the flooding period.

Station Gravel V.C.

Sand

C.

Sand

M.

Sand

F.

Sand

V.F.

Sand

C. Silt M. Silt F. Silt V.F. Silt Clay Grave Sand Silt Clay Mud Sediment type

1M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.54 10.85 9.43 2.54 68.64 0.00 0.00 31.36 68.64 100.00 Mud (Silty

clay)

1E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

1W 2.07 1.33 10.88 44.35 25.92 11.93 ————— ————— ————— ————— ————— 2.07 94.40 ——— ——— 3.53 Gravelly

muddy sand

2M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.45 8.42 18.08 11.04 9.15 39.86 0.00 13.45 46.69 39.86 86.55 Sandy mud

2E 0.00 0.00 0.00 19.05 20.70 20.51 20.81 3.80 3.06 0.84 11.23 0.00 60.25 28.52 11.23 39.75 Muddy sand

2W 0.00 0.00 0.00 23.51 37.43 20.72 1.63 3.48 1.54 2.48 9.21 0.00 81.66 9.13 9.21 18.34 Muddy sand

3M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 27.85 42.94 7.98 6.37 4.09 2.26 8.51 0.00 70.79 20.70 8.51 29.21 Muddy sand

3E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

3W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.32 38.95 2.33 4.50 5.08 4.67 18.15 0.00 65.27 16.58 18.15 34.73 Muddy sand

4M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 32.54 13.14 15.55 9.33 4.56 24.88 0.00 32.54 42.58 24.88 67.46 Sandy mud

4E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

4W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 22.67 4.24 18.61 8.66 10.90 34.93 0.00 22.67 42.40 34.93 77.33 Sandy mud

5M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.55 22.61 12.67 12.24 9.15 5.24 24.54 0.00 36.16 39.30 24.54 63.84 Sandy mud

5E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

5W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

6M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.19 17.88 18.78 8.81 47.35 0.00 0.00 52.65 47.35 100.00 Mud (Clayey

silt)

6E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

6W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

7M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 34.55 10.76 8.61 7.34 8.10 30.64 0.00 34.55 34.81 30.64 65.45 Sandy mud

7E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.06 29.15 14.71 1.74 1.45 1.88 26.02 0.00 54.21 19.77 26.02 45.79 Muddy sand

7W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.41 27.15 16.50 15.79 10.82 5.54 13.78 0.00 37.56 48.66 13.78 62.44 Sandy mud

8M 0.00 11.43 12.85 8.51 4.96 3.71 12.63 9.96 8.99 19.77 51.35 0.00 7.19 41.46 51.35 92.81 Sandy mud

8E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 12.11 48.54 11.66 10.83 4.63 2.37 9.86 0.00 60.65 29.49 9.86 39.35 Muddy sand

8W 0.00 6.42 5.84 3.52 2.62 2.99 7.44 4.22 3.63 1.21 62.11 0.00 21.39 16.50 62.11 78.61 Sandy mud

9M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.41 4.10 0.58 11.26 72.65 0.00 0.00 27.35 72.65 100.00 Mud (Silty

clay)

9E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 27.86 13.15 0.91 9.61 0.96 47.50 0.00 27.86 24.64 47.50 72.14 Sandy mud

9W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

10M *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

10E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

10W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

—————: Sample with mud fraction less than 5%; ****: Not collected sample; VC: very coarse; C: coarse; M: medium; F: fine; VF: very ne.

170

H.I.

Farhat,S.G

.Salem

l

fi


The mean grain size is a parameter related to the overall grainsize, sorting or the uniformity of the grain-size distribution,Skewness is a measure of symmetrical distribution, i.e. the pro-

portion of coarse or fine fractions. A symmetrical curve withexcess fine material shows a positive value, whereas one withexcess coarse material shows a negative value; a zero value is

indicated by a symmetrical curve, while the kurtosis expressesthe peakedness of the grain-size distribution (Srivastava et al.,2012). During the drought period, the main size ranged

between gravel and clay (�1.30 to 8.22Ø), while during theflooding period it ranged between medium sand and very finesilt (1.98–7.6Ø). DDP sorting ranged between medium well

Table 3 One-way ANOVA between fractions (gravel, sand,

clay, and mud) and studied periods (during drought and

flooding periods).

Fraction One-way ANOVA

p value Outcome

Gravel 0.5224 Non-significant

Sand 0.0065 Significant

Clay 0.0076 Significant

Mud 0.0117 Significant

Table 4 Sedimentological parameters of Lake Nasser sediment dur

Station Mean size (Mz) (rI)Sorting

Value(Ø) Type Value(Ø) Type

1M 7.35 Very fine silt 1.25 Poorly sorted

1E ****** ****** ****** ******

1W 4.27 Coarse silt 1.61 Poorly sorted


2E 6.32 Fine silt 1.44 Poorly sorted

2W 5.03 Medium silt 2.38 Very poorly sorted

3M 5.70 Fine silt 2.12 Very poorly sorted

3E �1.30 Gravel 0.19 Very well sorted

3W 4.07 Coarse silt 3.76 Very poorly sorted

4M 3.50 Very fine sand 3.78 Very poorly sorted

4E ****** ****** ****** ******

4W 8.20 Clay 0.66 Medium well sorted

5M ****** ****** ****** ******

5E ****** ****** ****** ******

5W ****** ****** ****** ******

6M 7.80 Very fine silt 0.78 Moderately sorted

6E 7.20 Very fine silt 1.03 Poorly sorted

6W 8.20 Clay 0.63 Medium well sorted



7W 6.98 Fine silt 1.70 Poorly sorted



8W 8.22 Clay 0.49 Well sorted



9W ****** ****** ****** ******


10E 2.85 Fine sand 1.87 Poorly sorted

10W 0.37 Coarse sand 1.91 Poorly sorted

******: Not collected sample.

sorted and very poorly sorted (0.63–3.78Ø), where it was mod-erately sorted to very poorly sorted (0.98–2.18Ø) DFP. Theskewness was symmetrical to strongly fine-skewed and near

symmetrical to strongly fine-skewed DDP and DFP, respec-tively. Kurtosis varied between very platykurtic to extremelyleptokurtic during both periods.

Sediment mode of transportation

Visher (1969) related the modes of sediment transportation; by

traction, saltation and suspension; by distinguishing three dis-tinct sectors of the cumulative curve in the form of straightlines of different lengths and slopes. Lake Nasser sediments

DDP indicate a prominent truncation between traction andsaltation at a range of �1.1 and 5.00 ± 0.2Ø with percentageranged between 1.9% and 47.0% except at site 3 E that was�1.0Ø with percentage of 95.5% due to access of gravel frac-

tion. Truncation between saltation and suspension was morethan 4Ø which ranged between 4.0 and 8.00Ø with percentageranged between 6.0% and 91.0%. Suspension load ranged

between 4.5% and 90.5%. DFP results indicate a prominenttruncation between traction and saltation at a range of �1.0and 5.0 ± 0.2Ø with percentage ranged between 2.0% and

34.0%. Truncation between saltation and suspension wasmore than 8Ø with percentage ranged between 11.0% and

ing the drought period according to Folk and Ward (1957).

Skewness (SKI) Kurtosis (KG)

Value Type Value Type

�0.80 Strongly coarse-skewed 1.68 Very lepto-kurtic

****** ****** ****** ******

0.46 Strongly fine-skewed 1.41 Very lepto-kurtic


0.27 Fine-skewed 0.47 Very platy-kurtic

0.23 Fine-skewed 0.54 Very platy-kurtic

0.00 Near symmetrical 0.50 Very platy-kurtic

�0.07 Symmetrical 1.23 Very lepto-kurtic

�0.28 Coarse-skewed 0.85 Platy-kurtic

�0.03 Near symmetrical 0.47 Very platy-kurtic

****** ****** ****** ******

�0.39 Strongly coarse-skewed 6.07 Extremely lepto-kurtic

****** ****** ****** ******

****** ****** ****** ******

****** ****** ****** ******


�0.16 Coarse-skewed 0.90 Meso-kurtic



�0.85 Strongly coarse-skewed 0.95 Meso-kurtic





�0.81 Strongly coarse-skewed 0.67 Platy-kurtic


****** ****** ****** ******

�0.82 Strongly coarse-skewed 0.67 Platy-kurtic

0.23 Fine-skewed 2.12 Very lepto-kurtic

0.77 Strongly fine-skewed 0.69 Platy-kurtic

Table 5 Sedimentological parameters of Lake Nasser bottom sediment during the flooding period according to Folk and Ward

(1957).

Station Mean size (Mz) (rI)Sorting Skewness (SKI) Kurtosis (KG)

Value(Ø) Type Value(Ø) Type Value Type Value Type

1M 7.60 Very fine silt 0.98 Moderately sorted �0.69 Strongly coarse-skewed 1.59 Very lepto-kurtic

1E ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

1W 1.98 Medium sand 1.00 Poorly sorted 0.09 Near symmetrical 1.12 Lepto-kurtic

2M 6.50 Very fine silt 1.66 Poorly sorted �0.40 Strongly coarse-skewed 0.64 Very platy-kurtic

2E 3.72 Very fine sand 1.90 Poorly sorted 0.31 Strongly fine-skewed 1.13 Lepto-kurtic

2W 3.23 Very fine sand 1.78 Poorly sorted 0.59 Strongly fine-skewed 1.65 Very lepto-kurtic

3M 4.05 Coarse silt 1.56 Poorly sorted 0.62 Strongly fine-skewed 1.43 Lepto-kurtic

3E ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

3W 4.83 Coarse silt 2.11 Very poorly sorted 0.70 Strongly fine-skewed 0.64 Very lepto-kurtic

4M 5.70 Medium silt 1.75 Poorly sorted 0.34 Strongly fine-skewed 0.46 Very lepto-kurtic

4E ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

4W 6.13 Fine silt 1.75 Poorly sorted �0.18 Coarse-skewed 0.53 Very lepto-kurtic

5M 5.42 Medium silt 2.07 Very poorly sorted 0.17 Fine-skewed 0.51 Very lepto-kurtic

5E ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

5W ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

6M 7.17 Very fine silt 1.18 Poorly sorted �0.61 Strongly coarse-skewed 0.67 Platy-kurtic

6E ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

6W ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

7M 5.82 Medium silt 1.77 Poorly sorted 0.21 Fine-skewed 0.46 Very platy-kurtic

7E 4.93 Coarse silt 2.15 Very poorly sorted 0.63 Strongly fine-skewed 0.46 Very platy-kurtic

7W 5.20 Medium silt 1.89 Poorly sorted 0.32 Strongly fine-skewed 0.79 Platy-kurtic

8M 7.17 Very fine silt 1.18 Poorly sorted �0.61 Strongly coarse-skewed 0.67 Platy-kurtic

8E 4.33 Coarse silt 1.56 Poorly sorted 0.58 Strongly fine-skewed 1.10 Meso-kurtic

8W 7.45 Very fine silt 1.12 Poorly sorted �0.71 Strongly coarse-skewed 2.39 Very lepto-kurtic

9M 7.60 Very fine silt 1.03 Poorly sorted �0.80 Strongly coarse-skewed 3.74 Extremely lepto-kurtic

9E 6.30 Fine silt 1.78 Poorly sorted �0.34 Strongly coarse-skewed 0.46 Very platy-kurtic

9W ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

10M ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

10E ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

10W ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

******: Not collected sample.


94.5%. Suspension load ranged between 3.5% and 84.0%

(Table 6).

C–M patterns

The results obtained from grain-size analyses are presented in

a Passega C–M diagram (Passega, 1964; Passega andByramjee, 1969; Mycielska-Dowgiao and Ludwikowska-Kedzia, 2011), where the values of ‘‘C’’ the first percentile

are plotted against the ‘‘M’’ median grain diameter.C–M application is used widely to interpret different

depositional environments. (Ludwikowska-Kedzia, 2000;

Szmanda, 2002; Ostrowska et al., 2003; Bartholdy et al.,2007; Opreanu et al., 2007; Mycielska-Dowgiao andLudwikowska-Kedzia, 2011; Farhat, 2010, 2013; Srivastava

et al., 2012; Pisarska-Jamro _zy, 2013; Ramamohanarao et al.,2003). There was a clear trend of the sediment of LakeNasser during the drought period showing that most of sedi-ments fall in pelagic suspension (T) (especially main channel

M) in which sediments are settled from suspension in stagnantwater. It may be due to the great depth as wave and currentactivity decrease toward deeper parts of the lake. According

to Fig 4, sites 2W and 3W fall in field 3 (i.e. rolling), 4Mand 10E fall in field 2 (i.e. rolling), 3M and 10W fall in field

1 (i.e. rolling), 1W falls in uniform suspension and 3E falls

in overbank-pool facies suspension. During flooding periodthere was no clear trend for the studied sediments, most ofthe main channel (M) samples fall in pelagic suspension (T),1W falls in field 2 (i.e. rolling), 2E and 2W fall in graded sus-

pension (transported mainly by siltation), 4M, 7M, and 7Wfall in overbank facies suspension, 5M falls in suspension,and 3W, 3M, 7E and 8E fall in uniform suspension.

Discussion

The field description of the bottom sediments under concern

indicates that the darkest color of sediment was observed nearAswan; this may be due to relatively old sediments and theanoxic conditions during stagnation period before flood sea-

son; while light color was observed southward; especially dur-ing the flooding period; this may be due to deposition of freshsediment southward. The sediments of Lake Nasser are hetero-

geneous. The main channel sediments are mainly silty clay andclayey silt, while the eastern and western sides include moresand and depend on the local topography. Deposition of sandfrom the adjacent sand dunes scattered along the western bank

of Lake Nasser takes place as aeolian deposits. The highestpercentage of clay was recorded in the main channel of the

Table 6 Characteristics of truncation lines of Lake Nasser bottom sediment during 2013.

Station Spring 2013 Autumn 2013

Traction/Saltation Saltation/Suspension Suspension Traction/Saltation Saltation/Suspension Suspension

ø Wt% ø Wt% Wt% ø Wt% ø Wt% Wt%

1M 5.00 14.00 7.50 72.00 14.00 4.00 9.00 8.00 36.50 54.50

1E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

1W 3.00 23.00 4.90 57.00 20.00 �1.00 2.00 8.00 94.50 3.50

2M 5.00 12.00 8.00 15.00 73.00 4.00 13.00 8.00 47.00 40.00

2E 5.00 47.00 8.00 10.00 43.00 2.00 19.00 8.00 70.00 11.00

2W 2.00 11.00 8.00 63.00 26.00 2.00 23.00 8.00 67.50 9.50

3M 4.00 39.50 8.00 24.50 36.00 3.00 27.00 8.00 64.50 8.50

3E �1.00 95.50 4.00 0.00 4.50 *** *** *** *** ***

3W 1.00 16.00 8.00 44.00 40.00 3.00 26.00 8.00 55.00 19.00

4M �1.00 30.50 8.00 47.00 22.50 4.00 32.00 8.00 43.00 25.00

4E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

4W 5.00 6.00 8.00 6.00 88.00 4.00 23.00 8.00 42.00 35.00

5M *** *** *** *** *** 3.00 14.00 8.00 61.00 25.00

5E *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

5W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

6M 5.00 8.00 8.00 42.00 50.00 5.00 7.00 8.00 46.00 47.00

6E 5.00 9.00 8.00 45.00 46.00 *** *** *** *** ***

6W 5.00 6.50 8.00 7.50 86.00 *** *** *** *** ***

7M 5.00 8.00 8.00 30.00 62.00 4.00 34.00 8.00 35.00 31.00

7E 4.00 7.00 8.00 42.00 51.00 3.00 25.00 8.00 49.00 26.00

7W 4.00 14.00 8.00 8.00 78.00 3.00 10.00 8.00 76.00 14.00

8M 5.00 4.50 8.00 15.50 80.00 5.00 7.00 8.00 14.50 78.50

8E 4.00 9.50 8.00 22.50 68.00 3.00 12.00 8.00 78.00 10.00

8W 5.00 3.50 8.00 6.00 90.50 4.00 5.00 8.00 11.00 84.00

9M 5.00 15.00 8.00 29.00 56.00 5.00 11.00 8.00 15.00 74.00

9E 5.00 7.50 8.00 17.50 75.00 4.00 27.00 8.00 29.00 44.00

9W *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

10M 5.00 13.00 8.00 22.00 65.00 *** *** *** *** ***

10E �1.00 1.90 8.00 91.10 7.00 *** *** *** *** ***

10W �1.00 46.00 4.00 30.00 24.00 *** *** *** *** ***

***: Not collected sample.


southern sites at Tushka, Abu Simbel and Adindan (Entz and

Latif, 1974; Philip et al., 1977; Scott et al., 1978; El Dardir,1984, 1987, 1994; Fishar, 1995; El-Manadely et al., 2002;Iskaros and El Dardir, 2010).

In agreement with Ligeza and Smal (2002) who studied thesediment of the Dobczyce reservoir, and Teeter et al. (2001)and Wetzel (2001) who studied Myslenice Basin, it is clear that

depth is controlling the distribution of grain size. Finesincreased with increasing of depth while sand fractionsdecreased. This indicates less current effects on deeper sedi-ments. Re-suspension of fine particles from a shallow area

and its re-deposition in a deeper part of the water body affectsignificantly the texture of sediment in the shallow part of thereservoir, but some sites deviate from this pattern due to geo-

morphic features of the reservoir. Concentration of suspendedsediments decreases northward. The lake sediments are con-sisting of sand, silt and clay, with non-uniform composition

pattern. The variation in the sediment composition is due toboth time and topographical features characterizing depositedsediment particles. After drought periods, high floods decrease

the dead storage zone of Lake Nasser by filling it with re-de-posited sediments coming from southern zones (El-Manadleyet al., 2002).

The decreasing of fines and increasing of sand fraction

DFP; than DDP; indicate that the percent of sands increasedas the flood season started, it may be a result of washing ofbottom sediments by high energy water current caused by

the flood which carries fine as suspended material leaving sandfractions. It agrees with El-Manadely et al. (2002) who statedthat proportion of sand tended to increase as the flood season

progressed.Grain-size distributions are widely used to study various

sedimentary facies and environments of deposits. Sand frac-tion part of the cumulative curves is considered to be a normal

distribution, admixtures of coarser and finer grains occur,which do not form normal distributions (Tanner, 1964).Nevertheless, their presence or absence is important for the

interpretation of the sedimentary environment (Mycielska-Dowgiao and Ludwikowska-Kedzia, 2011).

Most of the cumulative curves of the sediments of the present

study have clear different sectors with clear straight line andinflection points. During the drought period, it can be deducedfrom the curves that suspensionwas themost prominent formof

transport, followed by siltation, while truncation was of minorimportance. It means that curves most closely resemble thesecond group of cumulative curves in which sediments are

Figure 4 C–M Pattern diagrams showing mode of transportation of Lake Nasser sediments. (A) During the drought period, (B) During

the flooding period.


transported by a medium of considerable density. During the

flooding period siltation was most predominant mode of trans-portation, followed by suspension and truncation was of lessimportance, which means that curves most closely resemble

the third group of cumulative curves, (transitional group includ-ing mixed sediments formed by short-lived depositional pro-cesses, deposits resulting from various overlapping processes

and depositional environments) (Mycielska-Dowgiao andLudwikowska-Kedzia, 2011; Srivastava et al., 2012;Wachecka-Kotkowska and Ludwikowska-Kedzia, 2013).

The mode of transportation of Lake Nasser sediments dur-

ing the drought period was pelagic suspension in which sedi-ments were settled from suspension in stagnant water, whilerolling, overbank facies suspension and uniform suspension

were less important. During the flooding period there was noclear trend for the studied sediments, most of the main channelsamples fall in pelagic suspension, while rolling, graded sus-

pension, overbank facies suspension, suspension and uniformsuspension were widely distributed. Passega C–M diagram ishelpful for the study of fluvial deposits, even though it waselaborated initially for the marine environment. It has been

useful for the study of fluvial and coastal deposits, becauseboth formed from different lithofacies, by which the diagramis useful to explain the depositional sub-environments.

Different transport and depositional histories can thus be

distinguished (Ludwikowska-Kedzia, 2000; Mycielska-

Dowgiao and Ludwikowska-Kedzia, 2011; Szmanda, 2002).

Conclusion

The present study results conclude that Lake Nasser sedimentsare heterogeneous. The main channel sediments are mainlysilty clay and clayey silt, while the eastern and western sites

include more sand which depends on the local topography.The highest percentage of clay was recorded in the main chan-nel southward. Depth controlled distribution of grain size

(deeper is finer) with some sites deviates from this pattern.Sand fractions increased as the flood season started.

Cumulative curves indicate that during the drought periodsuspension was the most prominent form of transportation,

followed by siltation, while truncation was of minor impor-tance, which means that sediments were transported by a med-ium of considerable density. During the flooding period

siltation was most predominant mode of transportation, fol-lowed by suspension, while truncation was less important,which means that this environment has a high energy and vari-

ety of depositional environments.C–M pattern diagram indicates that sediments of Lake

Nasser during the drought period were pelagic suspension in


which sediments were settled from suspension in stagnantwater, while rolling, overbank facies suspension and uniformsuspension were less important. During the flooding period

there was no clear trend, most of the main channel samples fallin pelagic suspension, while rolling, graded suspension, over-bank facies suspension, suspension and uniform suspension

were widely distributed for banks.Further studies are recommended, just like roundness and

surface morphology of quartz grains of sand and silt, the

petrographical composition of the light minerals, and com-position of heavy-mineral assemblages for determining thesource material of Lake Nasser sediments, as well as theenvironment and dynamics of their transport and deposition.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the research plan of theEnvironment of Freshwater and Lakes Division, NationalInstitute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Egypt in order to

identify and evaluate the environmental and fisheries statusof Lake Nasser during 2013.

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effect of flooding on distribution and mode of ... · various overlapping processes, and variety of...

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