1

Extended Essay

Research Question

Is Christian Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit a reflection of the socio-economic

situation of France post-World-War-II?

Subject: Visual Arts

Abstract word count: 267

Report word count: 3962

Number of pages: 27

Done by: Sarah Lee Shan Yun

Candidate number: 003071-061

School: ACS (International), Singapore

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Abstract

To approach this investigation, a detailed analysis into Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit was

drawn before it was linked with evidence surrounding the socio-economic situation of

France post-World-War-II. The elements of fashion design – silhouette and texture,

were utilized within the analysis.

In terms of research, I have read the autobiography of Christian Dior in order

to gain a deeper insight into the thoughts and intentions of the designer, as well as to

discover which factors he felt were most important whilst catering to his clientele

during the post-war period. In addition, I have also read through several history

books, some fashion-related and some war-related, in order to grasp an understanding

of the circumstances which lead to the development of fashion, especially in the

golden age of couture in France. An interview with a history teacher from my school,

Ms. Bonny Morris, also enlightened me further on the subject. I have also been able to

write a detailed analysis of the Dior’s famous ‘Bar’ suit by reading published articles

and by including my own input through viewing pictures of the ‘Bar’ suit on the

Metropolitan Museum of Art’s website.

In conclusion, I have deduced that the silhouette of the ‘Bar’ suit reflects the

change in the role of women in society, the retention of feminist attitudes and the end

of economic restrictions post-war. I have also concluded that the texture of the ‘Bar’

suit reflects the end of protectionist policies and the widened gap between the upper

class and middle class clientele. All in all, Christian Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit, therefore, is

a reflection of the socio-economic situation of France post-World-War-II.

267 words

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my extended essay supervisor, Mdm. Chang Hung Tho, for

taking the time to read through and provide essential feedback so that I could

continuously improve my essay.

I would like to thank Ms. Bonny Morris, a history teacher of ACS (International), for

imparting me with valuable information on history-related aspects of my essay

through a vital interview.

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Title Page

Content Page

Pg. 1

Abstract Pg. 2

Acknowledgements Pg. 3

Content Page Pg. 4

Introduction Pg. 5

Silhouette Pg. 7

Texture Pg.13

Conclusion Pg. 16

Appendix Pg. 17

Bibliography Pg. 26

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Haute couture is a practice that refers to

‘made-to-order’ and ‘made-to-measure’ fashion

produced only in Paris, by accredited couture

houses (Riello, McNeil, 2010, p.466-467).

Designers must custom fit their clients and are

required to show a minimum number of designs

twice a year in a private fashion show (Ibid.).

Christian Dior, a name synonymous with the premier world of French haute

couture. Born in Granville, France in 1907 (Pochna, 2005, p.3), Dior apprenticed

under Lucian Lelong for the first part of his career, before taking control of his

‘personal ambition’ (Dior, 2007, pg.5) and opening his own fashion house under the

wing of textile heavyweight Marcel Boussac. Although initially apprehensive about

leaving the comfort and security that Lelong offered him, Dior’s rise to fame was

meteoric when he showcased his first collection entitled ‘La Ligne Corolle’ (Wilcox,

2009, p.42) in 1947. Carmel Snow, editor-in-chief of Harper’s Bazaar magazine in

New York (Ibid.) at the time, christened his collection with a name that would be

considered one of the most monumental turning points in fashion history – ‘The New

Look’. L’express news reported that the French designer was ‘unknown on the 12th of

February 1947, famous on the 13th’ (Wilcox, 2009, p.30). Dior, himself, unexpectedly

noticed how the ‘New Look became symbolic of youth and the future’ (Dior, 2007,

p.28). Life magazine reported his success (Perkins, 1948, See Appendix A ) and Dior

won a Neiman Marcus Oscar award for his 1947 collection. It was not until after

Dior’s first showcase that the French began to say ‘on ne parle que Dior’ (Beevor,

2004, p.257) – one can only speak of Dior.

Introduction

Christian Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit is arguably one of the most iconic models1

1 Model: a design or prototype created by the couturier and his/her atelier for a showcase before the design is sold to clients.

of

Dior’s 1947 collection (Heilbrun). He revolutionized the women’s suit mainly with

the re-introduction of the hourglass silhouette, although also with his use of texture as

an element of fashion design that this essay will further investigate. The invention of

Picture 1 -- (POCHNA, 2005) Willy Maywald, 1955, René Gruau in Christian

Dior’s famous ‘Bar’ suit, Photograph

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the women’s suit is accredited to designer John Redfern (Sozzani). However, it did

not erupt into popular dress until Coco Chanel introduced her classic suit in 1923

(Basye, 2010), featuring masculine silhouettes, skirts to the knee and boxy jackets

inspired by military uniforms of World War I (See Appendix B). Christian Dior’s

‘Bar’ suit, as a result, is considered to be percipient evolution of Coco Chanel’s

version of the suit. Couturiers of the era were, in fact, greatly influenced by one

another. Christian Dior, himself, mentioned Coco Chanel several times in his

autobiography. Dior, however, was vastly aware of the factors that dictated the needs

and wants of his clients and women, in general, and the end of the Second World War

in 1945 (Barrow, 2010) undeniably affected Dior’s decisions. Christian Dior’s ‘Bar’

suit, therefore, is a reflection of the socio-economic situation of France post-

World-War-II.

Why then should we analyze the historical developments of fashion? Dior

once said ‘since I am widely held responsible for a social trend, I may perhaps be

allowed to analyze my own success’ (Dior, 2007, p.27). Fashion is an inescapable

tradition and is a result of all the political, cultural, social and economic changes that

societies undergo and people experience. It is not only influenced by these changes

but also has great impact on what we define culture to be. Karl Lagerfeld once quoted

Goethe, saying, ‘make a better future by developing elements from the past’ (Menkes,

2010). An insight into historical developments would thus bring meaning and shine

light on the purpose of fashion in ‘present day’ (Riello, McNeil, 2010, p.2-3).

Approach

‘The success of a dress depended upon the quality of the workmanship,

attention to detail and above all the beauty of the material’ (Dior, 2007, p.14) –

Christian Dior

To approach this investigation, a detailed analysis into Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit will

be drawn before linking it with evidence surrounding the socio-economic situation of

France post-World-War-II. The elements of fashion design – silhouette and texture,

will be utilized within the analysis.

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Silhouette

Hourglass, feminine

The silhouette of a look is defined to be the overall outline and shape that the

worn garments create (Jones, 2011). Christian Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit is known to famously

celebrate and exaggerate the hourglass, feminine figure of a woman.

The neckline is soft, gentle sloping,

adding smoothness to the appearance of the

shoulders. The shawl collar2

The waist is narrowed, synched in to

(Heilbrun )

contributes sensitively to the curving lines that

the garment possesses and at the same time, is

deep enough to expose a hint of the collarbone,

evoking a hint of sensuality.

2 Shawl collar: a rounded turned-down collar, without lapel notches, that extends down the front of a garment.

Picture 2 -- Christian Dior, 1947 copied 1969, Bar Suit, Garment of silk and wool, Editing using Adobe Photoshop Elements, The Metropolitan Museum of

art, New York

Picture 3 -- Christian Dior, 1947, Close up of the shawl collar of the ‘Bar’ suit, Garment of silk, The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, New York

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create a wasp-like bodice through the use of a multitude of discreet corset3 and

several layers of stiffened petticoats4 (Fogg, 2011). The hips and bust are accentuated

by Dior’s bold introduction of padding to the bottom half of the jacket. A voluminous

crinoline5

Mademoiselle Marguerite, Dior’s directrice technique (head of workrooms),

reported that the mannequins

(Ibid.) flares open the wide skirt, giving contrasting proportion to the waist

and hips. The skirt, itself, shoots down to calf-length (Ibid.) and contains relaxing

billowing pleats that provide a balance to the rigidness of the jacket.

6

3 Corset: A tightly fitting undergarment extending from below the chest to the hips, worn to shape the figure 4 Petticoat: A light undergarment hanging from the shoulders or the waist worn under a skirt or dress 5 Crinoline: a stiff fabric made of horsehair and cotton or linen thread, typically used for stiffening petticoats or as a lining. 6 Mannequin: A dummy used to drape fabric during the process of making clothes

that Dior’s ateliers used to pin the muslin forms, were

veritably manipulated, given a ‘rounded abdomen as on Greek statues’ (Wilcox, 2009,

p.39) in order to effectively echo the objective silhouette of the ‘New Look’.

Change in the role of women in society post-war

‘My weakness is architecture. I think of my work as ephemeral architecture,

dedicated to the beauty of the female body… My prime inspiration is the shape of the

female body: for it is the duty of the couturier to adopt the female form as his point of

departure and use the materials at his disposal so as to enhance its natural beauty’ –

Dior (Dudbridge, 2011). Christian Dior placed considerable importance upon

projecting the femininity of women and his use of silhouette is a prominent aspect in

doing so. He took inspiration from the organic form of the ‘figure 8’ (Wilcox, 2009,

p.39), from the designs of the early couturier Paul Poiret (See Appendix C ) and from

the paintings of Giovanni Boldini (See Appendix D ), which contained an abundance

of curving lines and soft drapery – fundamentals that exaggerate the female identity.

One crucial influence on Dior’s work was the era of the Belle Époque – the beautiful

age (Wilde, 2011) – that spawned in the late 1800s, where women wore the designs of

Charles Frederick Worth, the man commonly known to be the founding father of

haute couture. His garments consisted of extravagant ball gowns laced corsets that

restricted the female figure at the unfortunate cost of agonizing pain (See Appendix E

and F ). Though Dior did not return to such torturous means of beauty, he appreciated

the era for its attempt at re-creating the female form through clothing.

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Dior was known to detest the styles of the early 1940s flaunted by the French

women known as ‘zazous’ (Dior, 2007, p.4). He felt that skirts were inappropriately

short, jackets, too long and considered the style to be ‘repellent’ (Ibid.) The clothing

of these ‘zazous’ was often described to be ultra-masculine, rejecting women’s

domestic roles during the forces of the occupation and the restraints of the Vichy

regime (See Appendix G ). Christian Dior felt that there was a need for fashion to

‘make a temporary return to base… reverting to its true function of clothing women

and enhancing their beauty’ (Dior, 2008, p.27-28). He understood that women had a

psychological yearning for change after the end of the Second World War, thus he

rejected and annulled the boxy aesthetic that prevailed during the wartime period

(Mendes, 1999, p.128).

The year was 1945 and the world finally sees the end of the Second World

War. Almost instantaneously, the explosion of the Baby Boom swept Europe,

including France (See Appendix H ). Nearly 40% of families had 3 to 5 children by

the end of the 1940s in France (Carson, 1983). Women were prompted to return

home, turning away from their roles in the war industry (Mendes, 1999, p.126),

invoking the revival of a lifestyle as mothers and wives (Morris, 2012). As a result,

Christian Dior’s effeminate silhouette suited the new demographic perfectly, where

women longed to move away from the mannish aesthetic as they moved away from

the austerity of the war. The silhouette of Dior’s clothing, including the ‘Bar’ suit

model, bestowed on women the idea of change and the return of womanhood. Dior’s

‘Bar’ suit, as a result, reflects the change in the role of women in society.

Relaxed, non-restrictive

Edna Wollman Chase described Dior’s ‘New Look’ to be one of ‘unforced

femininity’ and noted that there was ‘no look of heaviness or stricture’ (Wilcox, 2009,

p.40) in his clothes. Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit exemplifies the principle because although it

contained a myriad underpinnings7 in the form of underwired bustiers8 and girdles9

7 Underpinning: a garment worn underneath clothes to support or strengthen a silhouette 8 Bustier: a close-fitting strapless top worn by women 9 Girdle: a woman’s elasticized corset extending from the waist to thigh

,

they were astutely made of tulle and horsehair (Wilcox, 2009, p.60), fabrics and

material that were soft and were nowhere near as uncomfortable as the predeceasing

metal corset of the 1800s. These undergarments, along with Dior’s use of paddings

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and pockets at the hips supported the hourglass silhouette without compromising on

the ease of movement.

Retention of feminist attitudes post-war

‘All women appreciate the average mechanical comfort, which today is

tending to replace luxury,’ said Dior (Dior, 2007, p.53). Dior was also known to

detest the use of impeding ‘hobble-skirts’ (See Appendix I ) of the 1910s, remarking

that ‘the figure of the elegant woman was no longer corseted, but gracefully, and

cunningly, shackled’ (Dior, 2007, p.15).

During World War I and II, women often had to partake in office and factory

jobs, while the men were off fighting for the country. In the beginning, there were

doubts on whether women should have been able to work and undertake male

dominated jobs, but soon, France began to see the scarcity of labor that heavily

affected its economy, thus French women stepped up and decided to fill in the

abundant amount of vacant vocation positions (Morris, 2012). Women performed jobs

from nursing to munitions manufacture, all of which required a revolution in dress

(Darrow, 2000, See Appendix J ). Restrictive corsets were seen as a great inhibition to

movement, heavy one-piece dresses were unsuitable for travel and women wanted

clothes that they could wear flexibly, whether for dining, sport or work (Champsaur,

2004). The innovation of two-piece clothing provided these women with the ability to

function and adjust to their newfound roles and responsibilities that stemmed from the

change in culture. The popularization women’s suit allowed these women to embrace

the functionality of clothing.

The end of the Second World War saw the return of some women as

housewives, while others continued working and building careers (Morris, 2012).

Although the war had ended, the role of women in society and the customs of dress

had changed indefinitely. In the early 20th century, married working women were

scorned considered atypical. By the end of the century, the abundance of these women

who had their own individual careers was perfectly normal (Lambert, 2001). Dior

embraced the fact that the new woman of the post-war period still coveted ease and

effortlessness of clothing, incorporating that idea into his ‘Bar’ suit by introducing a

silhouette that was not only hourglass and feminine, but was also relaxed and non-

restrictive.

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Longer hemlines

One of the most controversial

aspects of Dior’s ‘New Look’ was his re-

introduction of the longer hemline. In

Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit, the skirt featured shot

down to mid-calf length (Fogg, 2011)

and was about 85 centimeters long and

took up an excessive amount of fabric. It

was voluptuous, in an A-line shape

(Sunni, 2011), achieved through the use

of deep knife pleats, gathering10 and

paneling11

Dior’s re-introduction of the longer hemline did not come without reason. His

lavish use of fabric was a rebellion against the prohibitions of World War II (Monet,

2012). It was a voice of defiance against the abundance of clothes and fabric rations

(Callan, 1998) during a time when wool was supplied to the military for the

manufacture of uniforms, and when silk was exploited on parachutes, maps and

gunpowder bags (Mendes, 1999, p.104). Civilians were coerced into wearing clothing

(Callan, 1998) on fabric cut in

a circular pattern (V&A, 2008). The

waist was fitted but the bottom was

flared adding drama to the silhouette of

the ensemble, but still allowing for the

freedom and dynamism of movement of

the legs. According to Dior, the use of

these ‘long skirts emphasized waists’

(Dior, 2007, p.143). He was inspired by the aesthetic of the ‘corolla’ (Ibid.) flower,

and the way its petals were spread out to create a fan-like silhouette. The length of the

skirt provided a mysterious quality to the leg, while allowing for the beauty of

movement. ‘Totting on high heels, women rediscovered a sort of dancing step, a

gliding walk’ (Ibid.), said Dior.

The end of restrictions post-war

10 Gathering: drawing and holding together (fabric or a part of a garment) by running thread through it 11 Paneling: Sewing vertical sections of fabric known as gores

Picture 4 -- Christian Dior, 1947, Close up of the ‘Bar’ suit skirt, Garment of wool, The Metropolitan Museum of

Art, New York

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made out of viscose and rayon, and any excessive use of fabric was ubiquitously

illegal (Veillon, 2002). Ration lines and ration cards were introduced (See Appendix

K ) in 1941 (Wilcox, 2009, p.32) and in 1942, the Making of Civilian Clothing

Restriction Order was passed, which stated that ‘a dress could have no more than two

pockets or four knife pleats and 160 inches of stitching… no superfluous decoration

was allowed’ (Mendes, 1999, p.112). The improvidence of couture was bound by the

deficit of supplies such as thread, pins, scissors and needles. Even couture clients

were issued rationed cards, while couture houses were ordered to create clothing

within strict regulation (Wilcox, 2009, p.35).

Dior realized that ‘Europe was tired of dropping bombs and now only wanted

to let off fireworks’ (Dior, 2007, p.36). After the end of World War II, designers were

liberated, and given the ‘absolute free hand to design as (they) pleased’ (Dior, 2007,

p.22), resulting in the use of copious amounts of sumptuous fabrics. Although some

suggest that Christian Dior’s benefactor, Monsieur Boussac, influenced Dior’s

extravagant designs in order to stimulate textile sales (Wilcox, 2009, p.39), Dior

denied the allegation and confronted the skeptics by mentioning how Boussac only

dealt with cotton (Beevor, 2004, p.257), not wool or silk.

The longer hemlines featured in Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit and the other garments in his

1947 collection brought a tumultuous amount of controversy to the couture scene. It

was reported by Paris Match that the shop assistants from the Quatre Saisons were

furious and attacked women in these dresses (Palmer, 2009). Anyone from

housewives to models to streetwalkers were assaulted (See Appendix L ) by citizens

who continued to believe in the rationing philosophy of the wartime distress – that

these things were wasteful and a complete embodiment of squandering.

Although there were many cynics of Dior’s designs in France as well as other

countries such as the United States, his use of longer hemlines in the design of the

‘Bar’ suit silhouette eventually came into favor of the couture industry and is a

fearless reflection of the end of wartime restrictions.

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Luxurious silk, cambric and taffeta

Texture

Texture, in fashion, is defined to be the fabric or material that a garment is made of

and the effect in which its surface creates (Jones, 2011). According to Dior, ‘of the

two (color and texture), the latter is more likely to captivate me.’ (Dior, 2007, p.72)

He elects certain materials primarily because of how the texture ‘adapts to the effect

(he) wants to achieve’ (Ibid.).

The ‘Bar’ suit jacket was

constructed of 3.7 meters (V&A, 2008) of

silk shantung (Wilcox, 2009) – a fabric

that was lustrous, brilliant and screamed

opulence and splendor. Silk Shantung is

thick enough to be worn during cold

weather, which was why it was so popular

in the colder countries of Europe (Tatum,

2003). It is heavy enough weigh down the

drapes of the A-line skirts, yet soft enough

to create a sheer, un-creasing texture

(Ibid.). ‘A number of factors have to be

taken into consideration; the suppleness or the ‘body’ of the stuff, the weight or the

thickness. The material is stretched out straight and on the cross12; it is weighed,

stroked – for it must not scratched the skin…’ – Dior (Dior, 2007, p.71). Dior

appreciated the softness and lurid appearance of the fabric, even testing how fabrics

fell on the shoulder of the mannequin by constructing several toiles13

12 On the cross: cut on the bias of a fabric or garment, obliquely or diagonally across the grain. 13 Toile: an early version of a finished garment made up in cheap material so that the design can be tested and perfected.

before making a

decision (Dior, 2007, p.73). He perceptively lined the jacket with cambric and taffeta

(Dior, 2007, p.23) – materials that stiffened, firmed and reinforced the structure of the

garment (Wilcox, 2009, p.60) without compromising on the luminous surface of the

silk shantung.

Picture 5 -- V&A Publications, Detail of the Bar suit, Photograph, Viewed

20/05/12

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End of protectionist policies that restrict the importing of material

According to Dior, fabrics of high quality were particularly in short supply

during the war. ‘Silk fabrics where the yarn itself and not the woven14 material had

been dyed… with any body to it’ was extremely problematic to discover, as more

affordable fabrics such as crêpe romain15, georgette16, muslin17 and jersey18

dominated the textile markets (Dior, 2007, p.24). Harsh tariff19

Dior’s use of opulent fabric also reflects the change in social divisions.

Previously, because of the effects of the great depression in the 1930s in France,

women of both social strata started wearing the same time of clothing (Chhaya, 2005).

During World War II, it was proposed by the German occupiers that the Parisian

levels had dampened

international trade between France and the rest of the world, and the textile and dress

industry was undoubtedly impacted. Couturiers had to source for materials within

national reach, which limited the availability of more luxurious materials.

After the end of the war, the GATT (General Agreement on Trades and

Tariffs) establishment was introduced in 1947 (Ibid.), liberating several countries,

including France, from trade barriers. Couturiers, such as Dior could not deal with a

number of merchants from outside the country, seeing an increase in the diversity of

rich fabrics within reach. ‘For it is when (the materials) arrive to see me – the silk

merchants, the wool merchants, the lace-makers, men of consequence imbued with

strong traditions, who come from all over the world, from Paris, London, Lyons,

Milan, and Zürich, bringing with them the wealth of the Low Countries and the

richness of the Orient… It is like receiving an embassy… like gifts being brought

from far-off countries by Eastern potentates’ – Dior (Dior, 2007, p.71). The texture of

Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit, featuring silk shantung along with Cambric and Taffeta, thus

expresses the end of protectionist policies that hampered the possibility of their

existence in French Couture.

Widened gap between the upper class and middle class

14 Woven: a fabric technique made by interlacing long threads passing in one direction with others at a right angle to them 15 Crêpe romain: airy, mid-weight woolen fabric, grainy to the touch and produced from fine single, sharp-twisted crepe yarn in Panama weave 16 Georgette: a sheer, lightweight, dull-finished crêpe fabric made of rayon or blends 17 Muslin: a loosely-woven cotton fabric 18 Jersey: a soft, fine knitted fabric that is often stretchy and made of wool and cotton 19 Tariff: a tax or duty to be paid on a particular class of imports or exports

15

couture business should be moved to the German capital of Berlin (Mendes, 1999,

p.106). Instead, through the protest of Lucian Lelong, head of the Chambre Syndicale

de la Couture at the time (Beevor, 2004, p.250-251), it was agreed that the industry

would remain in Paris, but was ordered to attend to a specific Franco-German

clientele that was consented by the Nazi. These clients were consisted of very wealthy

French women or the wives and mistresses of the German occupiers (Mendes, 1999,

p.106), resulting in a widened psychological distance between the middle and upper

social strata in the course of World War II.

Post-war, this social gap prevailed, and Dior targeted the upper class market

specifically, saying that he was ‘aiming principally at an established clientele of

experienced buyers and habitually elegant women.’ (Dior, 2007, p.28) Dior’s copious

use of costly fabrics led to skyrocketed prices, evidently in his ‘Bar’ suit model,

which was priced at 59,000 francs (V&A, 2008). Dior himself, made sure that the

prices of his garments were quantitatively representative of the caliber of his work,

completing detailed dossiers20

for each model, stating the ‘hours of work, cost done

by hand, taxes and the necessary amount of profit’ (Dior, 2007, p.99). The

extravagant cost of his textiles and price of the ‘Bar’ suit thus represents the widened

gap between the upper and middle class in France.

20 Dossier: A detailed document containing information on garment specifics, so that fabrics can be ordered from particular sources when models are bought by clients

Picture 6 -- V&A Publications, Dossier of the Bar suit, Photograph, Viewed 20/05/12

16

Conclusion

In conclusion, based on the evidence provided it seems likely that Christian

Dior’s ‘Bar’ suit is a reflection of the socio-economic situation of France post-

World-War-II. In particular, the two elements, silhouette and texture, play critical

part in this indication.

The silhouette of the ‘Bar’ model, being hourglass, evokes femininity that in

turn demonstrates the change in the role of women in society post-war into more

domestic circumstances. Despite being hourglass, the silhouette is also relaxed and

non-restrictive, representing the retention of feminist attitudes caused by the role of

women during the war itself. Particularly, the shift of women’s roles in society

towards emancipation and the growing popularity of the lifestyle of the

workingwoman is reflected in this principle. Thirdly, Dior’s use of longer hemlines

gives the suit a silhouette of extravagance and voluptuousness, reflecting the end of

economic restrictions post-war.

In terms of texture, Dior’s use of silk shantung, cambric and taffeta in the

model ‘Bar’, exhibits his luxurious aesthetic, which in turn, reflects the end of

protectionist policies that restrict the importation of material, as well as the widened

gap between the upper-class and middle-class clientele in French society.

Limitations

This investigation centers on silhouette and texture as indicators of the socio-

economic situation, as opposed to other elements such as color. This is because Dior

focused much of his attention on the fabrics and the silhouettes whilst designing his

models. ‘I have no wish to deprive fashion of the added allure and charm of color, but

I could perfectly well design a whole complete collection simply in black or white and

express all my ideas to my complete satisfaction.’ – Dior (Dior, 2007, p.70-71).

This essay also concentrates on the socio-economic factors present in France

as opposed to other countries. Further investigation into Dior’s other designs for

clients from other countries can be done as a future endeavor.

17

Appendix

A) PERKINS, J., 1948. Dior. Life Magazine.

18

B) (BASYE, 2010) 1923, Chanel shows a suit. Nothing to see here, Photograph,

Viewed 24/04/12 <http://onthisdayinfashion.com/?p=3819>

C) Paul Poiret, 1913, Ensemble, Garment of ivory silk damask, ivory silk net, and

ivory China silk with rhinestone trim; ivory silk net with green and black silk gauze,

applied tape and rhinestone trim; green and black silk gauze headdress with strands of

rhinestones; ivory silk damask shoes, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,

Viewed 21/05/12 <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/2005.193a-g>

19

D) (Left) Giovanni Boldini, 1896, Portrait de Madame G. Blumenthal, Oil on Canvas,

Musée d’Orsay, Paris, Viewed 21/05/12 <http://www.musee-

orsay.fr/en/collections/index-of-

works/notice.html?no_cache=1&zoom=1&tx_damzoom_pi1%5Bzoom%5D=0&tx_d

amzoom_pi1%5BxmlId%5D=078432&tx_damzoom_pi1%5Bback%5D=%2Fen%2F

collections%2Findex-of-

works%2Fnotice.html%3Fno_cache%3D1%26zsz%3D5%26lnum%3D3>

(Right) Giovanni Boldini, 1906, Portrait de Mrs. Howard Johnson, Oil on Canvas,

Viewed 21/05/12 <http://www.erasofelegance.com/arts/gallery/boldini/boldini.html>

20

E) Charles Frederick Worth, 1892, Evening Dress, garment of silk, crystal, metallic

threads, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Viewed 29/11/11

<http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm>

F) 1870, Dress from the Belle Époque era, Photograph, Viewed 29/11/11

<http://abigailsateliers.wordpress.com/2011/05/02/the-golden-age-of-the-corset/>

21

G) Édition Réunies, 1943, The Zazous of the 1940s, Drawings, Paris, Viewed

21/05/12 <http://swingexpress.com/MSS/SSM/historique/zazous.html>

22

H) (PISON, 2010) Population et sociétés, The Baby Boom

I) 1911, The Hobble Skirt, What’s that? It’s the speed-limit skirt!, Postcard, Viewed

20/05/12 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HobbleSkirtPostcard.jpg>

23

J) 1916, Le travail des femmes (The work of women), Photographs, Viewed 21/05/12

<http://verdun-1916.chez-alice.fr/frameg/femme1.html>

24

K) A Ration Line during the War, Photograph, France, Viewed 27/04/12

<http://cbertel.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/france-rationing-

lines.jpg?w=529&h=397>

L) Les scènes de femmes qui se battent en plein Paris et s’arrachent leurs vêtements

(Scenes of women who fight and tear clothes), Photograph, Paris, Viewed 21/05/12

<http://acoeuretacris.centerblog.net/rub-annees-50-.html?ii=1#>

25

M) (WTO, 1999) World Trade Organization, Average Tariff level and Trade volume

index against date of major establishments

26

x BEEVOR, A., COOPER, A., 2004. PARIS After the Liberation 1944—1949 Revised Edition. Penguin Books.

Bibliography

Books

x CALLAN, G.O., 1998. The Thames and Hudson dictionary of fashion and fashion designers. Thames & Hudson.

x DARROW, M.H., 2000. French Women and the First World War: War Stories of the Home Front (Legacy of the Great War). Berg Publishers.

x DIOR, C., 2007. Dior by Dior, The autobiography of Christian Dior. V&A Publications.

x FOGG, M., 2011. The Fashion Design Dictionary. Thames & Hudson. x JONES, S.J., 2011. Elements and Principles of Fashion Design. Laurence

King Publishers. x MENDES, V., HAYLE, A. 20th Century Fashion, Thames & Hudson. x PALMER, A., 2001. Couture and Commerce: The transatlantic Fashion

Trade in the 1950s, Vancouver: UBC Press; Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum x PALMER, A., 2009. Dior: a New Look, a New Enterprise (1945-57). V&A

Publications. x POCHNA, M.F., 2005. Dior. Assouline. x RIELLO, G., McNEIL, P., 2010. The Fashion History Reader, Global

Perspectives. Routledge. x VEILLON, D., 2002. Fashion under the occupation. Berg Publishers. x WILCOX, C., 2009. The Golden Age of Couture: Paris and London 1947-

1957. V&A Publications. x WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, 1999. General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade. World Trade Organization. Articles

x PERKINS, J., 1948. Dior. Life Magazine. x PISON, G., 2010, The Baby Boom, Population et sociétés, Graph, Viewed

27/04/12 <http://www.ined.fr/fichier/t_publication/1498/publi_pdf2_pesa463.pdf>

Internet

x BASYE, A., 2010. Chanel shows a suit. Nothing to see here. Viewed 24/04/12 <http://onthisdayinfashion.com/?p=3819>

x BARROW, M., 2010. When did World War II end? Viewed 29/05/11 <http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/homework/war/end.html>

x CHAMPSAUR, F.B., 2004. French Fashion during the First World War. Viewed 25/04/12 <http://www.thebhc.org/publications/BEHonline/2004/Champsaur.pdf>

x CHHAYA, P., CRAMPON, H., GAUTHJER, A. and PACHON, L., 2004-2005. La Haute Couture entre les deux guerres. (Haute couture between the two wars). Viewed 26/04/12 <http://gely.info/wp/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/mode.pdf>

x DUDBRIDGE, S., 1950s – 1960s History of fashion. Viewed 29/11/11 <http://www.catwalkyourself.com/page/history_of_fashion/1950/>

27

x HEILBRUN Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Viewed 23/11/11 <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/C.I.58.34.30_C.I.69.40>

x LAMBERT, T., 2001. 20th Century women. Viewed 18/05/12 <http://www.localhistories.org/women20th.html>

x MONET, D., 2009-12. The Impacts of World War II on Fashion. Viewed 27/04/12 <http://doloresmonet.hubpages.com/hub/Fashion-History-Design-Trends-of-the-1040s>

x MENKES, S., 2010. Heritage Luxury: Past Becomes the Future. Viewed 21/11/11 <http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/09/fashion/09iht-rsuzy.html?pagewanted=all>

x SOZZANI, F., Woman’s suit. Viewed 22/11/11 <http://www.vogue.it/en/encyclo/fashion/t/woman-s-suit>

x SUNNI, 2011. A modern history of the A-line. Viewed 28/11/11 <http://www.afashionablestitch.com/2011/sewalongs/a-modern-history-of-the-a-line/>

x TATUM, M., 2003. What is Shantung? Viewed 30/11/11 <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-shantung.htm>

x V&A, 2008. The Golden Age of Couture Paris and London 1947 to 1957. Viewed 19/05/12 <http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1486_couture/exhibHighBarSuit1.php>

x WILDE, R. Belle Époque era (“the beautiful age”). Viewed 29/11/11 <http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/france/a/belleepoque.htm>

Pictures

1. See under ‘books’ (POCHNA, 2005) 2. Christian Dior, 1947 copied 1969, Bar Suit, Garment of silk and wool, Editing

using Adobe Photoshop Elements, The Metropolitan Museum of art, New York, Viewed 28/11/11 <http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/search-the-collections/80004761?img=0>

3. Christian Dior, 1947, Close up of the shawl collar of the ‘Bar’ suit, Garment of silk, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Viewed 21/05/12 <http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/search-the-collections/80002618?img=3>

4. Christian Dior, 1947, Close up of the ‘Bar’ suit skirt, Garment of wool, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Viewed 21/05/12 <http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/search-the-collections/80004761?img=4>

5. V&A Publications, Detail of the Bar suit, Photograph, Viewed 20/05/12 <http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1486_couture/exhibHighBarSuit3.php>

6. V&A Publications, Dossier of the Bar suit, Photograph, Viewed 20/05/12 <http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1486_couture/exhibHighBarSuit2.php>

Interviews x MORRIS, B., (2012, May 2). Personal interview.