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Earthquake EngineeringEarthquake Engineering

Research InstituteResearch Institute

An illustrated description of their causes and effects

The Great Sumatra Earthquake andThe Great Sumatra Earthquake andIndian Ocean TsunamiIndian Ocean Tsunami

of December 26, 2004of December 26, 2004



This presentation was developed to explain the origins of theThis presentation was developed to explain the origins of theSumatra earthquake of December 26, 2004 and the ensuingSumatra earthquake of December 26, 2004 and the ensuingtsunami, and to document the damages caused by thetsunami, and to document the damages caused by the

earthquake and tsunami in so many countries around theearthquake and tsunami in so many countries around theIndian Ocean.Indian Ocean.

This project was supported by funds from the National Science FoThis project was supported by funds from the National Science Foundation throughundation throughEERI EERI ’ ’ ss Learning From Earthquakes Program under grant # CMSLearning From Earthquakes Program under grant # CMS--0131895 0131895

The presentation was createdThe presentation was createdlargely bylargely by WidiantoWidianto, a doctoral, a doctoral

candidate in civil engineeringcandidate in civil engineeringand president of the EERIand president of the EERIstudent chapter at thestudent chapter at theUniversity of Texas at Austin.University of Texas at Austin.

Other contributors includeOther contributors includeSarah Nathe, Craig Comartin,Sarah Nathe, Craig Comartin,and Heidi Faison.and Heidi Faison.

PrefacePreface



United States Geological Survey (USGS)

“The tsunami that struck Southeast Asia on

December 26, 2004 has been confirmed as the most

devastating in modern history.”Guinness Book of World Records

“The 26th December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman

earthquake is the fourth largest earthquake in the

world since 1900 and is the largest since the 1964Prince William Sound, Alaska earthquake.”



Contents Introduction: Plate tectonics, earthquakes

Sumatra Earthquake

- Tectonic activity

- Observations

- Damage

Indian Ocean Tsunami

- Basic mechanism

- Videos: before and after giant wave arrival

- Damage

Tsunamis in the USA

Tsunami Risk Reduction

The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute



Introduction – Plate Tectonics The Earth is characterized by a small number of lithospheric plates thatfloat on a viscous underlayer called the asthenosphere.

Geological evidence shows that plates undergo constant, gradual

change. Magma is continually upwelling at the mid-oceanic ridges and rises

as the seafloor spreads apart.

In some areas, large sections of plates are forced to move beneath other

plates (surface layers of rocks are absorbed into the earth’s interior). These

areas are called subduction zones.

A plate being subducted beneath another



Introduction – Plate Tectonics

Source: Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt



Introduction – Plate Tectonics

95% of earthquakes occur along the edges of the interacting plates




World’s Largest Magnitude Earthquakes

Approx. casualtiesApprox. casualties Year Year MagnitudeMagnitudeEarthquakeEarthquake

>283,100>283,100

(>173,000 in Indonesia)(>173,000 in Indonesia)

200420049.09.05. Sumatra5. Sumatra

Not reportedNot reported195219529.09.04.4. KamchatkaKamchatka

PeninsulaPeninsula

Not reportedNot reported195719579.19.13.3. Andreanof Andreanof

Islands, AlaskaIslands, Alaska

≅≅≅≅≅≅≅≅ 125125196419649.29.22. Prince William2. Prince William

Sound, AlaskaSound, Alaska

>2000>2000196019609.59.51. Chile1. Chile

Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)



Earthquake Energy


Sumatra-Andaman (2004)



Sumatra Earthquake

Magnitude: 9.0

Date-time: Sunday, December 26,

2004 at 7:58:53 AM (local time)

Depth: 30 km (18.6 miles)

Distances:

* 250 km (155 miles) SSE of Aceh,

Sumatra, Indonesia

* 310 km (195 miles) W of Medan,

Sumatra, Indonesia

* 1260 km (780 miles) SSW of

Bangkok, Thailand

* 1605 km (990 miles) NW of

Jakarta, Java, Indonesia




Tectonic Summary It occurred on the interface of

the India and Burma plates: an

interplate earthquake.

India plate subducts beneath

the overriding Burma plate atthe Sunda Trench.

In the region of the earthquake,

the India plate moves toward the

northeast at a rate of about6 cm/year relative to the Burma

plate.

Thrust faulting caused the

earthquake (slip directed

perpendicular to the trench).

Fault rupture propagated to

the northwest from the epicenter

with a width ≅ 100 km and an

average displacement on the faultplane ≅ 20 meters.

6 cm/yr




Felt Shaking ReportsModified Mercalli Intensity Scale:

Banda Aceh, Sumatra: IX

Medan, Sumatra: IV

Port Blair, Andaman Islands: VII

Subsidence and landslides

were observed in Sumatra.

A mud volcano near Baratang,

Andaman Islands began eruptingon December 28, 2004.

Intensity vs. Distance from

Epicenter Plot :




AftershockAftershock

ZoneZone Extends from

Northern Sumatra to

the Andaman Islands,

~ 1300 km to the north.

Largest aftershock

directly following the

main shock was M =

7.1 in the Nicobar

Islands.

On March 28, 2005, a

M = 8.7 earthquake

occurred in a region of

the fault southeast of

the Dec 26th

mainshockand its rupture zone.

Epicenter of mainshock,

28 Mar 2005



Earthquake DamageEarthquake Damage

Structural damage to concrete frame building.

epicenter

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Banda Aceh

Location: Banda Aceh,

Sumatra, Indonesia

Photo: Jose Borrero




Partial collapse of concrete frame building due to column failure.

epicenter

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Banda Aceh


Sumatra, Indonesia

Photo: Murat Saatcioglu, Ahmed

Ghobarah, Ioan Nistor



Partial collapse of concrete frame building due inadequate column reinforcement.

epicenter

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Banda Aceh

Location: Banda Aceh

Sumatra, Indonesia

Photos: Murat Saatcioglu, Ahmed

Ghobarah, Ioan Nistor





Architectural damage to the

Grand Mosque tower.

epicenter

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Banda Aceh


Sumatra, Indonesia

Photo: Jose Borrero




Source: Geological Survey of India

Location: Port Blair,

Andaman Islands

epicenter

Port Blair

epicenter

Port Blair

Column of residential building damaged by ground motion.





Location: Port Blair,

Andaman Islands

epicenter

Port Blair

epicenter

Port Blair

Longitudinal (50 m long)crack on Kamraj Road after

the earthquake

Major crack showing a rupture width of

15 cm on Kamraj Road after the

earthquake



Earthquake and Tsunami

Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis.

An earthquake must have certain characteristics in order to

generate a tsunami:


1. Epicenter is underneath or near the ocean.

2. Fault causes vertical movement of the sea floor (up to

several meters) over a large area (up to 100,000 km2).

3. Large magnitude ( > 7.5 ) AND shallow focus ( < 70 km).



Basic Tsunami Mechanism

An earthquake causes a

vertical movement of the

seafloor, which displaces thesea water.

Large waves then

radiate from the epicenterin all directions.



Tsunami Explained

A tsunami is series of traveling ocean waves of extremely long lengthgenerated primarily by earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor.

Tsunami waves propagate across the deep ocean with a speed exceeding

800 km/h (≅ 500 mph) and a wave height of only a few tens of centimeters or

less.

As they reach the shallow waters of the coast, the waves slow down and

their height increases up to tens of meters (30 ft) or more.

Source: NOAA



Tsunami Translated

“Tidal wave” is a misnomer because the cause

is unrelated to tides.

“Seismic sea wave” is misleading because a

tsunami can be caused by non-seismic events,

and it is not dangerous in the open ocean.

Japanese word:

“Tsu“ means“harbor”

“Nami“ means

“wave”

English translation:

“Harbor wave”



Water Recession: A Precursor

F rom: Nature Publishing GroupFrom: Nature Publishing Group

Wave Generation Draw Down Effect

From: Digital Globe

Kalutara Beach, Sri Lanka



Tsunami Wave AppearanceTsunami Wave Appearance

A tsunami wave crest has A tsunami wave crest hasthree general appearancesthree general appearances

from shore:from shore: FastFast--rising tiderising tide

Cresting waveCresting wave

A step A step--like change in thelike change in thewater level that advanceswater level that advancesrapidly (called arapidly (called a borebore))

Series of wavesSeries of waves Most tsunamis come in a series of waves that may last for severaMost tsunamis come in a series of waves that may last for severall

hourshours The outflow of water back to the sea between waves can causeThe outflow of water back to the sea between waves can cause

more damage than the original incoming wave frontsmore damage than the original incoming wave fronts

The first wave is rarely the largestThe first wave is rarely the largest

A bore on the Qian Tang Jiang River, China

Source: www.waveofdestruction.org



Tsunami Propagation

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan



Tsunami DamageTsunami Damage

Before Tsunami

January 10, 2003

After Tsunami

December 29, 2004

Source: National University of Singapore

Location: Lhoknga, Indonesia

epicenter

Lhoknga

epicenter

Lhoknga



Tsunami DamageTsunami DamageLocation: Lhoknga, Indonesia

epicenter

Lhoknga

epicenter

Lhoknga

Exposed

bridge piers of

road that

washed away.

Damage zone showing anoverturned tanker, trees

snapped in half, and the

high water mark on islands

where vegetation was

stripped away.

Overturned

ship

High Water Mark

Broken Trees

Photo: Jose Borrero

Photo: Jose Borrero




Before Tsunami

April 12, 2004

After Tsunami

January 2, 2005

Source: Digital Globe

Location: Gleebruk, Indonesia

epicenter

Gleebruk

epicenter

Gleebruk




Before Tsunami

April 12, 2004

After Tsunami

January 2, 2005


epicenter

Gleebruk

epicenter

Gleebruk




Before Tsunami

June 23, 2004

After Tsunami

December 28, 2004


Location: Banda Aceh, Indonesia

epicenter

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Banda Aceh



Tsunami DamageTsunami DamageLocation: Banda Aceh, Indonesia

epicenter

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Banda Aceh

Damage was caused by

both water and water-borne

debris.

A boat was

lifted on top

of houses

by the

waves.

Photo: Jose Borrero

Photo: Jose Borrero




Location: Banda Aceh & Lhoknga,Indonesia

epicenter

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Banda Aceh

The tsunami waves came

from many directions and

flowed across the tip of

northeastern Sumatra.

Graphic: Jose Borrero



epicenter

Kerala Coast

epicenter

Kerala Coast


Location: Thailand

Damage to Kao

Lak Resort from

tsunami waves.

Despite the presence of debris,

this naval base building had

little structural damage due to a

retaining wall at its frontage.

Photo: Curt Edwards

Photo: Chitr Lilavivat

Thailand




Location: Sri Lanka

epicenter

Kerala Coast

epicenter

Kerala CoastSri Lanka

Damage to house in Tangala.

Flow depths were

about 4.5 m at Yala

Safari Resort, where

water levels weredetermined by debris

in the trees (see door

impaled on branch).




Location: Kerala, India


epicenter

Kerala Coast

epicenter

Kerala Coast

The collapsed front

portion of a concrete

house.

In the village of Alappad, the foundations and

the soil beneath many of the houses were

scoured out.



Tsunamis in the U.S.A.Tsunamis in the U.S.A. TheThe west coastwest coast, from California to Alaska, is vulnerable to, from California to Alaska, is vulnerable to

tsunamis from nearby or distant earthquakes.tsunamis from nearby or distant earthquakes.

HawaiiHawaii is extremely vulnerable to all tsunamis in the Pacificis extremely vulnerable to all tsunamis in the PacificOcean.Ocean.

California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska and Hawaii all haveCalifornia, Oregon, Washington, Alaska and Hawaii all havetsunami education programstsunami education programs for residents and visitors,for residents and visitors,coastal signagecoastal signage, and, and warning response planswarning response plans..

Photo: Eugene Schader, NISEE Collection

Warped pier in Crescent City, CA caused by1964 Alaska earthquake tsunami

Photo: Kirkpatrick, NISEE Collection

Tsunami induced damage in Seward, Alaskafrom 1964 Alaska earthquake



Historical Tsunamis in the U.S.A.Historical Tsunamis in the U.S.A.

unknownunknownWest coastWest coast17001700CascadiaCascadia FaultFault

EarthquakeEarthquake

Tsunami CasualtiesTsunami CasualtiesAffected StatesAffected States Year Year Tsunami SourceTsunami Source

120120 (total)(total)AK, HI , WA, CAAK, HI , WA, CA19641964Alaska EarthquakeAlaska Earthquake

(Mw = 9.3)(Mw = 9.3)

6161 (Hilo, Hawaii)(Hilo, Hawaii)CA, HICA, HI19601960Chile EarthquakeChile Earthquake

(Mw = 9.5)(Mw = 9.5)

22AKAK19581958LituyaLituya Bay, AlaskaBay, Alaska

LandslideLandslide

159 (Hilo, Hawaii)159 (Hilo, Hawaii)

165165 (total)(total)

AK, HI , WA, OR, CAAK, HI , WA, OR, CA19461946Aleutian EarthquakeAleutian Earthquake

(Mw = 8.3)(Mw = 8.3)

Sources: NOVA; International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC)



Tsunami Risk ReductionTsunami Risk Reduction

1.1. Determine & understand community tsunami riskDetermine & understand community tsunami risk Hazard:Hazard:

Study the shape of the sea floor and the coastal topography

Run simulations of tsunamis

Vulnerability:Vulnerability:

DevelopDevelop mapsmaps of potential risk areasof potential risk areas

Exposure:Exposure:

Costal communities, especially with tsunami historyCostal communities, especially with tsunami history

2.2. Avoid new development in tsunami runAvoid new development in tsunami run--up areasup areas

1.1. Designate risk areas asDesignate risk areas as openopen--spacespace, i.e., parks and agriculture, i.e., parks and agriculture

2.2. Zone to minimize human riskZone to minimize human risk1.1. Low density residential zoningLow density residential zoning

2.2. Large singleLarge single--residence lotsresidence lots




3.3. Locate and configure new development in the runLocate and configure new development in the run--upup

areas to minimize future tsunami lossesareas to minimize future tsunami losses

Avoid inundation areas

i.e. build on high ground

Slowing water currentsi.e. Conserve or replant coastal belts

of forest and mangrove swamps

Steering water forces

i.e. angled, by-pass walls

Blocking water forces

i.e. Build sea walls

SLOWING

STEERING

BLOCKINGSource: National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP)




Elevated restaurant in Hilo, Hawaii. Lower level is designed

to allow waves to pass through.

Source: National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program

4.4. Design and construct new buildings to minimizeDesign and construct new buildings to minimizetsunami damagetsunami damage

Heavy and rigid structure

Raise building on stilts*

Many openings on theground floor *

Orient perpendicular to the

shoreline:

*Use caution with this design in areaswith high earthquake-shaking risk.




WAVE

Overturning

SlidingScouring

Buoyancy

Water pressure

& debris impact

WAVE

Overturning

SlidingScouring

Buoyancy

Water pressure

& debris impact

4. Tsunami-resistant buildings (cont.)

Tsunami forces on

structures

Lowest

horizontal

structure

above wave-

crest

Horizontal

member

perpendicular to

the wave

Lateral bracing

Deep protected piles

Rigid connection

Lowest

horizontal

structure

above wave-

crest

Horizontal

member

perpendicular to

the wave

Lateral bracing

Deep protected piles

Rigid connection

Structure designed to resisttsunami forces

Source: National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP)



Caveat: Remember EarthquakeCaveat: Remember Earthquake--

Resistant Design PrinciplesResistant Design Principles

Most communities at risk from tsunamis are also at risk fromMost communities at risk from tsunamis are also at risk from

damaging earthquakesdamaging earthquakes

Buildings designed well for earthquakes typically performBuildings designed well for earthquakes typically perform

well in tsunamiswell in tsunamis

Well-designed building withstood tsunami forceswithout collapse in Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Photo: Jose Borrero

Well-designed building standing amidst therubble in Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Photo: Jose Borrero




5.5. Protect existing developmentProtect existing development throughthroughredevelopment, retrofit, and land reuse plans andredevelopment, retrofit, and land reuse plans and

projectsprojects

6.6. Take special precautions in locating and designingTake special precautions in locating and designinginfrastructureinfrastructure andand critical facilitiescritical facilities Locate critical infrastructure (water plants, hospitals, etc)

outside the tsunami danger zone

Relocate or protect critical infrastructureRelocate or protect critical infrastructure

Plan for emergency and recoveryPlan for emergency and recovery




Plan for EvacuationPlan for Evacuation

IdentifyIdentify vertical evacuation buildingsvertical evacuation buildings

Create horizontalCreate horizontal evacuation routesevacuation routes DevelopDevelop early warning systemsearly warning systems

EducateEducate and inform publicand inform public




Tsunami Risk ReductionTsunami Risk ReductionTsunami early warning system:

Pressure sensors sit on the ocean

bottom and measure the weight of

water column above them.

If a tsunami passes overhead, the

pressure increases and the sensorsends a signal to a buoy sitting on the

sea surface.

The buoy then sends a signal to a

satellite, which in turn alerts a staffed

early warning center.

T i Ri k R d tiT i Ri k R d ti




The least expensive and the most important mitigation effort is …

"Even without a warning system, even in places where they

didn't feel the earthquake, if people had simplyunderstood that when you see the water go down, when

you hear a rumble from the coast, you don't go down to

investigate, you grab your babies and run for your life,

many lives would have been saved."

Lori Dengler, Humboldt State UniversityNew Scientist MagazineNew Scientist Magazine

January 15, 2005January 15, 2005



The power of knowledge:The power of knowledge:

Victor Victor DesosaDesosa saved thesaved thevillagevillage of of GalbokkaGalbokka in Sriin SriLanka becauseLanka because he knewhe knewwhat to dowhat to do when the waterwhen the water

receded.receded. Only one inhabitant in hisOnly one inhabitant in his

village was killed.village was killed.

Casualty rates in nearbyCasualty rates in nearby

villages were 70villages were 70 – – 90 %90 %



“Natural hazards are inevitable.“Natural hazards are inevitable.

Natural disasters are not.”Natural disasters are not.”

JohnJohn FilsonFilson, USGS retired, USGS retired

New York TimesNew York Times

December 27, 2004December 27, 2004

E h k E i iE th k E i i



Earthquake EngineeringEarthquake Engineering

Research InstituteResearch Institute

EERI is a professional, association dedicated toEERI is a professional, association dedicated toreducing earthquake risk.reducing earthquake risk.

Members of EERI work in the many differentMembers of EERI work in the many differentfields of research and professional practicefields of research and professional practice

dedicated to reducing earthquake losses.dedicated to reducing earthquake losses.



EERI ProgramsEERI Programs

PublicationsPublications – – Website, Monthly Newsletter andWebsite, Monthly Newsletter andQuarterly Technical JournalQuarterly Technical Journal----Earthquake SpectraEarthquake Spectra

TechnicalTechnical SeminarsSeminars & National& National ConferencesConferences

Web basedWeb based World Housing EncyclopediaWorld Housing Encyclopedia

55 Regional ChaptersRegional Chapters ---- Political AdvocacyPolitical Advocacy

2020 Student ChaptersStudent Chapters

Learning From Earthquakes ProgramLearning From Earthquakes Program

Field reconnaissanceField reconnaissance of earthquake impacts to learnof earthquake impacts to learn

lessons for research and practicelessons for research and practice

To contact us or become a member of EERI, visit our website:To contact us or become a member of EERI, visit our website:

www.eeri.org www.eeri.org

ReferencesReferences



United States Geological Survey (USGS)

U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

UNESCO / Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)

International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC)

Laboratoire de Geophysique, France (LDG)

Earthquakes: A Primer , Bruce A . Bolt, W.H. Freeman, 1978

Digital Globe

Geological Survey of India

National University of Singapore

New Scientist magazine, Issue #2482, January 15, 2005

BBC News

Nature, Vol. 433, January 27, 2005, Nature Publishing Group

Sri Lanka Reconnaissance Teams:

http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/srilanka05/ &http://www.gtsav.gatech.edu/cee/groups/tsunami/index.html

ReferencesReferences (cont.)(cont.)



Natural Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP), Designing for

Tsunamis, March 2001

National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering (NISEE),

Earthquake Image Database, Karl Steinbrugge Collection

www.wavesofdestruction.org

“Field Survey of Northern Sumatra,” Jose Borrero, EERI Newsletter,

March 2005

Pacific Tsunami Museum

NOVA: “The Wave that Shook the World,” PBShttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tsunami/

Metro TV, Surabaya Citra Televisi Indonesia (SCTV), Rajawali Citra

Televisi Indonesia (RCTI)

Prof. Wiratman Wangsadinata, Wiratman & Associates Consulting

Company, Indonesia

EERI’s Virtual Clearinghouse:

http://www.eeri.org/lfe/clearinghouse/sumatra_tsunami/overview.html

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